Chapter 07

Welding

Mr. CHITRA KUM

Tel : +855962182120

1
Introduction
• Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins similar
or different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without
the use of filler metal.
• The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from
combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction.
• Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the
components. It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of
the critical components.
• The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of
the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels,
automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, steel structure etc.

2
3
Classification of welding processes
• Welding means the process of joining two metal parts together to give a
sound and strong joint. The welding process is subdivided into two main
classes.
1. Fusion welding: which involves heating the ends of metal pieces to
be joined to a temperature high enough to cause them to melt or fuse
and then allowing the joint to cool. This process is somewhat similar
to casting process. The joint, after the fused metal has solidified will
result in a strong joint.
2. Pressure welding: which involves heating the ends of metal pieces
to be joined to a high temperature, but lower than their melting point
and then keeping the metal pieces joined together under pressure for
sometime. This results in the pieces welding together to produce a
strong joint.

4
Classification of welding processes

5
Classification of welding processes
• There are many subclassifications of welding under each head. Subclassification
is done according to the source of heat required for fusion or pressure welding
(Fig. 3.585).
• We will deal with two major processes:
I. Gas welding (we talk only about oxy-acetylene welding and cutting in this
lesson)
II. Manual metal arc welding (arc welding or electric arc welding)

6
7
Classification of welding processes

8
Classification of welding processes

9
Gas welding
• Definition:
• Gas welding is under the classification of fusion welding process which
joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air and fuel gas
(i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane [properties of all these gas see
MMTH p.117]) mixture.
• Operation of gas welding is shown in Fig. 17.5. The fuel gas generally
employed is acetylene; however gases other than acetylene can also be
used though with lower flame temperature.
• Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all the flames
produced by the combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.
• Other gases such as hydrogen, propane, butane, natural gas etc., may be
used for some welding and brazing applications.
• From now on we will discuss only oxy-acetylene welding/cutting. 10
Gas welding

11
Gas welding
• Characteristics of some fuel gases:

12
Oxy-acetylene welding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1hnYforQb4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fs1UhhJH0E8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YA5NJqSQrYc
13
Oxy-acetylene welding

14
Discussion 01
1. What is welding process?
2. Raise some welding process you may find or practice in workshop?
3. What is gas welding?
4. What is oxy-acetylene welding?

15
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Types of Welding Flames:
• In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the
welding joint and the welding process. The correct type of flame is essential for
the production of satisfactory welds.
• The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate
with maximum efficiency.

16
Oxy-acetylene welding

17
Oxy-acetylene welding

Note: Open regulator oxygen and acetylene, set until the pressure
matching with what do you want or for a typical setting, acetylene 5
psi (0.3 bar) to 7 psi (0.5 bar) and Oxygen 7 psi (0.5 bar) to 10 psi (0.7
bar). For acetylene, the pressure should never exceed 15 psi (1 bar)
risk explosion.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZFnaP9QJ6k
18
Acetylene regulator

Safe area : 5-7 psi or 0.3-0.5 bar 19

Oxygen regulator

Safe area : 30 psi or 2 bar but need only 7 psi (0.5 bar) to 10 psi
(0.7 bar) is enough for typical welding
20
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Oxy acetylene Welding Equipments:
• An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up is shown in Fig.17.7.
• The basic tools and equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:

21
22
Oxy-acetylene welding

• Gas cylinders:
• Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in
compressed gas cylinders. These gas
cylinders differ widely in capacity, design and
colour code.
• However, in most of the countries, the
standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 10 m3
and is painted black or blue for oxygen and
maroon or yellow for acetylene.

23
Oxy-acetylene welding
Oxygen cylinder:
It is provided with a valve threaded right hand and is painted blue-white or black or blue (old
standard).
On to this valve, which contains a screw-type tap, the pressure regulator and pressure gauge are screwed.
The regulator adjusts the pressure to that required at the blowpipe.
Since grease and oil can catch fire spontaneously when in contact with pure oxygen under pressure, they
must never be used on any account upon any part of the apparatus.
Leakages of oxygen can be detected by the application of a soap solution, when the leak is indicated by
the soap bubbles.
Never test for leakages with a naked flame.

24
25
Oxy-acetylene welding

26
Oxy-acetylene welding

Acetylene cylinder outlet nozzles have a left-hand thread

and is painted in yellow (old standard) or marron
(chestnut brown). This prevents the equipment being
connected up incorrectly when changing cylinders.

27
28
Oxy-acetylene welding

29
30
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Gas pressure regulators:
• Gas pressure regulators are employed for regulating the supply of acetylene and
oxygen gas from cylinders.
• A pressure regulator is connected between the cylinder and hose leading to
welding torch.
• The cylinder and hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene
regulator while these are right handed thread on the oxygen regulator.
• A pressure regulator is fitted with two pressure gauges, one for indication of the
gas pressure in the cylinder and the other for indication of the reduced
(welding or working) pressure at which the gas is going out.

31
32
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Welding hoses:
• The welding gases are fed from the regulator to the welding torch by means
of flexible hoses. These are specially manufactured for this purpose and no
other sort of hose should be used.

33
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Welding hose fittings:
• Figure 11.8 shows a selection
of hose fittings for connecting
to the regulator at one end and
the welding torch at the other.

34
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Hose protectors:
• These prevent the gas flow being
reversed in the event of the hoses
being reversed or in the event of a
blow-back from the welding torch.
• They should be fitted at the torch end
of the hose.

35
Oxy-acetylene welding
• Flashback arrestors:
• In addition, a flashback arrestor should be fitted at the outlet of each regulator
between the regulator and the hose, however, some fitted at the torch as well.
• In the event of a flashback (backfire) the flame is blown back up one or other
of the hoses with sufficient force that it closes the flashback arrestor instantly
and shuts off the supply from the cylinder.
• A hose protector alone is not sufficient to stop the force of a flashback from
bursting a hose.
• Flashbacks are usually caused by insufficient cylinder pressure (contents too
low) or the nozzle becoming blocked either by spatter reducing the nozzle
orifice or by the nozzle being brought too close to the work.

36
Oxy-acetylene welding

37
Discussion 02
1. How many types of welding flame? Raise each type according to material
used?
2. Explain how to set the welding flame?
3. How is the construction of acetylene cylinder?
4. What type of thread used with acetylene cylinder?
5. What is the thread direction of oxygen and acetylene pressure regulator?
6. How many pressure gauges in each regulator? What are they?
7. What is the role of flashback arrestor?
8. What are the causes of flashback?

38
Oxy-acetylene cutting
• Oxy-acetylene cutting:
• The oxy-acetylene flame can also be used for cutting a steel plate. This is done through a
special “cutting torch”, which has an extra passage for high pressure oxygen in addition
to the usual two passages for oxygen and acetylene gas.
• The process of oxy-cutting (or flame cutting) is essentially an oxidation process. The
place, where a cut is to be made is heated with the welding flame and when it is red hot,
high pressure oxygen is allowed to impinge on it.
• Steel is oxidised and the iron oxides having a lower melting point, melt easily. The jet of
oxygen blows away the molten iron oxides exposing further layer of steel. This is turn
gets oxidised and soon the steel plate gets cut throughout its thickness.
• The oxyacetylene flame is slowly moved. In this manner, any profile may be cut from
the steel plate.
• There is one limitation in this process. The cut has to start either from the edge of the
steel plate or a pilot hole has to be drilled in the plate from which the cut can start.
39
40
Oxy-acetylene cutting

41
Oxy-acetylene cutting

42
Oxy-acetylene cutting
• How to use an oxygen acetylene cutting torch:

https://snapguide.com/guides/use-a-oxygen-acetylene-cutting-torch
/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9iEdYxKokmY

43
Oxy-acetylene cutting

44
Discussion 03
1. What is the typical setting pressure of gas in oxy-acetylene welding?
2. Welding nozzle size 18 what does it means?
3. If the thickness of metal to be weld is in range between 8.2 mm to 15.2 mm
what range of size of nozzle should be used?
4. Raise some good and bad weld characteristics?
5. Explain leftward or forward welding method?
6. What is the diameter of welding rod used if the plate thickness is around 3.2
mm in leftward welding method?
7. Explain the rightward welding method?
8. In the rightward welding method what should be the form of edge preparation
if the plate thickness is 13mm?
9. What are the accident prevention points to be considered when using oxy-
acetylene welding?
45
10. Explain the process of oxy-acetylene cutting?
Manual metal arc welding
• Providing access is available to a mains supply of electricity, manual metal-arc welding is very
much cheaper than oxy-acetylene welding.
• It also produces higher temperatures and greater amounts of heat energy, enabling much thicker
sections to be welded successfully.
• For site work, welding generators (Fig. 1.50) are required which, although more expensive in
initial cost, are sill cheaper to run, especially where heavy sections such as girders have to be
welded.
• The ‘ arc ’ is produced by a low-voltage, high-amperage current jumping the air gap between the
electrode and the joint to be welded.
• The heat of the electric arc is concentrated on the edges of the parent metals that are to be joined,
causing the edges of the parent metal to melt. Whilst these edges are still molten, additional metal
in the molten state is transferred across the arc from a suitable electrode.
• Upon cooling, this molten mass of weld metal solidifies to produce a strong joint.

46
Manual metal arc welding
• As soon as the arc is struck the tip of the
electrode commences to melt, thus
increasing the gap between the electrode
and the work.
• Therefore, it is necessary for the operator
to advance the electrode continuously
towards the joint in order to maintain a
constant arc gap (length) of approximately
3 mm during the welding operation.
• The electrode is also moved along the joint
to be welded with a uniform velocity. This
requires considerable skill that is only
acquired with practice.

47
48
Manual metal arc welding

49
Manual metal arc welding
• Arc Welding Equipment:
• Arc welding power source: Both direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC) are used for electric arc welding, each having its particular applications:
• DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators driven by electric motor or
if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines.
• For AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all arc
welding where mains electricity supply is available. They have to step down the
usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage
(50-90 volts).

50
Manual metal arc welding
• Arc Welding Equipment (Continued):
• Welding cables: Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power
source through the electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece and back to the welding
power source. These are insulated copper or aluminium cables.
• Electrode holder: Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and
conducting current to it. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in
turn matched to the amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available
in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.
• Hand Screen: Hand screen (Fig. 17.12) used for protection of eyes and supervision of
weld bead.
• Chipping hammer: Chipping Hammer (Fig. 17.13) is used to remove the slag by
striking.
• Wire brush: Wire brush (Fi. 17.14) is used to clean the surface to be weld.
• Protective clothing: Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep
51
away the exposure of direct heat to the body.
Manual metal arc welding

52
53
Manual metal arc welding
• The electric arc generation:
• An electric arc is formed when an
electric current passes between two
electrodes separated by a short
distance from each other.
• Electric arc can be created from (1)
D.C current and (2) A.C current
sources.

54
Manual metal arc welding
1. Welding with direct current (d.c.):
• In arc welding of D.C supply one electrode is the welding rod or wire (called
electrode), while the other is the metal to be welded (called plate). The
electrode and plate are connected to the supply, one to the +ve pole and one to the
-ve pole. Normally the electrode is connected to –ve terminal and the plate to
+ve terminal. Such an arrangement is called D.C. straight polarity (DCSP). In
this arrangement about 2/3rd of the heat is produced on the plate end and 1/3rd at
the electrode end.
• Under certain circumstances like overhead welding, D.C. reverse polarity
(DCRP) arrangement is preferred. In this arrangement, the electrode is connected
to +ve terminal and the plate to –ve terminal, termed ‘electrode positive ’ .

55
56
Manual metal arc welding
• D.c. current circuit:

57
Manual metal arc welding
2. Welding with alternating current (a.c.):
• With alternating current (a.c.) the electron current is changing in
magnitude and direction 50 times per second (frequency = 50 Hz) and,
therefore, there are no positive and negative sides of the supply in the
ordinary sense; therefore the electrodes for use with alternating current
do not have a specific polarity and the same amount of heat is
produced at the electrode and at the plate.

58
Manual metal arc welding

59
Manual metal arc welding
• A.c. current circuit:

60
Manual metal arc welding
• The electrode:
• Most electrodes used in the manual arc-welding process are coated electrodes;
that is, the coated electrode consists of a wire core of suitable composition
surrounded by a concentric covering of a flux and/or other materials which will
melt uniformly along with the core wire to form a partly vaporized and partly
molten shield around the arc stream.
• The function of an electrode is more than acting simply as a conductor for the
electric-arc current – it also acts as a filler rod. The core wire melts in the arc and
tiny globules of molten metal transferred explosively across the arc into the
molten weld pool (the arc crater in the parent metal) during welding.
• These tiny globules of molten metal are not transferred by the force of gravity
(otherwise overhead welding would not be possible) but are explosively
transferred across the arc to form the arc stream .
61
62
Manual metal arc welding
• Welding positions:

63
Manual metal arc welding

64
Manual metal arc welding

65
Manual metal arc welding

66
Manual metal arc welding
• Size and quantity of weld:
• The size of the weld required to keep a joint in place varies greatly, and will depend on
the type of load it will be under.
• In fillet weld the leg length needs to be equal to the plate thickness if welded from one
side, or half the plate thickness if welded from both sides (Fig. 1).
• The leg length can be obtained by welding in a number of passes with a small
electrode, or in just one pass if it is possible with a large electrode (Fig. 1).
• For butt weld as well we can weld one pass or multi-pass (Fig. 3.604).
• Note that in all multi-run welds of this type weld metal is placed at the lower side of
the joint first to provide a ‘step’ on which to place further weld metal (Fig. 2,3
&3.604).
• Note also that it is always necessary to deslag beads between passes.

67
Manual metal arc welding

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

68
Manual metal arc welding

69
Manual metal arc welding

70
Accident prevention in welding
• Accident prevention in welding:

71
Accident prevention in welding

72
Accident prevention in welding

73
Advantages and disadvantages of welding
• Advantages:
• Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to other
processes (riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
• Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having strength equal or
sometimes more than base metal.
• Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by
welding.
• General welding equipment is not very costly.
• Portable welding equipments can be easily made available.
• Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
• Welding can join welding jobs through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams,
end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
• Welding can also be mechanized. 74
Advantages and disadvantages of welding
• Disadvantages:
• It results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.
• Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
• Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
• Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to be
welded.
• Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before welding.
• Skilled welder is required for production of good welding.
• Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal.
75
Discussion 05
1. How many types of welding positions you found?
2. What is flat position welding?
3. What is horizontal position welding?
4. What is vertical position welding?
5. What is overhead position welding?
6. What are the main equipment of manual metal arc welding?
7. What are the main points considered related to safety of gas welding?
8. What are the main points considered related to safety of arc welding?

76
Homework
1. What is welding process?
2. Explain how to set the welding flame?
3. What are the causes of flashback?
4. What is the source of manual metal arc welding or arc welding?

77
Q&A
78