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Terms
Osmosis
movement of water across cell membranes from less concentrated to more concentrated
Solutes
substances dissolved in a liquid
Osmolality
the concentration within a fluid
Terms
Diffusion movement of molecules in liquids from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration Filtration fluid and solutes move together across a membrane from area of higher pressure to one of lower pressure Active Transport substance moves across cell membranes from less concentrated solution to more concentrated - requires a carrier
Homeostasis
A delicate balance of fluids, electrolytes, and acids and bases is required to maintain good health. This balance is called Homeostasis.
50 % of body weight
60 % of body weight
Electrolytes in body fluids are active chemicals Cations- carry positive charges Anions- carry negative charges Major Cations in body fluid: o sodium o potassium o calcium o magnesium o hydrogen Major Anions in body fluid: o chloride o bicarbonate o phosphate o sulfate o proteinate
Functionsof Electrolytes
Promote neuromuscular irritability Maintain body fluid volume and osmolality Distribute body water between fluid compartments Regulate acid base balance
Hypothalamic Osmoreceptors
JG Cells of Kidney
Posterior Pituitary
Water Reabsorption
Systemic Arterioles
Adrenal Cortex
Vasoconstriction
Aldosterone
Peripheral Resistance
Kidney Tubules
Blood Volume
KIDNEYS the usual daily urine in the adult is 1 to 2 L. A general rule is that the output is approximately 1 mL of urine per kilogram of body weight per hour in all age groups.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Kidney Functions vital to the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. kidneys normally filter 170 L of plasma every day in the adult. While excreting only 1.5 L of urine. Major functions of the kidneys in maintaining normal fluid balance include following: Regulation of ECF volume and osmolality by selective retention and excretion of body fluids.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Regulation of electrolyte levels in the ECF by selective retention of needed substances and excretion of unneeded substances. Regulation of pH of the ECF by retention of hydrogen ions Excretion of metabolic wastes and toxic substances Heart and Bood Vessel Functions the pumping action of the heart circulates blood through the kidneys under sufficient pressure to allow for urine formation. failure of this pumping action interferes with renal perfusion and thus with water and electrolyte regulation.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Lung Functions also vital in maintaining homeostasis. through exhalation, the lungs remove approximately 300 mL of water daily in the normal adult. also have a major role in maintaining acid-base balance. changes from normal aging result in decreased respiratory function causing increased difficulty in pH regulation in older adults with major illness or trauma.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Pituitary Functions the hypothalamus manufactures ADH, which is stored in the posterior pituitary gland and released as needed. ADH sometimes called the water-conserving hormone because it causes the body to retain water. functions of ADH include maintaining the osmotic pressure of the cells by controlling the retention or excretion of water by the kidneys and by regulating blood volume.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Adrenal Functions Aldosterone, a mineralococticoid secreted by the zona glomerulosa (outer zone) of the adrenal cortex, has profound effect on fluid balance. increased secretion of aldosterone causes sodium retention (and thus water retention) and potassium loss. conversely, decreased secretion of aldosterone causes sodium and water loss and potassium retention. Cortisol, another adrenocortical hormone, has only a fraction of the mineralocorticoid potency of aldosterone. When secreted in large quantities, however, it can also produce sodium retention and fluid retention and potassium deficit.
Homeostatic Mechanism
Parathyroid Functions embedded in the thyroid gland, regulated calcium and phosphate balance by means of parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH influences bone resorption, calcium absorption from the intestines, and calcium reabsorption from the renal tubules.
Other Mechanism
Baroreceptors are small nerve receptors that detect changes in pressure within blood vessels and transmit this information to the central nervous system . responsible for monitoring the circulating volume, and they regulate sympathetic and parasympathetic neural activity as well as endocrine activities . Low- pressure baroreceptor- located in the cardiac atria, particularly the left atrium. High- pressure baroreceptor- nerve endings in the aortic arch and in the cardiac sinus. Also located in the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the nephrons.
Other Mechanism
As arterial pressure decreases, baroreceptors transmit fewer impulses from the carotid sinuses and the aortic arch to the vasomotor center. A decrease in impulses stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system. The outcome is an increase in cardiac rate, conduction and contractility and in circulating blood volume. Sympathetic stimulation constrict renal arterioles; this increases the release of aldosterone, decreases glomerular filtration, and increases sodium and water reabsorption.
Other Mechanism
Renin-Angiotensin- Aldosterone System is an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen, an inactive substance formed by the liver, into angiotensin 1. renin is released by the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidneys in response to decreased renal perfusion. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II, with its vasoconstrictor properties, increases arterial perfusion pressure and stimulates thirst. As the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, aldosterone is released in response to an increased release of renin. Aldosterone is a volume regulator and is also released as serum potassium increases, serum sodium decreases, or adrenocorticotropic hormone increases.
Other Mechanism
ADH and Thirst important roles in maintaining sodium concentration and oral intake of fluids. Oral intake is controlled by the thirst center located in the hypothalamus. as serum concentration or osmolality increases or blood volume decreases, neuron in the hypothalamus are stimulated by intracellular dehydration; thirst then occurs, and the person increases oral intake of fluids. water excretion is controlled by ADH, aldosterone, and basoreceptors Absence or presence of ADH is the most significant factor in determining whether the urine that is excreted is concentrated or dilute.
Other Mechanism
Osmoreceptors Located on the surfaceof the hypothalamus, osmoreceptors sense changes in sodium concentration. as osmotic pressure increases,the neurons become dehydrated and quickly release impulses to the posterior pituitary, which increases the release of ADH. ADH travels in the blood to the kidneys, where it alters permeability to water, causing increased reabsorption of water and decreased urine output. The retained water dilutes the ECF and returns its concentration to normal. Restoration of normal osmotic pressure provides feedback to the osmoreceptors to inhibit further ADH release.
Release of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide ANP is released by cardiac cells in the atria of the heart in response to increased atrial pressure. any disorder that results in volume expansion or increased cardiac filling pressure will increase the release of ANP. action of ANP is the direct opposite of the reninangiotensin- aldosterone system and decrease blood pressure and volume. ANP measured in plasma is normally 20 to 70 pg/mL. this level increases in acute heart failure, paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, hyperthyroidism, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and small cell lung cancer. the level decreases in chronic heart failure and with the use of medications such as urea (ureaphil) and prazosin (minipress).
Pathophysiology
Decreased Fluid Volume
Stimulation of Thirst Center in Hypothalamus ADH Secretion Renin- AngiotensinAldosterone System Activation
Pathophysiology
Untreated Fluid Volume Deficit
Cells Become unable to continue providing water to replace ECF losses Depletion of Fluids Available
Signs of Circulatory Collapse: Decreased Blood Pressure Increased Heart Rate Increased Respiratory Rate
Body Temperature
Significant Points
Dehydration one of most common disturbances in infants and children Additional S/S Sunken eyeballs Depressed fontanels Significant wt loss
Laboratory
Increased HCT Increased BUN out of proportion to Creatinine High serum osmolality Increased urine osmolality Increased specific gravity Decreased urine volume, dark color
Intervention
Major goal prevent or correct abnormal fluid volume status before ARF occurs Encourage fluids IV fluids Isotonic solutions (0.9% NS or LR) until BP back to normal, then hypotonic (0.45% NS) Monitor I & O at least every 8 hrs Check urine specific gravity and urine concentration daily weights Check skin turgor
Intervention
Monitor skin turgor Monitor VS and mental status Evaluation Normal skin turgor, increased UOP with normal specific gravity, normal VS, clear sensorium, good oral intake of fluids
Causes
Cardiovascular Heart failure Urinary Renal failure Hepatic Liver failure, cirrhosis Other Cancer, thrombus, PVD, drug therapy (i.e., corticosteriods), high sodium intake, protein malnutrition
Clinical Manifestation
Physical assessment Weight gain Distended neck veins Periorbital edema, pitting edema Adventitious lung sounds (mainly crackles) Dyspnea Mental status changes Generalized or dependent edema
Clinical Manifestation
VS High CVP/PAWP cardiac output Lab data Hct (dilutional) Low serum osmolality Low specific gravity BUN (dilutional) Radiography Pulmonary vascular congestion Pleural effusion Pericardial effusion Ascites
Pathophysiology
SIAD, Certain Head Injuries Dietary Sodium Indiscretion Excessive Sodium Intake Overhydration
Since ECF become hypoosmolar, fluid moves into the cells to equalize the concentration on both sides of the cell membrane
Thus, there is increase in intracellular fluid The brain cells are particularly sensitive to the increase of intracellular water, most common signs of hypoosmolar overhydration are changes in mental status, confusion, ataxia, and convulsion may also occur. Other clinical manifestations include: Hypervertilation,sudden weight gain, warm, mosit skin, increased ICP: slow bounding pulse with an increase in systolic and descreased diastolic pressure and peripheral edema, usually not marked.
Intervention
Sodium restriction (foods/water high in sodium) Fluid restriction, if necessary Closely monitor IVF If dyspnea or orthopnea > Semi-Fowler s Strict I & O, lung sounds, daily weight, degree of edema, reposition q 2 hr Promote rest and diuresis
IV Fluid Replacement
IV Fluid to manage fluid volume imbalances Isotonic fluids (approximate normal serum plasma) Rapid ECF expansion needed D5W, NS, LR Hypotonic fluids Treatment of cellular dehydration .45% NS, .2% NS, 2.5% dextrose
IV Fluid Replacement
Hypertonic Treatment of water intoxication D5 NS, D10W, 3% NS Shifts fluids from ICF & ECF to intravascular component expands blood volume Now can be removed by kidneys
Sodium (Na+)
Normal 135-145 mEq/L Major cation in ECF Regulates voltage of action potential; transmission of impulses in nerve and muscle fibers, one of main factors in determining ECF volume Helps maintain acid-base balance Sodium is conserved through reabsorption in the kidneys, a process stimulated by aldosterone
Hyponatremia
Results from excess Na loss or water gain GI losses, diuretic therapy, severe renal dysfunction, severe diaphoresis, DKA, unregulated production of ADH associated with cerebral trauma, narcotic use, lung cancer, some drugs Clinical manifestations BP, confusion, headache, lethargy, seizures, decreased muscle tone, muscle twitching and tremors, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramps
Pathophysiology
Sodium Loss from the Intravascular Compartment Diffusion of water into the interstitial spaces Sodium in the interstitial spaces is diluted Decreased Osmolarity of ECF Water moves into the cell as a result of sodium loss Extracellular Compartment is depleted with water Clinical Manifestation
Clinical Manifestation
Headache
Muscle weakness
Abdominal Cramps
Assessment
Labs Increased HCT, K Decreased Na, Cl, Bicarbonate, UOP with low Na and Cl concentration Urine specific gravity 1.010
Treatment
Interventions Mild Water restriction if water retention problem Increase Na in foods if loss of Na Moderate IV 0.9% NS, 0.45% NS, LR Severe 3% NS short-term therapy in ICU setting
Hypernatremia
Gain of Na in excess of water or loss of water in excess of Na Causes Deprivation of water; hypertonic tube feedings without water supplements, watery diarrhea, greatly increased insensible water loss, renal failure, inadequate blood circulation to kidneys, use of large doses of adrenal corticoids, excess sodium intake
Hypernatremia
Early: Generalized muscle weakness, faintness, muscle fatigue, HA Moderate: Confusion, thirst Late: Edema, restlessness, thirst, hyperreflexia, muscle twitching, irritability, seizures, possible coma Severe: Permanent brain damage, hypertension, tachycardia, N & V
Pathophysiology
Increased Sodium Concentration in ECF Osmolarity Rises
Water Leaves the Cell by Osmosis and Enters to the Extracellular Compartment
Clinical Manifestation
Excessive Thirst
Manic Excitement
Death Tachycardia
Labs
Increased serum Na Increased serum osmolality Increased urine specific gravity
Treatment
Free water to replace ECF volume Gradual lowering with hypotonic saline Decrease by no more than 2 mEq/L/hr Offer fluids at regular intervals Supplement tube feedings with free water Teach about foods, medications high in Na Treat underlying problem
Potassium (K+)
Normal 3.5-5.5 mEq/L Major ICF cation Vital in maintaining normal cardiac and neuromuscular function, influences nerve impulse conduction, important in CHO metabolism, helps maintain acid-base balance, control fluid movement in and out of cells by osmosis Aldosterone triggers K+ excretion in Urine
Hypokalemia
Serum potassium level below 3.5 mEq/L Causes Loss of GI secretions Excessive renal excretion of K Movement of K into the cells (DKA) Prolonged fluid administration without K supplementation Diuretics (some)
Signs/Symptoms
Skeletal muscle weakness, smooth muscle function, DTR s BP, EKG changes, possible cardiac arrest N/V, paralytic ileus, diarrhea Metabolic alkalosis Mental depression and confusion
HYPOKALEMIA
Cardio Vascular Decreased BP, Dysrhythmias, ECG changes, Myocardial damage, Cardiac Arrest
Kidneys Decreased Capacity to Concentrate Waste, Water Loss, Thirst, Kidney damage
Pathophysiology
= ACTION POTENTIAL
Aldosterone is Secreted
Potassium is Excreted
Treatment
Hydrate if low urine output Oral replacement through high K diet No more than 3 enemas without consulting a doctor Potassium sparing diuretics such as spinorolacton, triamterene etc. Symptoms of K depletion : Muscle weakness, anorexia, nausea and vomiting= appropriate referral IV supplementation No more than 10 mEq/hr; for child 2-4 mEq/kg/24 h No more than 20 mEq/L
Treatment
Being alert to the condition that cause potassium depletion such as vomiting, diarrhea, diuretics, by monitoring the patient for early warning signs. Hypertonic glucose solution Monitor I & O Bowel sounds VS, cardiac rhythm Muscle strength Digoxin level if necessary
Hyperkalemia
Serum potassium level above 5.3 mEq/L Causes Excessive K intake (IV or PO) especially in renal failure Tissue trauma Acidosis Catabolic state
Signs/Symptoms
ECG changes tachycardia to bradycardia to possible cardiac arrest Tall, tented T waves Cardiac arrhythmias Muscle weakness, paralysis, paresthesia of tongue, face, hands, and feet, N/V, cramping, diarrhea, metabolic acidosis
Excess Intake Dietary Intake Excess of Kidney s ability to excrete; Excess in parenteral Administration
Shift of Potassium out of the Cell Extensive Injuries, Crushing Injuries, Metabolic Acidosis
HYPERKALEMIA
Treatment
10% Calcium gluconate Sodium bicarbonate 50% glucose solution Kayexalate PO or PR Stop K supplements and avoid K in foods, fluids, salt substitutes
Calcium (Ca++)
Normal 4.5-5.5 mEq/L 99% of Ca in bones, other 1% in ECF and soft tissues Total Calcium bound to protein levels influenced by nutritional state Ionized Calcium used in physiologic activities crucial for neuromuscular activity
Calcium
Required for blood coagulation, neuromuscular contraction, enzymatic activity, and strength and durability of bones and teeth Nerve cell membranes less excitable with enough calcium Ca absorption and concentration influenced by Vit D, calcitriol (active form of Vitamin D), PTH, calcitonin, serum concentration of Ca and Phos
Causes of Hypocalcemia
Most common depressed function or surgical removal of the parathyroid gland Hypomagnesemia Hyperphosphatemia Administration of large quantities of stored blood (preserved with citrate) Renal insufficiency absorption of Vitamin D from intestines
Signs/Symptoms
Abdominal and/or extremity cramping Tingling and numbness Positive Chvostek or Trousseau signs Tetany; hyperactive reflexes Irritability, reduced cognitive ability, seizures Prolonged QT on ECG, hypotension, decreased myocardial contractility Abnormal clotting
Decrease In GI Tract and Bone Absorption Increase Magnesium Increase Calcitonin Decrease Vit. D Decrease Parathyroid Hormone
HYPOCALCEMIA
CNS Tingling
Convulsion
Cardiovascular Dysrhythmias
Tetany
Cardiac Arrest
Pathophysiology
Calcium ions are thought to line the pores of cell membrane, especially neurons. Calcium and Sodium repel each other When serum calcium is low, this blocking effect is minimal When sodium moves more easily into the cell, depolarization takes place more easily. This results in increased excitability of the nervous system leading to muscle spas, tingling sensation, and if severe, convulsion and tetany will occur Skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle function are all affected by overstimulation
Treatment
High calcium diet or oral calcium salts (mild) formulas for calcium content IV calcium as 10% calcium chloride or 10% calcium gluconate give with caution Close monitoring of serum Ca and digitalis levels Phosphorus levels Magnesium levels Vitamin D therapy
Hypercalcemia
Causes Mobilization of Ca from bone Malignancy Hyperparathyroidism Immobilization causes bone loss Thiazide diuretics Thyrotoxicosis Excessive ingestion of Ca or Vit D
Signs/Symptoms
Anorexia, constipation Generalized muscle weakness, lethargy, loss of muscle tone, ataxia Depression, fatigue, confusion, coma Dysrhythmias and heart block Deep bone pain and demineralization Polyuria & predisposes to renal calculi Pathologic bone fractures
Loss from Bones Immobilization, Carcinoma with bone Metastasis, Multiple Myeloma
Increase in factors Causing Mobilization from Bone Increase PTH, Increase Vit. D, Steroid Therapy
HYPERCALCEMIA
Cardiovascular Depressed Nerve and MuscleActivity
Kidneys Stones
Coma
Fracture
Hypercalcemic Crisis
Emergency level of 8-9 mEq/L Intractable nausea, dehydration, stupor, coma, azotemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hypernatremia High mortality rate from cardiac arrest
Treatment
NS IV match infusion rate to amount of UOP I&O hourlyLoop diuretics Corticosteroids and Mithramycin in cancer clients Phosphorus and/or calcitonin Encourage fluids Keep urine acid
Magnesium
Normal 1.5 to 2.5 mEq/L Mostly found within body cells: heart, bone, nerve and muscle tissue Ensures K and Na transport across cell membrane Important in CHO and protein metabolism Plays significant role in nerve cell conduction Important in transmitting CNS messages and maintaining neuromuscular activity
Magnesium
Causes vasodilatation Decreases peripheral vascular resistance Balance - closely related to K and Ca balance Intracellular compartment electrolyte Hypomagnesemia - < 1.5 mEq/L Hypermagnesemia - > 2.5 mEq/L
Hypomagnesemia
Causes Decreased intake or decreased absorption or excessive loss through urinary or bowel elimination Acute pancreatitis, starvation, malabsorption syndrome, chronic alcoholism, burns, prolonged hyperalimentation without adequate Mg Hypoparathyroidism with hypocalcemia Diuretic therapy
Signs/Symptoms
Tremors, tetany, reflexes, paresthesias of feet and legs, convulsions Positive Babinski, Chvostek and Trousseau signs Personality changes with agitation, depression or confusion, hallucinations ECG changes (PVC S, V-tach and V-fib)
Impaired Absorption from GITract Malabsorption Syndrome, Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome, Hypercalcemia, Diarrhea, Draining, Gastrointestinal Fistula
HYPOMAGNESEMIA
Hypokalemia
Magnesium
InhibitsTransport of PTH Decrease in the Amount of Calcium being Released from the Bone Possible Calcium Deficit
Treatment
Mild Diet Best sources are unprocessed cereal grains, nuts, legumes, green leafy vegetables, dairy products, dried fruits, meat, fish Magnesium salts More severe MgSO4 IM MgSO4 IV slowly
Treatment
Monitor Mg q 12 hr Monitor VS, knee reflexes Precautions for seizures/confusion Check swallow reflex
Hypermagnesemia
Most common cause is renal failure, especially if taking large amounts of Mg-containing antacids or cathartics; DKA with severe water loss Signs and symptoms Hypotension, drowsiness, absent DTRs, respiratory depression, coma, cardiac arrest ECG Bradycardia, CHB, cardiac arrest, tall T waves
Treatment
Withhold Mg-containing products Calcium chloride or gluconate IV for acute symptoms IV hydration and diuretics Monitor VS, LOC Check patellar reflexes
Phosphorous
Normal 2.5-4.5 mg/dL Intracellular mineral Essential to tissue oxygenation, normal CNS function and movement of glucose into cells, assists in regulation of Ca and maintenance of acid-base balance Influenced by parathyroid hormone and has inverse relationship to Calcium
Hypophosphotemia
Causes Malnutrition Hyperparathyroidism Certain renal tubular defects Metabolic acidosis (esp. DKA) Disorders causing hypercalcemia
Signs/Symptoms
Impaired cardiac function Poor tissue oxygenation Muscle fatigue and weakness N/V, anorexia Disorientation, seizures, coma
Treatment
Closely monitor and correct imbalances oAdequate amounts of Phos oRecommended dietary allowance for formula-fed infants 300 mg Phos/day for 1st 6 mos. and 500 mg per day for latter of first year o1:1 ratio Phos and Ca recommended dietary allowance. Exception is infants, whose Ca requirements is 400 mg/day for 1st 6 mos and 500 mg/day for next 6 months
Treatment
Treatment of moderate to severe deficiency Oral or IV phosphate (do not exceed rate of 10 mEq/h) Identify clients at risk for disorder and monitor Prevent infections Monitor levels during treatment
Hyperphosphatemia
Causes Chronic renal failure (most common) Hyperthyroidism, hypoparathyroidism Severe catabolic states Conditions causing hypocalcemia
Signs/Symptoms
Muscle cramping and weakness HR Diarrhea, abdominal cramping, and nausea
Treatment
Prevention is the goal Restrict phosphate-containing foods Administer phosphate-binding agents Diuretics Treat cause Treatment may need to focus on correcting calcium levels