Gene Regulation

Gene regulation In
Bacteria
Gene regulation is the phenomenon in which the level of gene expression can vary
under different conditions.
In comparison, unregulated genes have essentially constant levels of expression in all

conditions over time. Unregulated genes are also called Constitutive genes.
Frequently, constitutive genes encode proteins that are continuously needed for the
survival of the bacterium.
In contrast, the majority of genes are regulated so that the proteins they encode
can be produced at the proper times and in the proper amounts.
Benefit Of Gene Regulation
The encoded proteins are produced only when they are required.
Therefore, the cell avoids wasting valuable energy making proteins it does not need.
From the viewpoint of natural selection, this enables an organism such as a

bacterium to compete as efficiently as possible for limited resources.
Gene regulation is particularly important because bacteria exist in an environment that is

frequently changing with regard to temperature, nutrients, and many other factors.
Common Processes Regulated At The Genetic Level
Metabolism:
Some proteins function in the metabolism of small molecules.
For example, certain enzymes are needed for a bacterium to metabolize particular sugars.
These enzymes are required only when the bacterium is exposed to
such sugars in its environment.

Common Processes Regulated At The Genetic Level
Response to environmental stress:

Certain proteins help a bacterium to survive environmental stress such as osmotic shock or
heat shock.
These proteins are required only when the bacterium is confronted with the stress.
Cell division:
Some proteins are needed for cell division.
These are necessary only when the bacterial cell is getting ready to divide.
TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION
In bacteria, the most common way to regulate gene expression is by influencing

the rate at which transcription is initiated.
Although we frequently refer to genes as being “turned on or off,” it is

more accurate to say that the level of gene expression is increased or
decreased.
Transcriptional regulation involves the actions of regulatory proteins that can bind to the
DNA and affect the rate of transcription of one or more nearby genes.
Two types of regulatory proteins are common.
Repressor: regulatory protein that binds to the DNA and inhibits transcription,
Activator: regulatory protein that increases the rate of transcription.
Transcriptional regulation by a repressor protein is termed negative control, and

regulation by an activator protein is considered to be positive control.
Small effector molecules often play a critical role in transcriptional regulation.

However, small effector molecules do not bind directly to the DNA to alter transcription.
Rather, an effector molecule exerts its effects by binding to an activator or repressor.
The binding of the effector molecule causes a conformational change in the regulatory
protein, usually influencing whether or not the protein can bind to the DNA.
Genetic regulatory proteins that respond to small effector molecules have two functional
domains.
• One domain is a site where the protein binds to the DNA;
• the other domain is the binding site for the effector molecule.
An inducer is a small effector molecule that causes transcription to increase.
An inducer may accomplish this in two ways:
It could bind to a repressor protein and prevent it from binding to the DNA, or
It could bind to an activator protein and cause it to bind to the DNA.
In either case, the transcription rate is increased. Genes that are regulated in
this manner are called inducible genes.
Alternatively, the presence of a small effector molecule may inhibit transcription.
This can also occur in two ways.
A corepressor is a small molecule that binds to a repressor protein, thereby causing the
protein to bind to the DNA.
An inhibitor binds to an activator protein and prevents it from binding to the DNA.
Both corepressors and inhibitors act to reduce the rate of transcription.

Therefore, the genes they regulate are termed repressible genes.
Example of gene regulation that is found in E. coli
1. Regulation of The Lac Operon
2. Regulation of The Trp Operon

Regulation of The Lac Operon
In bacteria, it is common for a few genes to be arranged together in an operon
A group of two or more genes under the transcriptional control of a single promoter
An operon encodes a polycistronic RNA,

an RNA that contains the sequences of two or more genes
Why do operons occur in bacteria?
One biological advantage of an operon organization is that it allows a bacterium to
coordinately regulate a group of genes that are involved with a common functional
goal; the expression of the genes occurs as a single unit.
For transcription to take place, an operon is flanked by

a promoter that signals the beginning of transcription and a
terminator that specifies the end of transcription.
Lac Operon – Genes Organization
2nd transcriptional unit 1st transcriptional unit

Lac I Gene Lac Operon
1st transcriptional unit
Lac Operon
LacZ encodes the enzyme β-galactosidase,

• an enzyme that cleaves lactose into galactose and glucose.
• As a side reaction, β-galactosidase also converts a small percentage of
lactose into allolactose,
Allolactose acts as a small effector molecule to regulate the lac operon.

lacY gene encodes lactose permease,
• a membrane protein required for the active transport of lactose into the
cytoplasm of the bacterium.

lacA gene encodes galactoside transacetylase,
• an enzyme that covalently modifies lactose and lactose analogs.
• Although the functional necessity of the transacetylase remains unclear,
• The acetylation of nonmetabolizable lactose analogs may prevent their toxic
buildup within the bacterial cytoplasm.

The CAP site and the operator site are short DNA segments
that function in gene regulation.
The CAP site is a DNA sequence recognized by an activator protein called the catabolite
activator protein (CAP).
The operator site (operator) is a sequence of bases that provides a binding site for a
repressor protein.
2nd transcriptional unit
Lac I Gene
LacI gene
LacI gene, encodes the lac repressor,

• important for the regulation of the lac operon.
• Functions as a homotetramer, a protein composed of four identical subunits.
• Constitutively expressed at fairly low levels,

• The amount of lac repressor made is approximately 10 proteins per cell.
• Only a small amount of the lac repressor protein is needed to repress the lac operon.
The lac Operon Is Regulated by a Repressor Protein
Regulation
of The Lac
Operon
Regulation of
The Lac
Operon
The lac Operon Is Regulated by an Activator Protein
The lac operon can be transcriptionally regulated in a second way, known as catabolite
repression.
This form of transcriptional regulation is influenced by the presence of glucose, which
is a catabolite—a substance that is broken down inside the cell.
When exposed to both glucose and lactose, E. coli cells
first use glucose, and catabolite repression prevents the use of lactose.
If the glucose is used up, catabolite repression is alleviated, and the bacterium
then expresses the lac operon.
The sequential use of two sugars by a bacterium, which is called diauxic growth, is a
common phenomenon among many bacterial species.
Glucose, is not itself the small effector molecule that binds directly to a genetic
regulatory protein.
Small effector molecule, cyclic-AMP (cAMP), which is produced from ATP via an
enzyme known as adenylyl cyclase.
The effect of cAMP on the lac operon is facilitated by an activator protein called the
catabolite activator protein (CAP).
CAP is composed of two subunits,

each of which binds one molecule of cAMP.
When a bacterium is exposed to glucose, the transport of glucose into the cell
stimulates a signaling pathway
Such pathway inhibits adenylyl cyclase, resulting to decrease the intracellular

concentration of cAMP
This regulation involves the action of

• an inducer (cAMP) Then why called as
• an activator protein (CAP) catabolite repression
• not a repressor.
Many bacterial promoters that transcribe genes involved in the breakdown of other sugars,
such as maltose, arabinose, and melibiose,
also have binding sites for CAP.
Therefore, when glucose levels are high, these operons are inhibited.
Example of gene regulation that is found in E. coli
1. Regulation of The Lac Operon
2. Regulation of The Trp Operon

Regulation of The Trp Operon
trp operon encodes enzymes involved with the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan.
Trp Operon – Genes Organization
Promoter Operator
plays a Enzymes involved in

encodes the
regulatory role tryptophan biosynthesis
trp repressor
protein
The trp Operon Is Regulated by a Repressor Protein
Regulation
of The Trp
Operon
Regulation
of The Trp
Operon

Gene Regulation

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Gene Regulation

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Gene regulation In

In comparison, unregulated genes have essentially constant levels of expression in all

From the viewpoint of natural selection, this enables an organism such as a

Gene regulation is particularly important because bacteria exist in an environment that is

Some proteins function in the metabolism of small molecules.

These enzymes are required only when the bacterium is exposed to

such sugars in its environment.

Response to environmental stress:

In bacteria, the most common way to regulate gene expression is by influencing

Although we frequently refer to genes as being “turned on or off,” it is

Two types of regulatory proteins are common.

Transcriptional regulation by a repressor protein is termed negative control, and

Small effector molecules often play a critical role in transcriptional regulation.

An inducer is a small effector molecule that causes transcription to increase.

An inducer may accomplish this in two ways:

It could bind to an activator protein and cause it to bind to the DNA.

Alternatively, the presence of a small effector molecule may inhibit transcription.

This can also occur in two ways.

Both corepressors and inhibitors act to reduce the rate of transcription.

1. Regulation of The Lac Operon

2. Regulation of The Trp Operon

In bacteria, it is common for a few genes to be arranged together in an operon

An operon encodes a polycistronic RNA,

Why do operons occur in bacteria?

One biological advantage of an operon organization is that it allows a bacterium to

goal; the expression of the genes occurs as a single unit.

For transcription to take place, an operon is flanked by

2nd transcriptional unit 1st transcriptional unit

LacZ encodes the enzyme β-galactosidase,

Allolactose acts as a small effector molecule to regulate the lac operon.

lacY gene encodes lactose permease,

cytoplasm of the bacterium.

lacA gene encodes galactoside transacetylase,

• an enzyme that covalently modifies lactose and lactose analogs.

• Although the functional necessity of the transacetylase remains unclear,

• The acetylation of nonmetabolizable lactose analogs may prevent their toxic

buildup within the bacterial cytoplasm.

LacI gene, encodes the lac repressor,

• Constitutively expressed at fairly low levels,

CAP is composed of two subunits,

Such pathway inhibits adenylyl cyclase, resulting to decrease the intracellular

This regulation involves the action of

1. Regulation of The Lac Operon

2. Regulation of The Trp Operon

plays a Enzymes involved in

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