Unit 1

Mode theory - Keiser

What is the Mode Field Diameter?
When light propagates in a single-mode fiber, its intensity profile is like a Gaussian curve, with a bell
shape.

The Mode Field Diameter (MFD) is used to characterize the size of this intensity profile and can be
represented by the diameter of the intensity at an e-2 level (around 13.5%) for fundamental mode.
 In single-mode fibers only the lowest-order or fundamental mode (TE0) will be
guided along the
fiber core. Its 1/e2 width is called the mode field diameter
In single-mode or few-mode fibers, the Mode Field Diameter (MFD) is a
parameter used to describe this intensity profile.
Unit 3
 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
 A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device
that emits light when an electric current flows through it.
 When current passes through an LED, the
electrons recombine with holes emitting light in
the process.
 LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward
direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.
 The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode,
with the addition of two small arrows denoting the
emission of light.
 ……………….CONTINUED

 The two main types of LEDs presently used for

lighting systems are aluminum gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP, sometimes rearranged as
AlInGaP) alloys for red, orange and yellow LEDs; and
indium gallium nitride (InGaN) alloys for green, blue
and white LEDs
……………….CONTINUED
Double heterostructure light emitter

• Conventional p-n junction is called as homojunction as same semiconductor material is

used on both sides junction. The electron-hole recombination occurs in relatively wide
layer = 10 µm.
• As the carriers are not confined to the immediate vicinity of junction, hence high current
densities can not be realized.
• The carrier confinement problem can be resolved by sandwiching a thin layer ( = 0.1 µm)
between p-type and n-type layers. The middle layer may or may not be doped. The carrier
confinement occurs due to bandgap discontinuity of the junction. Such a junction is call
heterojunction and the device is called double heterostructure.
• In any optical communication system when the requirements is –
i) Bit rate f 100-2—Mb/sec.
ii) Optical power in tens of micro watts.
LEDs are best suitable optical source.
Heterojuncitons

• A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal

semiconductors with different bandgap.

• A heterojunction is a junction formed by dissimilar semiconductors. Double

heterojunction (DH) is formed by two different semiconductors on each side
of the active region.
GaAs/AlGaAs based Double Heterojunction LED

 As shown thin layer of GaAs is sandwiched between two layers of

AlGaAs. GaAs is lightly doped and has narrower bandgap (Eg1) of
about 1.43 eV. AlGaAs layers have wider bandgap (Eg2) of about 2.1
eV.
 When forward bias is applied through its top and bottom contacts as
shown in the figure, electrons are injected from highly doped (n+)
AlGaAs layer to central active (p-) GaAs layer.
 The injected electrons are trapped within the middle layer due to double
heterojunction potential barriers (Eg2 > Eg1) existing on both the sides of
the middle layer.
 The figure depicts energy band diagram when it is forward biased.
Electrons are forced to recombine with the holes without too much
diffusion from interfaces.
 They recombine radiatively with energy equal to the band gap of GaAs.
 As recombination between electrons and holes is limited to narrower
central part, internal quantum efficiency of such LED is higher compare to
single junction LED.
GaAlAs double heterostructure light
emitter.

Cross-section drawing of a typical

GaAlAs double heterostructure light
emitter. In this structure, x>y to provide
for both carrier confinement and optical
guiding.
b) Energy-band diagram showing the
active region, the electron & hole
barriers which confine the charge carriers
to the active layer.
c) Variations in the refractive index; the
lower refractive index of the material in
regions 1 and 5 creates an optical barrier
around the waveguide because of the higher
band-gap energy of this material.

1.240
 ( m)  [4-3]
E g (eV )

Optical Fiber communications, 3 rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

• At present there are two main types of LED used in optical fiber
links –

LED configurations
1. Surface emitting LED.
2. Edge emitting LED.

Both devices used a DH structure to constrain the carriers and the

light to an active layer.
Surface-Emitting LED
• In surface emitting LEDs the plane of
active light emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber.
• A DH diode is grown on an N-type
substrate at the top of the diode.
• A circular well is etched through the
substrate of the device. A fiber is then
connected to accept the emitted light.
• A gold heat sink is at the back of the
device.
• The current flows through the p-type
N material and forms a small circular active
P region, resulting in an intense beam of
P light.
• Diameter of circular active area = 50 μm
Thickness of circular active area = 2.5 μm
Current density = 2000 A/cm2 half-power
Emission pattern = Isotropic, 120o
beamwidth.
 Surface-Emitting LED
• The isotropic pattern from a surface emitter LED is called a
Lambertian pattern.
• In this pattern, the source has the same apparent brightness (or
luminance) when viewed from any direction, but the power
diminishes as cosθ, where θ is the angle between the viewing
direction and the normal to the surface
• This is because the projected area one sees decreases as cosθ.
• When observing the source perpendicular to the source's surface, cosθ = 1 and I( θ)
is
• maximal.
• When observing the source obliquely, cosθ < 1 and I( θ) is submaximal, approaching

zero as θ approaches 90 °.
• Thus, the power is down to 50% of its peak when θ = 60°, so that the
total half-power beam width is 120°.
Benefits or advantages of Surface Emitting LED
➨LED offers high optical coupling efficiency.
➨Optical loss (due to internal absorption) is very low. This is
because of carrier recombination near its top heterojunction.
➨InP/InGaAsP based LED is used for long wavelength
applications.
➨It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance.
Drawbacks
➨The surface emitting LED can transmit data rate less than 20
Mbps than edge emitting LED.
➨It contains short optical link with large NA (Numerical
Aperture).
 Edge-Emitting LED
• In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make
the beam more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a
device is known as edge emitting LED or ELED.
• It consists of an active junction region which is the source of incoherent light and
two guiding layers. The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active
region but higher than outer surrounding material. Thus a waveguide channel is
formed and optical radiation is directed into the fiber.
 Edge-Emitting LED
• The edge emitter’s emission pattern is more concentrated (directional) so coupling
efficiency is improved.
• The beam is Lambartian in the plane parallel to the junction but diverges more slowly in
the plane perpendicular to the junction.
• In this plane, the beam divergence is limited.
• To maximize the useful output power, a reflector may be placed at the end of the diode
opposite the emitting edge.
Benefits or advantages
➨It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance.
➨It offers better modulation bandwidth and more directional emission
pattern.
➨It offers 5-6 times more coupled power into NA (Numerical Aperture) of
step/graded index fibers. This is due to small beam divergence.
➨It offers high data rates (> 20 Mbps) than surface emitting LED.
➨ Less coupling loss.
Drawbacks
➨Its structure is complex.
➨It is difficult to design heat sink.
➨It is expensive compare to other LED types.
➨There are many issues to be handled during mechanical mounting and
installation.
Features of ELED:
1. Linear relationship between optical output and current.
2. Spectral width is 25 to 400 nm for λ = 0.8 – 0.9 μm.
3. Modulation bandwidth is much large.
4. More reliable.
5. ELEDs have better coupling efficiency than surface emitter.
6. ELEDs are temperature sensitive.

Usage :
1. LEDs are suited for short range narrow and medium bandwidth links.
2. Suitable for digital systems up to 140 Mb/sec.
3. Long distance analog links.
 Light Source Materials - Direct band gap and indirect band gap

• In direct bandgap semiconductors the electrons and holes on either side of bandgap have same value of
crystal momentum. Hence direct recombination is possible. The recombination occurs within 10 to 10
-8 -10

sec. ( min of Conduction band and max of VB occurs at same momentum value)
• In direct bandgap semiconductor, electrons and holes can recombine directly without need of third
particle to conserve momentum.
• In these direct band gap materials the optical radiation is sufficiently high.
• In indirect bandgap semiconductors, the maximum and minimum energies occur at different values of
crystal momentum. The recombination in these semiconductors is quite slow i.e. 10 and 10 sec.
-2 -3

• •. Direct bandgap materials are compounds of group III elements (Al, Ga, In) and group V element (P,
As, Sb). Some tertiary allos Ga1-x Alx As are also used. These materials determine the wave length of
light emitted.
• Emission spectrum of Ga1-x AlxAs LED is shown in Fig. 3.1.6.
 Relation between Band gap energy and frequency

Frequency notation may be ‘v” of “ f ”

Wavelength in terms of Eg . If Eg given wavelength

can be calculated from this equation
Bulk recombination rate (R)=Radiative recombination rate +nonradiative recombination rate

non-radiative life time,

 Internal Quantum efficiency in terms of life time
1
𝜂 𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛
𝜏 𝑛𝑟
1+
𝑛
𝜏𝑟
1
𝜂 𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
𝜏𝑟
1+
𝜏 𝑛𝑟

𝜏𝑟 𝜏 𝑟 𝜏𝑟
= +
𝜏 𝜏 𝑟 𝜏 𝑛𝑟
𝜏 𝑟 𝜏 𝑟
= 1 +
𝜂 𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜏 𝜏 𝑛𝑟

Therefore internal quantum efficiency is given as –

𝜏 𝑟
𝜂 𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
𝜏
 Optical Power

If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge then total number of recombinations per second is –

Optical power generated internally in LED (P int) is given as–

Where
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
External Quantum Eficiency
The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted power. The external quantum efficiency is
defined as the ratio of photons emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally. It is given by
equation

No.of photons emitted from LED

η
ext No.of LED internally generated photons
=
Rr =n/tr Rnr= n/ tnr
Problems
ii) Internal optical power:
 Advantages
• LEDs consume less power, and they require
low operational voltage
• The emitted light is monochromatic.
• In expensive
• Reliable
• Easy to handle
•Less temparature
dependance Dis advantages
• Low output power
• Short distance
communication
• More harmonic distortion
 APLLICATIONS
• Leds are used at 850nm and
13510 nm
• Lan & wan
• CCTV
• Used for TV back-lighting
• Used in displays
• Used in Automotives
• LEDs used in the dimming of lights
 LASER

• LASER means light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

• It is widely used optical source for optical communication
• It is working on the principle of stimulated emission.
• It has coherent light.
• Laser diode suffers from 3 problems when used as optical source :
Temperature sensitivity
Back reflections
Susceptible to optical interference
 Pumped active
medium
• Three main process for laser action:
1 Photon absorption
2 Spontaneous emission
3 Stimulated emission

Energy
Random Coherent
absorbed from
the incoming release of release of
photon energy energy
 Lasing in a pumped active medium
• In thermal equilibrium the stimulated
emission is essentially negligible,
since the density of electrons in the excited
state is very small, and optical emission is
mainly because of the spontaneous
emission. Stimulated emission will exceed
absorption only if the population of the
excited states is greater than that of
the ground state. This condition is known as
Population Inversion. Population inversion is
achieved by various pumping
techniques.
Howling Dog Analogy
 In Stimulated Emission incident and
stimulated photons will have
• Identical energy € Identical
wavelength
€ Narrow linewidth
• Identical direction € Narrow beam
width
• Identical phase € Coherence and
• Identical polarization
Stimulated Emission
 Fabry-Perot
M1
A
Resonator
M 2 m=1
Relative intensity
υf
1 R~
m=2 0.8~
R
0.4
δυm
B
L m=8 υ
υm
υm - 1 υm + 1
(a) (b) (c)
Resonant modes : kL =m m
=1,2,3,..
Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected
waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed
in the cavity. (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance and
lower R means higher loss from the cavity.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

(1−R) 2 [4-18]
Itrans (1−R) 2 +4R sin2
R: reflectance of the optical intensity, k:(kL)
optical wavenumber
=I
inc
Mirror
Reflections
How a Laser
Works
 Laser Diode
• Laser diode is an improved LED, in the sense
that uses stimulated emission in
semiconductor from optical transitions between
distribution energy states of the valence and
conduction bands with opticalresonator
structure such as Fabry-Perot resonator with
both opticaland carrier confinements.
 Laser Diode
• Nanosecond
Modes& even picosecond response time
(GHz BW)
• Spectral width of the order of nm or less
• High output power (tens of mW)
• Narrow beam (good coupling to single mode
fibers)
• Laser diodes have three distinct radiation
modes namely, longitudinal, lateral and
transverse modes.
• In laser diodes, end mirrors provide strong
optical feedback in longitudinal direction,
so by roughening the edges and cleaving
the facets, the radiation can be achieved in
 DFB(Distributed
FeedBack) Lasers

The optical feedback is provided by fiber Bragg

Gratings € Only one wavelength get positive
 Threshold Condition
• To determine the lasing condition and
resonant frequencies, we should
focus on the optical wave propagation along
the longitudinal direction, z-
axis. The optical field intensity, I, can be
written as:
I ( z, t ) =I ( z)e j (ωt − β z )
• Lasing is the condition at which light
amplification becomes possible by virtue
of population inversion. Then, stimulated
emission rate into a given EM mode is
proportional to the intensity of the
Optical output vs. drive current

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill,

2000
 Rate
Rate equations equations
relate the optical output power,
or # of photons per unit volume, Φ , to the
diode drive current or # of injected electrons
per unit volume, n. For active (carrier
confinement) region of depth d, the rate
equationsdΦare:
=Cn Φ
sp – Φ
+R τ ph [4-25]
dt
dn = J n
–
dt τ
−CnΦ
p
s

qd

Photon rate =stimulated emission +spontaneou s emission

+
photon loss
 Threshold current Density & excess electron
density
•
At the threshold of lasing: Φ ≈0, dΦ/ dt
≈
0
from eq.[4 - 25] ⇒ CnΦ ≥0 ⇒
≥0, Rsp 1
ph =th [4-26]

− Φ /τ n≥ C ph n
τ
• The threshold current needed to maintain a steady state
threshold concentration of the excess electron, is found
from electron rate equation under steady state condition
dn/dt=0 when the laser is just about to lase:

0=
Jth −nth ⇒ Jth =qd [4-27]

qd sp n τsp
th

τ
 Laser operation beyond
the threshold
J >J t h

• the steady state photon density,

resulting from stimulated emission
and spontaneous
emission as follows:

τ
Φ s = ph (J − Jth ) +τph sp
R qd
 External quantum efficiency

• Number of photons emitted per radiative electron-

hole pair recombination above threshold, gives us the
external quantum efficiency.

ηext =ηi (gth

g th
−α)
[4-29]
 Resonant
Frequencies
• Lasing condition:

exp(− j2βL) =1 ⇒
m
2 βL =1,2,3,...
=2mπ ,
• Assuming the resonant frequency of
β =2 π n the mth
mode is:
ν
m = mc m [4-30]

2Ln =1,2,3,...

⇔ ∆λ = λ 2
−ν c
∆ν [4-31]

=ν 2Ln 2Ln
=
m m−1
Spectrum from a Laser
Diode
 REFERENCES
•https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_and_indi
rect_b
and_gaps
•https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engine
ering/i
nternal-quantum-efficiency
•https://prezi.com/ewkesi281r3w/laser-
diode- modes-and-threshold-conditions/
•https://www.ques10.com/p/36411/illustrate-
elastic- tube-splicing-with-neat-diagram/
•FibertoFiberJointLosses
TypesofFibertoFiberJointL osses
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA,
Ananthapuramu)
(Accrediated NBA and Accrediated NAAC with “A”
Grade )
Siddharth Nagar, Naravanavanam Road, Puttur-517583,
AP, India

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

UNIT-III

FIBER OPTICAL RECEIVERS

 contents
• PIN and APD diodes
• Photo detector noise
• SNR
• Detector response time
• Avalanche Multiplication noise
• Comparison of photo detectors
• Fundamental Receiver Operation
• Preamplifiers
• Error sources
• Receiver configuration
 Photo Detectors
• Optical detectors convert optical signal (light)
to electrical signal (current/voltage)
– Hence referred ‘O/E Converter’
• Photodetector is the fundamental element
of optical receiver, followed by
amplifiers and signal conditioning
circuitry
• There are several photodetector types:
– Photodiodes, Phototransistors,
Photon multipliers, Photo-resistors
etc.
 requirements of photo detectors
• Compatible Physical Dimensions (small size)

• High Response or Selectivity at desired

wavelength.
• Low Noise added to the system and
high Gain
• High Bandwidth Fast response time

• Stable performance

• Long Operating Life and low Cost

 Principle of photo detector
• Working principle is optical absorption
• The main purpose ofis its fast reponse
• For foc most suited photo detectors are
PIN(P type intrinsic N type) and (Avalancha
photo diode)
 Performance of photodetector
• Quantum efficiency: ratio of no of electron-
hole carrier generated to no of incident
photons
• Responsivity:output current to incident
optical power
• Wavelength
• Dark current: electrical current under
total darkness condituon.
 Photodiodes
• Photodiodes meet most of the
requirements, hence widely used as photo
detectors.
• Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (pin) photodiode
– No internal gain, robust detector
• Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)
– Advanced version with internal gain M
due to self multiplication process
• Photodiodes are sufficiently reverse biased
during normal operation  no current flow
without illumination, the intrinsic region is
fully depleted of carriers
 PIN DIODE

• A diode with a wide and undoped intrinsic

semiconductor region between a p-type
and an n-type semiconductor region.
• It was even used for microwave
applications and as a photo detector as it
is said to be a good light absorber.
 PiN Photodiode
 Semiconductor positive-negative structure
with an intrinsic region sandwiched
between the other two regions.
 Normally operated by applying a reverse-
bias voltage.
 Dark current can also be produced which is a
leakage current that flows when a reverse
bias is applied without incident light.
pin energy-band diagram
 Structure and Working of a Pin Diode
• The PIN diode comprises a semiconductor
diode having three layers naming the P-
type layer, Intrinsic layer and N-type layer,
as shown in the figure below.
• The P and N regions are there, and the
region between them consists of the intrinsic
material, and the doping level is said to be
very low in this region.
•
 The thickness of the intrinsic layer is very narrow, which
ranges from 10 – 200 microns.
 The P region and the N-type regions are known to be
heavily doped.
 The changes in the properties of the diode are known
from the intrinsic material.
 These diodes are made of silicon.
 The intrinsic region of the PIN diode acts like an inferior
rectifier which is used in various devices such as
attenuators, photodetectors, fast switches, high voltage
power circuits, etc.
 Advantage of PIN photodiodes
 The output electrical current is linearly
proportional to the input optical power making it
a highly linear device.
 Low bias voltage(<4v).
 Low noise
 Low dark current
 High-speed response
 Quantum Efficiency

Ip is the photocurrent generated by a steady-state

optical power Pin incident on the photodetector.

The performance of photo diode is

characterized by responsivity R
R=Ip/P0=nq/hv
(A/W)
 Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
• When a p-n junction diode is applied with high reverse bias breakdown can occur by two
separate mechanisms direct ionization of the lattice atoms, zener breakdown and high
velocity carriers impact ionization of the lattice atoms called avalanche breakdown. APDs
uses the avalanche breakdown phenomena for its operation.
• The APD has its internal gain which increases its responsivity.
• APD is similar to PIN diode the exception is the addition of high intensity electric field
region. n+pp-p+
• In this region primary electron hole pairs are generated by the incident photons which are
able to absorb enough kinetic energy from strong electric field to collide with the atoms
present in this region, thus generating more electron hole pairs.
• The physical phenomenon behind the internal current gain is known as the impact
ionization.
•  This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse bias. It
requires very high reverse bias voltage in order that the new carriers created by impact
ionization can themselves produce additional carriers by same mechanism.
• APD has an internal gain M, which is obtained by having a high electric field that
energizes photo- generated electrons.
•
 Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
• When a p-n junction diode is applied with high reverse bias breakdown can occur by two
separate mechanisms direct ionization of the lattice atoms, zener breakdown and high
velocity carriers impact ionization of the lattice atoms called avalanche breakdown. APDs
uses the avalanche breakdown phenomena for its operation.
• The APD has its internal gain which increases its responsivity.
• APD is similar to PIN diode the exception is the addition of high intensity electric field
region. n+pp-p+
• In this region primary electron hole pairs are generated by the incident photons which are
able to absorb enough kinetic energy from strong electric field to collide with the atoms
present in this region, thus generating more electron hole pairs.
• In this high-field region, a photon-generated electron or hole can gain enough energy so
that it ionizes bound electrons in the valence band upon colliding with them. This
carrier multiplication mechanism is known as impact ionization.
• This process of generating more than one electron hole pair from incident photon through
ionization process is referred to as the avalanche effect.
• Thus the avalanche multiplication results in amplification of photodiode current.
• Multiplication factor: Multiplication factor M is a measure of internal gain provided by
APD. It is defined as the ratio of total multiplied output current to the primary un
multiplied current.
RAPD (Reach Through APD ): P+πPN+
 Responsivity ()

APD’s have an internal gain M, hence

APD  PIN M

where, M = IM/Ip
IM : Mean multiplied current

M = 1 for PIN diodes

 advantages
• Low level light can be detected
• Increase in sensitivity of
receiver
• SNR is high
• Excellent linearity
 disadvantages
• Complex structure
• High reverse bias voltage is
required
• Additional noise
 Photodetector Noise
• photodiode is generally required to detect very weak optical signals.
• requires that the photodetector and its amplification circuitry be optimized
to maintain a given signal-to- noise ratio.

SNR Can NOT be improved by amplification

For pin photodiodes the mean square value of the signal current is is given by

where ip(t) is the primary time varying current resulting from a time varying optical
power Pin(t) falling on the photodetector and σ is the variance.
For avalanche photodiodes

The principal noise sources associated with photodetectors are shot noise (also
called quantum noise) and dark-current noise generated in the photodiode material.
 Notation: Detector Current
• The direct current value is denoted by, IP
• The time varying (either randomly or periodically) current with a
zero mean is denoted by, ip (small main entry and small suffix).
• Therefore, the total current Ip is the sum of the DC component IP
and the AC component ip .
IP  I p  ip
1 T/

i (t)dt
2 2
i 2p  T 
T p
Lim T / 2
 Quantum (Shot Noise)
Quantum noise(shot noise) arises due optical power fluctuation
because light is made up of discrete number of photons. The shot
noise current ishot has a mean-square value in a receiver electrical
bandwidth Be that is proportional to the average value of the
photocurrent ip, that is,

i 2
Q  2qIp BM F 2

(M )
 Dark/Leakage Current Noise
The photodiode dark current is the current iD that continues to
flow through the bias circuit of the device when no light is
incident on the photodiode. This is a combination of bulk and
surface dark currents, but in general the surface dark current is
negligible. The bulk dark current idark arises from electrons
and/or holes that are thermally generated in the pn junction of
the photodiode. In an APD, these liberated carriers also get
accelerated by the high electric field present at the pn junction,
and
Bulkare therefore
Dark Current multiplied
Noise 2DB by
 the
2qI avalanche
BM 2
F gain mechanism.
i D

I(M
D : )
Dark Current

Surface Leakage Current i 2DS  2qIL B

Noise
(not multiplied by M) IL: Leakage Current
 Thermal Noise
The photodetector load resistor RL contributes to thermal (Johnson)
noise current

iT2  4K B TB /
RL
KB: Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38054 X 10(-23) J/K
T is the absolute Temperature
•Quantum and Thermal are the significant noise mechanisms in all
optical receivers
 SNR
Detected current = AC (ip) + DC
(Ip) Signal Power = <ip2>M2
i2 M2
p
SNR
2q(I  I )M 2 F (M )B  2qI B  4k TB / R
 p D
L
L B

Typically not all the noise terms will have equal

weight.
Often thermal and quantum noise are the
most significant.
Noise Calculation Example
 Limiting Cases for SNR
• When the optical signal power is relatively high, then the
shot noise power is much greater than the thermal noise
power. In this case the SNR is called shot-noise or quantum
noise limited.
• When the optical signal power is low, then thermal noise
usually dominates over the shot noise. In this case the SNR
is referred to as being thermal-noise limited.
Thus for this receiver the rms thermal noise current is about 14
times greater than
the rms shot noise current and about 100 times greater than the
rms dark current.
 Limiting Cases of SNR
In the shot current limited case the SNR is:

i 2p
SNR
2q(I p )F (M )B


For analog links,

In general, the term involving iD can be dropped when the average signal current is much
larger than the dark current. The SNR then becomes
 Detector Response Time

It is defined as time required by generated

photo carriers to travel across the
depletion region.
It depends mainly on
1.Transit time
2.Diffusion time
3.RC time
constant
t
d
 Transit time
• It depends on carrier drift velocity
and depletion layer.it is given by

td  w / vd
Diffusion time
A luminescent object emits cold light in contrast to
incandescence, where an object only emits light
after heating.
Unit 4
Analog modulation Digital modulation
1 Both message and Message signal will be in
carrier waves continuous
are continuous. form and carrier will be
digital

2 Requires higher SNR Requires low SNR

3 Good for only low Good for high frequency
frequency and and high
low bandwidth signals. bandwidth signals
4 High current levels are Lower current levels is
needed for needed for
modulating higher modulating higher
bandwidth bandwidth signals
signals
Introduction to Optical Modulators

• Optical modulators are devices that manipulate light to encode

information onto an optical carrier signal
• Enable the conversion of electrical signals into optical signals for
transmission in fiber-optic communication systems
• Modulation involves changing the properties of light (amplitude,
phase, frequency, or polarization) in response to an input signal
• Essential components in high-speed optical communication
networks (data centers, telecommunications)
• Offer advantages over electrical modulation techniques,
including higher bandwidth, lower loss, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference
• Operate at various wavelengths, including visible and infrared
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Can be integrated with other optoelectronic components (lasers,
detectors) to form complex photonic integrated circuits
Fundamental Principles of Modulation

• Modulation is the process of varying a characteristic of a carrier signal to convey

information
• In optical modulation, the carrier signal is a light wave, typically generated by a laser
or light-emitting diode (LED)
• The modulating signal, which contains the information to be transmitted, is used to
control the optical modulator
• Amplitude modulation involves varying the intensity of the light wave in proportion to
the modulating signal
• Achieved by changing the transmission or absorption of the modulator
• Phase modulation involves varying the phase of the light wave in response to the
modulating signal
• Introduces a phase shift in the optical carrier
• Frequency modulation involves varying the frequency of the light wave based on the
modulating signal
• Results in a change in the wavelength of the optical carrier
• Polarization modulation involves altering the polarization state of the light wave
according to the modulating signal
• Can be achieved using birefringent materials or polarization-sensitive devices
Types of Optical Modulators
• Electro-optic modulators exploit the electro-optic effect, where an applied electric field changes
the refractive index of a material
• Commonly used materials include lithium niobate (LiNbO3) and gallium arsenide (GaAs)
• Mach-Zehnder interferometer configuration is widely used for amplitude modulation
• Acousto-optic modulators utilize the interaction between light and sound waves in a material
• An acoustic wave generates a periodic variation in the refractive index, acting as a
diffraction grating
• Allows for the control of light intensity, frequency, and direction
• Electro-absorption modulators rely on the change in absorption coefficient of a material under
an applied electric field
• Quantum-confined Stark effect in semiconductor quantum wells is often employed
• Compact and can be integrated with laser diodes to form electro-absorption modulated
lasers (EMLs)
• Liquid crystal modulators use the birefringence and orientation of liquid crystal molecules to
control light
• Applied voltage alters the orientation of the molecules, changing the refractive index and
polarization
• Commonly used in displays and spatial light modulators
• Thermo-optic modulators exploit the temperature dependence of the refractive index in
materials
Modulation Techniques and Mechanisms

• Pockels effect, a linear electro-optic effect, is widely used in LiNbO3 and other crystals
• Applied electric field induces a change in the refractive index proportional to the field
strength
• Enables high-speed and efficient modulation
• Kerr effect, a quadratic electro-optic effect, occurs in materials with inversion symmetry
• Refractive index change is proportional to the square of the applied electric field
• Allows for intensity modulation and optical switching
2. Define electro-optic modulators and electro-optic effect.
Electro-optic modulators is an optical device in which a signal controlling
element displays electro-optic effect to modulate a beam of light. The modulation
can be done by changing phase, frequency, amplitude, or polarization of the
modulated beam.
Electro-optic effect refers to change in refractive index of the material resulting
from application of a d.c. or low frequency electric field.
• Acousto-optic interaction involves the modulation of light by sound waves
in a material
• Acoustic wave generates a periodic refractive index variation, acting
as a diffraction grating
• Allows for the control of light intensity, frequency, and direction
• Mechanical modulation techniques, such as MEMS-based approaches, use
the movement of microstructures to alter the optical path or reflection
• Micromirrors, deformable membranes, or tunable gratings can be
employed
• Offers potential for large modulation depths and low power
consumption
Electro-optic Effect
The application of an electric field across a crystal may change its refractive indices.
Thus, the field may induce birefringence in an otherwise isotropic crystal or change
the birefringent property of a doubly refracting crystal. This is known as the electrooptic
effect.
If the refractive index varies linearly with the applied electric field, it is
known as the Pockels effect, and if the variation in refractive index is proportional to
the square of the applied field, it is referred to as the Kerr effect.
Initial refractive index n - no
Apply voltage
Refractive index changed. n’
 Longitudinal Electro-optic Modulator
Pockels or linear electro-optic effect depend on the crystal structure and symmetry. KDP, is one of the most
widely used electro-optic crystals. KDP is a uniaxial birefringent crystal
Working Principle
• A plane-polarized light is propagating along the optic axis z-axis) of a KDP crystal
• In the absence of external field, the incident wave polarized normal to the z-axis will propagate as a principal wave
with an ordinary refracting index no,
• The linear polarizer is placed in front of the crystal, it allows only vertical polarized wave.
• Electric filed appied to the crystal.
• When a linearly polarized light wave enters into the modulator, it divided into two components (two different
direction).
• The principal x-axis and y-axis of the crystal are rotated through 45° into new principal axes x’ and y’.
• The two directions have different refractive index.
• After they propagate a distance L, a phase difference φ is developed.
 the phase change experienced by these two components (at z = l) may be given by the following relations:

and V = Ezl is the applied voltage.

an extra phase shift Δφ (due to the application of the electric field) for each component is directly proportional to
the applied voltage V.

the superposition of two plane-polarized waves that are perpendicular to each other produces an elliptically
polarized wave.

if the superposition gives a phase difference which is an integral multiple of , the emergent beam will be plane-
polarized, and if the phase difference is an odd integer multiple of /2, the emergent beam will be
circularly polarized.
ACOUSTO-OPTIC MODULATORS

Optical Parameter affected

Refractive index
Transmission/Reflection factor
Degree of reflection
Coherency of light
Polarization of light
Acousto-optic Effect
The change in the refractive index of a medium caused by the mechanical strain produced due to the passage of an
acoustic wave through the medium is referred to as the acousto-optic effect.
• A monochromatic light of wavelength λ is incident on an acousto optic medium, in which
light and sound both interact.
• The periodic strain associated with an acoustic wave (wavelength λ) has produced
periodic variations in the refractive index of the medium.
• light travels through a material affected by sound waves, it doesn’t move at the same
speed everywhere. In areas where the sound wave makes the material denser (acoustic
wave crests or pressure maxima), the light slows down. In areas where the material is
less dense (acoustic wave troughs or pressure minima), the light moves faster. Because of
these speed changes, the light wavefront starts to look wavy or uneven, almost as if the
sound wave is bending or reshaping the path of the light.
• Because sound moves much slower than light, the refractive index pattern created by the
sound wave appears almost fixed or unmoving from the light's perspective. This pattern
acts like a grating (similar to a series of tiny, evenly spaced obstacles) that can bend or
"diffract" the light in different directions.
• There are two types of diffraction that can occur:
Raman–Nath diffraction: This occurs at low sound wave frequencies and causes multiple
beams of light to be diffracted.
Bragg diffraction: This happens at high sound wave frequencies and typically results in a
single, strong diffracted beam.
Raman Nath Modulator

• When an acoustic wave propagates in a medium, the periodic strain associated with the
acoustic wave generates a periodic refractive index variation in the medium.
• This periodic refractive index grating has the same period as the acoustic wave and is
also propagating at the same velocity as the acoustic wave.
• In the Raman–Nath regime, the acousto-optic diffraction grating is so thin that it
behaves almost like a plane transmission grating.
• For any m-th order diffraction (where light is bent into different beams), the angle 𝜃𝑚
between the bent light beam and the original light beam is determined by the
properties of the sound wave and light.

Ʌ Acoustic wavelength
• In this configuration, the signal carrying the information
modulates the amplitude of the acoustic wave propagating
through the medium.
• The light beam incident on the acousto-optic medium gets
diffracted and the zeroth-order beam of the diffracted output
is blocked using a stop.
• For small acoustic powers, the relative intensity in the first
order is given by

• where Δn is the peak change in refractive index of the

medium due to the acoustic wave and
• L is width of the acoustic beam, normally equal to the length
of the medium.
• It can be shown that (Δ n) 2 is proportional to the acoustic
power.
• Thus, if the acoustic wave is amplitude-modulated, the first-
order diffracted beam (corresponding to m = ±1) will be
intensity-modulated.
Bragg Modulator
•A Bragg Modulator is an optical device that modulates light by manipulating the refractive index in
semiconductor materials.
Based on the Bragg reflection principle, it uses periodic changes in the refractive index to create
constructive and destructive interference of light waves.
•Bragg refletion is observed at high ultrasonic frequencies, usually exceeding 10 MHz
• Consider a plane wavefront ( light beam) incident on the grating planes at an angle of incidence
Ɵ,
• The wave interacts with each plane (or layer) of the grating.
• The reflections from each plane add up in phase, reinforcing each other so that constructive
inference occurs.
• The conditions to be satisfied are: (a). Light reflected from each layer in a grating must be in
phase (aligned) with the other reflections to form a new wavefront.
• and (b) light scattered from successive grating planes must also arrive in phase at the new
wavefront, implying that the path difference must be an integral number of wavelengths.
• In the Bragg regime, the interaction length L is larger, so the acoustic field creates a thick grating
inside the medium
• When the light beam is incident at an angle Ɵ, it is reflected by successive layers of the
acoustic grating.
• Diffraction occurs for an angle of incidence Ɵ = ƟB (known as the
Bragg angle) under the condition

where M is the figure of merit of the acousto-optic device, and L and H are the length
and height, respectively, of the acoustic transducer. Thus the intensity of the diffracted
beam is directly proportional to the acoustic power and hence modulation of the
acoustic power will lead to corresponding modulation of the diffracted beam.
Optical Amplifier

• In an optical amplifier, the main component is an active medium, which absorbs energy from an
external source called a pump.
• The pump supplies energy to electrons in the active medium, raising them to higher energy levels
and creating a population inversion (more electrons in a high energy state than in a low one).
• When a signal photon (a light) enters the amplifier, it triggers these energized electrons to drop to
lower levels through a stimulated-emission process. During that action, energy will be released.
• This release of energy generates more photons with the same energy and direction as the
incoming photon.
• And creating a chain reaction that results in an amplified optical signal.
• i.e The optical amplifier uses energy from the pump to strengthen the incoming light signal.

Repeater
• Optical to
electrical
133 • Amplify electrical
signal-
• convert electrical
signal to optical
signal
 General Applications of Optical
Amplifiers
In-line Optical Amplifiers - An in-line
optical amplifier can be used in a single-mode
link to amplify the signal, compensate for
transmission loss, and increase the distance
between regenerative repeaters.

Preamplifier An optical amplifier is used as

a frontend preamplifier for an optical receiver.
A weak received optical signal is amplified
before photodetection so that the signal-to-
noise ratio degradation caused by thermal
noise in the receiver electronics can be
suppressed.

Power Amplifier Power or booster amplifier

applications include placing the device
immediately after an optical transmitter to
boost the transmitted power. This is used to
increase the transmission distance by 10–100
km depending on the amplifier gain and fiber
loss
Optical amplifier type

major classes:
1. Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers (SOA)
2. Active fiber or Doped Fiber amplifiers (FOA)
A. Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) : C, L-Band

3. Fiber Raman amplifiers

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier
• The SOA construction is similar to a
resonator cavity structure of a laser
diode.
• The SOA has an active region of length
L, width w, and height d. The end
facets have Anti reflectivities R1 and
R2.
• Light coming in either fiber is
amplified by a single pass through the
laser diode.
• • Active medium consists of alloy
semiconductor (P, Ga, In, As).
• External current injection is the
pumping method used to
create the population inversion
needed for having a gain
mechanism in SOAs.
• • SOA works in both low attenuation
windows i.e. 1300nm and 1550nm.
• • The 3dB bandwidth is about 70nm
because of very broad gain spectrum.
• • SOA consumes less power and has
fewer components
• A semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) is a device that amplifies the
power of an incoming optical signal without altering its frequency or
phase.
• It uses the same principles of stimulated emission as laser diodes, but it
lacks the feedback mechanism that creates a coherent beam of light.
• Instead, SOA relies on the gain medium to amplify the input signal.
• The SOA's principle is based on the stimulated emission of photons in
the active region.
• As light from an incoming signal passes through the active region, it
interacts with the excited electrons in the semiconductor material.
• This interaction stimulates the emission of additional photons with
the same energy and phase, effectively amplifying the input signal.
• The amount of gain provided by the SOA depends on the input signal
intensity and the gain medium properties.
amplifier gain G,
Friday, November 15, 2024 SCTCE 140
 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers
• The active medium in an optical fiber amplifier consists of a nominally 10 to 30-m length of
optical fiber that has been lightly doped (e.g., 1000 parts per millionweight) with a rare-
earth element, such as erbium (Er), ytterbium (Yb), thulium (Tm), or praseodymium (Pr).
• Silica fiber doped with erbium, which is called an erbium-doped fiber amplifier or EDFA
• Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) are widely used in long-haul telecommunication
applications due to their high gain and low noise characteristics. They operate primarily in
the 1530–1565 nm spectral region, known as the C-band.
Basics of Fiber Amplifier Pumping
• Semiconductor optical amplifiers use external current injection to excite electrons to higher
energy levels, whereas optical fiber amplifiers use optical pumping.
• This process involves using photons to directly excite electrons to higher energy levels. The
pumping process requires at least three energy levels, with the initial excited state lying
above the desired final emission level.
Optical Pumping in Fiber Amplifiers
.1. Pump Photon Absorption
Pump photons excite electrons to higher energy levels.

2. Energy Relaxation
Electrons quickly relax to a lower energy level, releasing excess energy as phonons.
3. Stimulated Emission
Signal photons trigger excited electrons to emit new photons with identical characteristics.

• The top energy level to which the electron is elevated initially must lie energetically above
the desired
final emission level.
• After reaching its initial excited state, the electron must quickly release some of its energy
and drop to a slightly lower energy level.
• Stimulated Emission : Signal photon triggers stimulated emission. i.e A signal photon can
trigger the excited electron sitting in this new lower level into stimulated emission,
whereby the electron releases its remaining energy in the form of a new photon. New
photon identical to signal photon (same wavelength ).
 • Fig. 11.5 shows a simplified energy-level diagram
and various energy-level transition processes of
these Er3+ ions in silica glass.
• The two principal levels for telecommunication
applications are a metastable level (the so-called 4I13/2
level) and the 4I11/2 pump level.
• The term “metastable” means that the lifetimes for
transitions from this state to the ground state are very
long compared with the lifetimes of the states that led
to this level.
• The metastable, the pump, and the ground-state
levels are actually bands of closely spaced energy
levels that form a manifold (a set of many levels) due
to the effect known as Stark splitting.

Level Energy Separation (eV) Wavelength (nm)

I11/2(Pump)
4
1.27 980

I13/2 (Metastable)
4
0.841 1480

I13/2 (Metastable)
4
0.814 1530

I13/2 (Metastable)
4
0.775 1600
• The pump band shown in the top left of Fig. 11.5 exists
at a 1.27-eV separation from the bottom of the 4I15/2
ground state. This energy corresponds to a 980-nm
wavelength.

• The top of the 4I13/2 metastable band (level D in Fig. 11.5)

is separated from the bottom of the 4I15/2 ground state
band (level A in Fig. 11.5) by 0.841 eV. This
energy corresponds to a 1480-nm wavelength.

• The bottom of the 4I13/2 metastable band (level C in Fig.

11.5) is separated from the bottom of the 4I15/2 ground
state band (level A in Fig. 11.5) by 0.814 eV. This
energy corresponds to a 1530-nm wavelength.

• The bottom of the 4I13/2 metastable band (level C in Fig.

11.5) is separated from the top of the 4I15/2 ground state
band (level B in Fig. 11.5) by about 0.775 eV. This
energy corresponds to a 1600-nm wavelength.
Pumping Mechanisms in EDFAs
EDFAs typically utilize 980 nm or 1480 nm pump lasers to excite erbium ions. The 980 nm pump excites ions from
the ground state to the pump level, followed by a rapid decay to the metastable level. The 1480 nm pump
directly excites ions to the metastable level, by passing the pump level.
• In normal operation, a pump laser emitting 980-nm photons is used to excite ions from the
ground state to the pump level, as shown by transition process 1 in Fig. 11.5.
• These excited ions decay (relax) very quickly (in about 1 μs) from the pump band to the
metastable band, shown as transition process 2.
• During this decay, the excess energy is released as phonons or, equivalently, mechanical
vibrations in the fiber.
• Within the metastable band, the electrons of the excited ions tend to populate the lower end of
the band. Here, they are stay the time of about 10 ms.
• Another possible pump wavelength is 1480 nm. The energy of these pump photons is very
similar to the signal-photon energy, but slightly higher.
• The absorption of a 1480-nm pump photon excites an electron from the ground state directly
to the lightly populated top of the metastable level, as indicated by transition process 3 in Fig.
11.5.
• These electrons then tend to move down to the more populated lower end of the metastable
level (transition 4).
• Some of the ions sitting at the metastable level can decay back to the ground state in the
absence of an externally stimulating photon flux, as shown by transition process 5.
• This decay phenomenon is known as spontaneous emission and adds to the amplifier noise
because it emits a background noise photon.
 • ground state, thereby emitting a new photon of the same energy, wave vector, and
polarization as theTwo more types of transitions occur when a flux of signal photons
with energies corresponding to the bandgap energy between the ground state and the
metastable level passes through the device.
• First, a small portion of the external photons will be absorbed by ions in the ground
state, which raises these ions to the metastable level, as shown by transition process
6.
• Second, in the stimulated emission process (transition process 7) a signal photon
triggers an excited ion to drop to the incoming signal photon. The widths of the
metastable level and the ground-state level allow high degrees of stimulated

Signal Amplification in EDFAs

emissions to occur in the 1530-to-1560-nm range.

When a signal photon with energy corresponding to the energy difference between the metastable level and the ground
state passes through the EDFA, two processes occur: absorption and stimulated emission. Absorption raises ions to the
metastable level, while stimulated emission triggers excited ions to emit new photons identical to the incoming signal
photon, amplifying the signal.
Unit 4- 10 Mark Questions
1. Explain with a neat diagram, the construction and working of electro optic
effect based longitudinal electro optic modulator.
2. 2. Explain with a neat diagram, the construction and working of electro optic
effect based Transverse electro optic modulator.
3. 3. Explain in detail about Raman Nath(Transmission type) and Bragg
modulator(Reflection type)
4. 4. Discuss in detail the principle and operation of a photonic switch based
on self electro optic Device (SEED)
5. 5. Explain the concept of Bipolar controller Modulator with necessary
diagrams.
6. 6. Discuss about the basic configuration and gain of Semiconductor optical
amplifier (SOA).
7. 7. Explain the amplifier mechanism of Erbium-Doped Fiber amplifiers with
corresponding energy level diagram and Architecture
8. 8. Explain in detail about Fiber Raman Amplifier with a neat diagram9
 Unit 5
Optoelectronic integrated
circuits - Introduction
 Optoelectronics Integrated Circuit

Optoelectronic integrated circuits refers to the integration of electric and optical components and
optical interconnection. Optoelectronic devices makes electrons and photons to perform single
function. These devices are capable of converting optical to electric form and vice versa.
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer(guided wave)
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is a type of interferometer that measures the relative phase shift
between two collimated light beams.

• This device consists of three parts:

• (a) a 3-dB directional coupler which splits the input signal equally and directs it along two paths having
different lengths;
• (b) a central region consisting of two arms, one arm being longer by DL (say) than the other arm, which
introduces a phase shift between two wavelengths; and
• (c) another 3-dB direction coupler which recombines the signals at the output.
• The function of this arrangement is that, by splitting the input beam and introducing a phase shift in one of
the paths, the recombined signals will interfere constructively at one output and destructively at
• the other. The signals then finally emerge from only one output port. If the signals from the arms are in
phase the interference of the signals is constructive and the combined signal will emerge from one arm. If
the signals are out of phase the interference is destructive and there is no signal at the output port.
• It is possible to make any size N ´ N multiplexer (demultiplexer) using basic 2 ´ 2 Mach–Zehnder
interferometers.
In the central region, when the signals in the two arms come from the same light source, the outputs from
these two guides have a phase difference Δ ϕ given by
The phase difference can arise either from a different path length (given by L) or through
a refractive index difference if n1 ≠ n2. In this case, we assume both arms to have the
same index and let n1 = n2 = neff (the effective refractive index in the waveguide. Then Eq.

can be rewritten as

=kΔL where k = 2πneff /λ.

For a given phase difference ϕ, the propagation matrix MΔϕ for the phase shifter is
Ein,1 is at λ1 and Ein,2 is at λ2. Then, the output field Eout,1 and Eout,2 are each the sum of the
individual
contributions from the two input fields:
Problems Unit 5-10 Marks questions
1. Explain any two applications of Optoelectronic integrated circuits in detail.
2. 2. Write short notes on monolithic and hybrid integration of OEIC fabrication
3. 3. Explain the Slab and Strip waveguides with a neat diagram
4. 4. Explain the operation of front end photo receiver with a neat diagram
5. 5. Draw the diagram of a PIN diode integrated HBT photo receiver and explain its
operation
6. 6. Discuss the noise performance in Integrated photo receivers
7. 7. Describe about the guided wave Mach-Zehnder interferometer.
8. 8. Explain in detail about the principle and operation of Waveguide Couplers.
9. 9. Describe the fabrication process of an optoelectronic integrated transmitter circuitby
molecular beam epitaxy regrowth.
Fundamental Receiver operation
 Fundamental Receiver Operation
• The first receiver element is a pin or an
avalanche photodiode, which produces an electric
current proportional to the received power level.
• Since this electric current typically is very weak,
a front-end amplifier boosts it to a level that can
be used by the following electronics.
• After being amplified, the signal passes through
a low-pass filter to reduce the noise that is
outside of the signal bandwidth.
• Also filter can reshape (equalize) the pulses
that have become distorted as they traveled
through the fiber.
 Preamplifiers
• Optical amplifier being used as a front-
end preamplifier for an optical receiver.
• A weak optical signal is amplified
before photo-detection so that signal to
noise ratio degradation due to noise can be
suppressed in the receiver.
• It provides a larger gain factor and BW.
• Three types: semiconductor optical
amplifiers, Raman Amplifiers and
Erbium doped fibre amplifiers.
 Error Sources
The term noise describes unwanted components
of an electric signal that tend to disturb the
transmission and processing of the signal
• The random arrival rate of signal photons
produces quantum (shot) noise
• Dark current comes from thermally generated e-
h pairs in the pn junction
• Additional shot noise arises from the
statistical nature of the APD process
• Thermal noises arise from the random motion
of electrons in the detector load resistor and in
the amplifier electronics
 Receiver configuration

Bandwidth of the front end: B  1 2 RT

CT: Total Capacitance = Cd+Ca CT
RT: Total Resistance = Rb // Ra
 Receiver Sensitivity
• A specific minimum average optical power
level must arrive at the photodetector to
achieve a desired BER at a given data rate. The
value of this minimum power level is called the
receiver sensitivity.
• Assuming there is no optical power in a
received zero pulse, then the receiver
sensitivity is
 Receiver Sensitivity Calculation
The receiver sensitivity as a function of bit
rate will change for a given photodiode
depending on values of parameters
such as wavelength, APD gain, and noise
figure.
 The Quantum Limit

• The minimum received optical power required

for a specific bit-error rate performance in a
digital system.
• This power level is called the quantum limit,
since all system parameters are assumed
ideal and the performance is limited only by
the detection statistics.
 REFERENCES
• https://electronics360.globalspec.com/articl
e/10397/pin-vs-apd-different-sensitivity-
different-applications
• https://www.slideshare.net/Surajduvey/phot
o-detector-noise
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_limi
t
• https://www.brainkart.com/article/Fundame
ntal-Receiver-Operation_13633/
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA,
Ananthapuramu) (Accrediated NBA and Accrediated NAAC with “A”
Grade )
Siddharth Nagar, Naravanavanam Road, Puttur-517583, AP, India

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Unit-IV

OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM DESIGN AND

TECHNOLOGY
Conten
ts•System specification
• Point-to- links
• link power budget
•Rise Time Budget
• Bandwidth Budget
•Power Budget and Receiver Sensitivity
• Link Budget calculations
• Optical Multiplexing & Demultiplexing techniques
• Optical Amplifiers and its Applications.
System Specifications:
Photodetector, Optical Source, Fiber
•Photodetectors: Compared to APD, PINs are less
expensive and more stable with temperature. However
PINs have lower sensitivity.
•Optical Sources:
1 LEDs: 150 (Mb/s).km @ 800-900 nm and larger than 1.5
(Gb/s).km @ 1330 nm
2 InGaAsP lasers: 25 (Gb/s).km @ 1330 nm and ideally
around 500 (Gb/s).km @ 1550 nm. 10-15 dB more
power. However more costly and more complex circuitry.
•Fiber:
1 Single-mode fibers are often used with lasers or edge-
emitting LEDs.
2 Multi-mode fibers are normally used with LEDs. NA
and 
should be optimized for any particular application.
Point-to-Point Link
•The components must be carefully chosen to ensure the
desired performance level and can be maintained for
the expected system life time.

Figure represents the block diagram of a simplex point-to-point

link. The three major optical links building blocks are,
Transmitter, Receiver and Optical fiber.
The key system requirements are needed in analyzing
a link.
•Signal dispersion
•Data rate
•Transmission distance and cost.
Optical sources (such as LED or LASER) are used based
on the following characteristics.
•Emission wavelength
•Spectral line width
•Output power
•Effective radiating area
•Emission pattern
•Number of emitting modes
.
The characteristics of photo detector such as,
•Responsivity
•Operating wavelength
•Speed and
•Sensitivity
The choice of optical fiber
•Single mode and multimode (step or graded
index)
•Core size
•Core refractive index profile
•Band width or dispersion
•Attenuation
•Numerical aperture or modefield diameter
Link Budget
Considerations
(1) Power Budget: determines the power margin between
the optical transmitter output and the minimum
receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specific Bit
Error Rate (BER).
(2) Bandwidth Budget: Determines dispersion
limitation of optical fiber link
Link Power/Loss Analysis
 Rise-Time Budget
2 2
2
2
tsys  [ttx  tmod  t 1/ 2 t ] 2 1/ 2
GVD rx  
2  L 2 2 
 ttx   440L 
q
2 350
  
  B0   Brx 
 
t rx [ns] : receiver rise time t mod [n] : modal dispersion
ttx [ns] : transmitter rise time 
Brx [ MHz]:3dB ElectricalBW L[km ]:Length of the fiber B0 [ MHz]:BW of the1 km of the
fiber;
q0.
7
tGVD [ns]: rise-time due to groupvelocitydispersion
D[ns /(km.nm)]:Dispersion   [nm]:Spectral width of the source
 Total Rise time,
TsysT=1.1(T
sys: 2+T
R fibe 2)1/
2 +T X r
TX 2
 What is a good Rise
time?
For a good reception of
signal Tsys < 0.7 x Pulse
Width (PW)

PW = 1/BitRate for NRZ

1/2BitRate for RZ
 Example:
Rise Time Budget Measurement
for
Long Haul Application

Tx rise time, TTX = 0.1

ns Rx rise time, TRX=
0.5 ns Linewidth(  ) =
0.15 nm

Dispersion Coefficient, D = 18
ps/nm-km Fiber length =
150km
Bit Rate =
622Mbps
Format = RZ
 Simple Calculation….

Fiber rise time, TF =Length x D x Linewidth(  )

= 150 km x 18 x 0.15 nm
= 0.4 ns
Total
TF Rise time, TSYS = 1.1 TLS
2 + T
PD +
2 2

= 1.1 0.01 + 0.25 +

0.16

TSYS = 0.77 ns
Let
say, Bit Rate = STM 4 = 622
Mbps Format = RZ
Tsys < 0.7 x Pulse Width (PW)

Pulse Width (PW) =

1/(622x106)
= 1.6 ns
0.77 ns < 0.7 x 1.6 ns
0.77 ns < 1.1 ns !!
Good Rise Time
Budget!!
Let
say, Bit Rate = STM 16 = 2.5
Gbps Format = RZ
Tsys < 0.7 x Pulse Width (PW)

Pulse Width (PW) =

1/(2.5x109)
= 0.4 ns
0.77 ns < 0.7 x 0.4 ns
0.77 ns ≥ 0.28 ns !!
Bad Rise Time
Budget!!
Power Budget
PRX > PMIN
PRX = Received Power
PMIN = Minimum Power at a certain BER
PRX = PTX – Total Losses - PMARGIN
PTX = Transmitted Power

PMARGIN ≈ 6 dB
• Total optical loss = Connector loss + (Splicing loss +
Fiber attenuation) + System margin (Pm)
PT = 2Lc + αfL + Lsp+System margin (Pm)
Requirements Cont’d:
•Loss,L = LIL + Lfiber + Lconn. + Lnon-linear
LIL = Insertion Loss
Lfiber = Fiber Loss Lconn.=
Connector Loss
Lnon-linear= Non-linear
Loss

•Gain,G = Gainamp + Gnon-linear

Gainamp = Amplifier Gain

Gnon-linear = Non-linear Gain
 Example:
Power Budget Measurement for Long
Haul Transmission
185
km

Splic Connector
e

PTx = 0 PSEN = -28

dBm Attenuation Coefficient,  = dBm
0.25
dB/km Dispersion Coefficient, D =
18 ps/nm-km Number of Splice =
46
Splice Loss = 0.1 dB
Connector Loss = 0.2
dB

PMargin = 6 dB
 Simple
Calculation….
Fiber = 0.25 dB/km X 185
Loss km
Splice Loss =
= 46.3 dBX
0.1 dB

CONCLUSIO
46 = 4.6
Connector LossdB = 0.2
dB X 2 = 0.4

N:
BAD STEM
Total Losses=
0.4
dB46.3 + 4.6 +
= 51.3
dB

SY !!
PMargin = 6
= PTX – Total Losses –
dBPRX
= 0 – 51.3 – 6
PMargin
PRX = -57.3 dB
Power Budget, PRX < PSEN !!
 First we calculate the amplifier’s gain..

Gain  PSEN -
PRX Gain  -28 – (-
57.3)
To make it
easy,
Gain  29.3
Now…Where
dB Gain to
 put
thedB
30 amplifier?
 Receiver sensitivity
•Performance can be measured as a low bit error
rate
(BER).
•A measure of a good receiver is to have the
same performance with the lowest level of
incident optical power.
•BER ÷ probability of an incorrect identification
of a bit by the decision circuit of a receiver.
•Receiver Sensitivity ÷ Receiver sensitivity is the
minimum power level at which the receiving node
is able to clearly receive the bits being transmitted.
 Optical
Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
techniques
•Normally, there are three main different techniques
in multiplexing light signals onto a single optical
fiber link: optical time division multiplexing (OTDM),
code division multiplexing (CDM), and wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM).
•WDM is one of the most common way using
wavelengths to increase bandwidth by multiplexing
various optical carrier signals onto a single optical
fiber.
•What Is multiplexing?
•Multiplexing (Muxing) is a term used in the field of
communications and computer networking. It generally
refers to the process and technique of transmitting multiple
analog or digital input signals or data streams over a single
channel. Since multiplexing can integrate multiple low-
speed channels into one high-speed channel for
transmission, the high-speed channel is effectively
utilized.
•What Is demultiplexing?
•Demultiplexing (Demuxing) is a term relative to multiplexing.
It is the reverse of the multiplexing process. Demultiplex is
a process reconverting a signal containing multiple
analog or digital signal streams back into the original
separate and unrelated signals.
 Optical Amplifiers and its
•Applications
However, when the length of the optical fiber
is a distance as long as 10 km or 100 km, that
transmission loss cannot be ignored. When
the light (signal) propagating a long-distance
optical fiber becomes extremely weak, it is
necessary to amplify the light using an optical
amplifier.
•An optical amplifier amplifies light as it is
without converting the optical signal to an
electrical signal, and is an extremely important
device that supports the long-distance optical
communication networks of today.
 Applications of Optical
Amplifiers
• Applications of Optical Amplifiers
• Typical applications of optical amplifiers are:
• An amplifier can boost the (average) power of a laser output to
higher levels (→ master oscillator power amplifier = MOPA).
• It can generate extremely high peak powers, particularly
in ultrashort pulses, if the stored energy is extracted within a short
time.
• It can amplify weak signals before photodetection, and thus
reduce
the detection noise, unless the added amplifier noise is large.
 Design of Digital
System specifications:
systems:
•Photodetectors: Compared to APD, PINs are
less expensive and more stable with
temperature. However PINs have lower
sensitivity.
•Optical Sources:
1 LEDs: 150 (Mb/s).km @ 800-900 nm and
larger
than 1.5 (Gb/s).km @ 1330 nm
2 InGaAsP lasers: 25 (Gb/s).km @ 1330 nm and
ideally around 500 (Gb/s).km @ 1550 nm. 10-15
dB more power. However more costly and more
complex circuitry.
•Fiber:
System Rise
•Calculate the total rise times
Time
Tx, Fiber, Rx

•Calculate Fiber rise time, TFiber

Tfiber = D x   x L
D = Dispersion Coefficient
  = Linewidth
L = Fiber Length
Tx Rise Time, TTX = normally given by
manufacturer Rx Rise Time, TRX = normally
given by manufacturer
 REFERENCES

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_requirements_specification
• https://www.ques10.com/p/29974/what-is-rise-time-budget-
analysis-derive-an-expr-1/
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320264322_Bandwidth_B
udget_Analysis_for_Visible_Light_Communication_Systems_utilizing
_Available_Components
• https://www.youtube.com/hashtag/linkpowerbudgetanalysisofoptica
lfibercommunicationsystem
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/point-to-point-link-based-
systems-definition-uses.html
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
(Accrediated NBA and Accrediated NAAC with “A” Grade )
Siddharth Nagar, Naravanavanam Road, Puttur-517583, AP, India

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

UNIT-V
Optical Networks
Optical Networks
•Definition: An Optical Network is basically a
communication network used for the exchange
of information through an optical fiber
cable between one end to another. It is one of the
quickest networks used for data communication.
CONTENTS
Basic Networks

 Broadcast-and-select WDM Networks

Wavelength routed Networks

Performance of WDM+EDFA Networks

 Ultra high capacity networks

 Basics Of Networks
Station : Stations in an optical network serves as the source and destination of the
information being transmitted and received.
Examples: computers, terminals, telephones or other equipment
for communicating.
Network:
The pattern of contacts or flow of information between the stations is called
a network.
Node:
Node is nothing but acts as a hub for multiple transmission lines inside the
network. In case of a single transmission line, an optical network does not require nodes,
as in this case stations at both the ends can be directly connected to the fiber cables.
Trunk: A trunk is basically a transmission line i.e., optical fiber cable in order to
transmit the optical signal.
Topology:
When multiple fiber cables are employed in an optical network, then
these are connected through nodes. But the way in which the multiple
nodes are connected together denotes the topology of the network.
Router : A router is basically placed inside an optical network that provides
a suitable path for signal transmission.
Networks classification:
LANs :
LANs means Local area networks. It is a interconnect users in a localized area
such
as a department, a building, an office or factory complex, or a university campus .
MANs :
MANs means Metropolitan area networks. which provides user
connection with in a city or in the metropolitan area surrounding a city.
WANs :
WANs means wide area network. it covers a large geographical area ranging
from connection between near by cities to connection of users across a country.
Network Topologies :
 The popular protocol used in optical LANs is the Fiber Distributed Data

Interface (FDDI).
 SONET and SDH are two protocols which are widely used on a

ring network with active nodes in MANs and WANs.

• Bus Topology: In a bus topology, the various nodes are connected
through a single trunk line with the help of optical couplers. This allows
a convenient as well as a cost-effective method to transmit the signal.
However, in a bus topology, it is difficult to determine the faulted node
as well as it also takes time to restore the transmitted signal from that
particular node.
• Ring Topology: In a ring topology, one single node is joined to its
neighbouring node thereby forming a closed path. So, the transmitted
information in the form of light is sent from one node to another.
• Star Topology: In star connection, the various nodes of the network are
connected together with a single central hub. This central hub can be
active or passive network. This central hub then controls and directs the
transmitted optical signal inside the optical network.
• Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, an arbitrary connection is formed
between the nodes in the network. This point to point connection can
Basically, in mesh connection, failure of any link or node is generated
then firstly that particular failure is detected and then the signal traffic is
diverted from failed node to another link inside the connection. be
changed according to the application.
Broadcast-and-Select Network
Broadcast-and-select networks are based on a passive star coupler
device connected to several stations in a star topology.
Broadcast-and-Select WDM Network
All-optical WDM networks have full potential of optical transmission capacity and
versatility of communication networks beyond SONET architectures.
 These networks can be classified as
(1) Broadcast-and-select techniques
(2) Wavelength-routing networks.
Broadcast-and select techniques employing passive optical stars, buses and
wavelength routers are used for local networks can be classified as
(3) Single-hop networks
(4) Multi-hop networks
Single hop refers to network where information transmitted in the form of
light reaches its destination without being converted to an electrical form at
any intermediate point. In a multi hop network, intermediate electro-optical
conversion can occurred.
Broadcast and Select Signal Hop Network
• Two alternate physical architectures for a WDM-based local network have n sets
of transmitters and receivers are attached to either a star coupler or a passive
bus.
Each transmitter sends its information at a fixed wavelength.
• All the transmissions from the various nodes are combined in a pasive star. Coupler
or coupled onto a bus and sent out to all receivers.
• An interesting point to note is that the WDM setup is protocol transparent.
Protocol transparent means that different sets of communicating nodes can use
different
information exchange rules (protocols) without affecting the other nodes in the network.
The architectures of single-hop broadcast-and-select networks are fairly simple,
there needs to be careful dynamic coordination between the nodes.
 A transmitter sends its selective filter to that wavelength.
Two sending stations need to coordinate their transmission so the collisions of
information streams at the some wavelength do not occur.
Broadcast and Select Multi hop Network
Drawback of single-hop networks is the need for rapidly unable lasers or receiver optical
fibers.

 This drawback can be overcome by the designs of multi hop networks.

 Multihop networks do not have direct paths between each node pair.
 Each node has a small number of fixed tuned optical transmitter and receivers.

An example, a four node broadcast and select multi hop network where
each node transmits on one set of two fixed wavelengths and receives on another
set of two fixed wavelengths.
 Information destined for other nodes will have to be routed through
intermediate stations.
Considering the operation, a simplified transmission scheme in which
message are sent as packets with a data field and an address header containing
source and destination identifiers (i.e,. routing information) with control bits.
 At intermediate node, the optical signal is converted to an
electrical format.
 The address header is decoded to examine the
routing information field, which will indicate where the packet
should go.
 Routing information is used to send the electronic
packets from optical transmitter to the next node in the logical
path toward its final destination.
 Advantage: There are no destination conflicts or packet
adccoasltlisionSesl in Mthuel nheo twoetrwk.
 For H hops between nodes, there is a network
throughput penalty of at least 1/H.
The Shuffle Net Multihop Network
various topologies for multi hop light wave networks are
(1) The shuffle net graph
(2) The de Bruijin graph
(3) He toroidal Manhattan street network
· A scheme called the perfect shuffle is widely used to form
processor interconnect patterns in multiprocessors.
· For optical networks, the logical configuration consists of a
cylindrical arrangement of k column, each having p nodes. Where P is the
number of fixed transceiver pairs per node.
The total number of nodes is then
a (p,k)=(2,2) shuffle net, where the (k+1)th column represents the
completion of a trip around the cylinder back to the first column.
 Performance parameter for the shuffle net is the average number of
hops between any randomly chosen nodes.
 Since, all nodes have p output wavelength, p nodes can be reached
from any node in one hop, p2 additional nodes can be reached in two hope,
until all the (pk-1) other nodes are visited.
 The maximum number of hops is
Consider figure above, the connections between nodes 1 and 5 and nodes 1 and 7. In
first case, the hop number is one.
 In second case three hops are needed with routes 1- 6 – 7 or 1 – 5 – 2 -7.?
 The average of hops Bar H of a shuffle net is
 In multi hopping, part of the capacity of a particular link directly connecting two nodes
is actually utilized for carrying between them.
 The rest of the link capacity is used to forward messages from other nodes.
 The system has Np=kpK+1 links, the total network capacity C is

The per-user throughput δ is

Different (p,k) combination result in different throughputs, to get a better network

performance.
•
Wavelength Routed Networks
Two problems arise in broadcast and select networks,
 More wavelengths are needs as the number of nodes in the network grows.
 Without the widespread are use of optical booster amplifier, due to this splitting
losses is high.

 Wavelength routed networks overcome these limitations through wavelength

reuse, wavelength conversion, and optical switching.
 The physical topology of a wavelength routed network consists of optical
wavelength routers interconnected by pair of point-to-point fiber link in an arbitrary
mesh configuration.
Each link can carry a certain number off wavelength which can be directed
independently to differently output paths at a node.
 Each node may have logical connections with several other nodes in the

network, where each connection uses a particular wavelength.

 The paths taken by any two connections do not overlap, they can use the

same wavelength.
Optical CDMA
The simplest configuration , CDMA achieves multiple access by assigning a
unique code to each user.
 To communicate with another node, user imprint their agreed upon code onto the data. The
receiver can then decode the bit stream by locking onto the code sequence.
 The principle of optical CDMA is based on spread-spectrum techniques.
 The concept is to spread the energy of the optical signal over a frequency band that
is much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to send the information.
 Spreading is done by a code that is independent of the signal itself.

 On optical encoder is used to map each bit of information into the high-rate (longer-

code-length) optical sequence. The symbols is the spreading code are called chips.

 The energy density of the transmitted waveform is distributed more or less

uniformly over the entire spread-spectrum bandwidth.

 The set of optical sequences becomes a set of unique ‘address codes or signature

sequences’ the individual network users.

 The signature sequence contains six chips. When the data signal contains 1 data bit, the
six-chip sequence is transmitted, no chips are sent for a 0 data bit.
 Time-domain optical CDMA allows a number of users to access a
network simultaneously, through the use of a common wavelength.
 Both asynchronous and synchronous optical CDMA techniques. In synchronous

accessing schemes follow rigorous transmission schedules, the produce more

successful transmission (higher throughputs) than asynchronous methods where

network access is random and collisions between users can occurs.

 An optical CDMA network is based on the use of a coded sequence of pulses.

 The setup consists of N transmitter and receiver pairs interconnected in a star

Basics of EDFA
The key feature of EDFA technology is the Erbium Doped
Fiber (EDF), which is a conventional silica fiber doped with erbium.
Basically, EDFA consists of a length of EDF, a pump laser, and a WDM
combiner. The WDM combiner is for combining the signal and
pump wavelength so that they can propagate
simultaneously through the EDF. EDFAs can be
designed that pump energy propagates in the same direction as the
signal (forward pumping), the opposite direction to the signal
(backward pumping), or both direction together. The pump energy may
either by 980nm pump energy or 1480nm pump energy, or a
combination of both. The most common configuration is the
forward pumping configuration using 980nm pump energy.
Because this configuration takes advantage of the 980nm
semiconductor pump laser diodes, which feature effective cost,
reliability and low power consumption. Thus providing the best overall
design in regard to performance and cost trade-offs.
Why EDFA Is Essential to WDM
Systems?
We know that when transmitting over a long distance,
the signal is highly attenuated. Therefore it is essential to
implement an optical signal amplification to restore the optical
power budget. This is what EDFA commonly used for: it is designed
to directly amplify an input optical signal, which hence eliminates
the need to first transform it to an electronic signal. It simply can
amplify all WDM channels together. Nowadays, EDFA rises as a
preferable option for signal amplification method for WDM systems,
owing to its low-noise and insensitive to signal polarization. Besides,
EDFA deployment is relatively easier to realize compared with other
signal amplification methods.
Channel WDM System With or Without
EDFA: What Is the Difference?
Two basic configurations of WDM systems come in two
forms: WDM system with or without EDFA. Let’s first see the
configuration of a WDM system without using it. At the transmitter
end, channels are combined in an optical combiner. And these
combined multiple channels are transmitted over a single fiber. Then
splitters are used to split the signal into two parts, one passes
through the optical spectrum analyzer for signal’s analysis. And
other passes through the photodetector to convert the optical signal
into electrical. Then filter and electrical scope are used to observe the
characteristics of a signal. In this configuration signals at a long
distance get attenuated. While this problem can be overcome by
As for WDM system which uses EDFA, things are a little bit
different. Although the configuration is almost the same as a
WDM system without it, some additional components are used.
These components are EDFAs which are used as a booster and
pre-amplifier, and another additional component is an optical
filter. With the adoption of an optical amplifier, this system
doesn’t suffer from losses and attenuation. Hence, it is possible
to build broadband WDM EDFAs which offer flat gain over a
large dynamic gain range, low noise, high saturation output
power and stable operation with excellent transient suppression.
The combination provides
reliable performance and relatively low cost, which makes
EDFAs preferable
 Among the various technologies available for optical amplifiers, EDFA

technology proves to be the most advanced one that holds the dominant position in

the market. In the future, the WDM system integrated with high-performance

EDFA, as well as the demand for more bandwidth at lower costs have made optical

networking an attractive solution for advanced networks.

Performance of WDM+EFDA
An optical network that involves WDM (wavelength division
multiplexing) currently gains in much popularity in existing telecom infrastructure.
Which is expected to play a significant role in next-generation networks to support
various services with a very different requirement. WDM technology, together with
EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier), allowing the transmission of multiple
channels over the same fiber, that makes it possible to transmit many terabits of data
over distances from a few hundred kilometers to transoceanic distances, which
satisfy the data capacity required for current and future communication networks.
This article explains how can WDM system benefit from this technology.
 To send information from node j to node k, the address code for node k is
impressed upon the data by the encoder at node j.
 At the destination, the receiver differentiates between codes by means of
correlation detection.
 Each receiver correlates its own address f(n) with the received signal s(n). The
receiver output r(n) is
If the received signal arrives at the correct destination, then
s(n)=f(n).
Equation (5.57) represents an autocorrelation function, if s(n) not equal to f(n) the
equation (5.57) represents a cross-correlation function.

For a receiver to be able to distinguish the proper address correctly, it is necessary to

maximize the autocorrelation function and minimize the cross-correlation function.

Prime-sequence codes and optical orthogonal codes (OOCs) are the commonly used
spreading sequences in optical CDMA systems.

An OOC systems the number of simultaneous user an is bounded by

ULTRA HIGH CAPACITY NETWORKS
Advance of optical communication systems has provide
channels with enormous bandwidth at least 25THz and dense WDM technology,
ultrafast optical TDM.
To using dense WDM techniques to increase the capacity of long-haul
transmission link and ultrafast optical TDM schemes.
These are particularly attractive in LAN or MANs

TDM Schemes To Shared-Media Local Neteorks Have Two

Methods:
(1) Bit-interleaved TDM.
(2) Time-slotted TDM.
1. Ultra High Capacity WDM Networks
Two popular approaches are used to achieve increased capacity.
(a) to widen the spectral bandwidth of EDFAs from 30 to 80 nm, by using
broadening techniques.
(b) Increasing the capacity of a WDM link is to improve the spectral efficiency of
the WDM signals.
Most of the demonstrations use a rate of 20 Gb/s for each individual wavelength to
avoid non-linear effects.
Examples are,
(1) A 50-channel WDM system operating at an aggregated 1-Tb/s rate over a 600
km link.
(2)A 132-channel WDM system operating at an aggregated 2.6 Tb/s rate over a
120- km/link.
2. Bit-Interleaved Optical TDM
 Repetition rate typically ranges from 2.5 to 10 Gb/S, which corresponds to the
bit rate of the electric data tributaries feeding the system.
 An optical splitter divides the pulse train into N separate streams.
 The pulse streams is 10 Gb/S and N=4, each of these channels is then
individually modulated by an electrical tributary data source at a bit rate
B.
 The modulated outputs are delayed individually by different fractions of the
clock period, and are then interleaved through an optical combiner to produce
an aggregate bitrate of NXB.
 Optical post amplifier and preamplifier are generally included in the link
to compenstate for splitting and attenuation loss.
 At the receiving end, the aggregate pulse stream is demultiplexed into
the original N independent data channels for further signal processing.
 A clock-recovery mechanism operating at the base bit rate B is required at
the receiver to drive and synchronize the demultiplexer.