3.

2 ATOMS, ELECTRONS, and PERIODIC TRENDS:

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Developing Quantum Mechanics Scientists attempt to explain electron behaviour of atoms what and where

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) Wave Nature of Electron

 1924 light not only entity to exhibit wave-particle duality  ordinary particles such as electrons can also exhibit wave characteristics in certain circumstances  electron has associated with it a system of "matter waves"  waves possess crests that disappear at one point and appear an instant later at another point  distance between successive crests (P) is the de Broglie wavelength and is calculated from P = h/mv, where h is Planck's constant and mv is momentum  wavelength associated with an electron and derived from its momentum yields a standing-wave pattern identical to Bohr's allowed energy levels

Erwin Schrdinger (1887-1961) Wave Equation

 1926 used dual nature of particles to produce basic equation of quantum mechanics  equation treats electrons as matter waves  equation described ]as the density distribution--some regions rich in electron matter while others scarce

Max Born (1882-1970) Probability Density

 figured out what the wave equation actually predicts  concept of the electron as a point particle moving in a welldefined path around the nucleus is replaced in wave mechanics by clouds that describe the probable locations of electrons in different states  Born's probability density most dramatic change in viewing our world since Newton and gravity.

Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) Uncertainty Principle

 act of measuring an electron's properties by hitting it with gamma rays alters electron's behavior  you could measure the position of an electron (or other particle) OR you could measure its momentum  more precisely you measure one property, the more you throw the other off  placed concept in an equation using Planck's constant, and called it the uncertainty principle  many resisted this idea, it eventually became accepted as a fundamental law of nature.

Uncertainty principle
A free electron moves into the focus of a hypothetical microscope (a) and is struck by a photon of light; the photon transfers momentum to the electron. The reflected photon is seen in the microscope (b), but the electron has moved out of focus. The electron is not where it appears to be.

Quantum Numbers:
The Bohr model was a one-dimensional model that used one quantum number to describe the electrons in the atom. Only the size of the orbit was important, which was described by the n quantum number. Schrodinger described an atomic model with electrons in three dimensions. This model required three coordinates, or three quantum numbers, to describe where electrons could be found.

Quantum Numbers:
The three coordinates from Schrodinger's wave equations are the principal (n), angular (l), and magnetic (m) quantum numbers. These quantum numbers describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.

Four Quantum Numbers:

Four numbers are used to describe electrons in the modern model of an atom. 1. Principal quantum number - n Describes the energy level within the atom.
y y

Energy levels are 1 to 7 Maximum number of electrons in n is 2 n 2

Four Quantum Numbers:

2. Secondary (orbital-shape) quantum number - l Describes the sublevel in n
y

y y

Sublevels in the atoms of the known elements are s - p - d - f (l = 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively) Each energy level has n sublevels. Sublevels of different energy levels may have overlapping energies.

The secondary quantum number also describes the shape of the orbital.

Four Quantum Numbers:

3. Magnetic quantum number ml Describes the orbital within a sublevel
s (l = 0) has 1 orbital (ml = 0) p (l = 1) has 3 orbitals (ml = -1,0,+1) d (l = 2) has 5 orbitals (ml = -2,-1,0,+1,+2) f (l = 3) has 7 orbitals (ml = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3)

Orbitals contain 1 or 2 electrons, never more. ml also describes the direction, or orientation in space for the orbital.

Four Quantum Numbers:

4. Spin quantum number - ms This fourth quantum number describes the spin of the electron.
y

Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.

Possible spins are clockwise or counterclockwise.

Rules governing the combinations of quantum numbers:

The first three quantum numbers n, l, and ml are integers. The principal quantum number (n) cannot be zero.
y

n must be 1, 2, 3, etc...

Rules governing the combinations of quantum numbers:

The secondary quantum number (l) can be any integer between 0 and n - 1.
For n = 3, l can be either 0, 1, or 2.

The magnetic quantum number (ml) can be any integer between -l and +l.
For l = 2, m can be either -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2.

Rules governing the combinations of quantum numbers:

The spin quantum number (ms) is arbitrarily assigned the values +1/2 and -1/2.

Allowed combinations of Quantum Numbers:

Quick Calculations with the Principal Quantum Number:

n2 = total number of orbitals in a shell (or energy level) 2n2 = total number of electrons in orbitals of a shell (or energy level)

Quick Calculations with the Quantum Numbers:

1.Which of the following combinations of quantum numbers are possible / impossible? If a combination is impossible, correct it. (a, b, and c are answered.)

Quick Calculations with the Quantum Numbers:

a. n = 2, l = 2, ml = -1, ms = -1/2 ___1______ b. n = 3, l = 2, ml = -3, ms = +1/2 ___-2_____ c. n = 4, l = 2, ml = -1, ms = -1/2 _possible__ d. n = 0, l = 1, ml = -1, ms = -1/2 ___________ e. n = 5, l = 3, ml = -1, ms = -1/3 ___________ f. n = 6, l = 5, ml = +4, ms = +1/2 ___________

Quick Calculations with the Quantum Numbers:

d. n = 0, l = 1, ml = -1, ms = -1/2 2,3,4,5,6, or 7 e. n = 5, l = 3, ml = -1, ms = -1/3 __ +/-1/2 __ f. n = 6, l = 5, ml = +4, ms = +1/2 __possible__

Quick Calculations with the Quantum Numbers:

2. How many electrons can have the quantum numbers n = 5, ml = +1? Answer: 3. How many orbitals can have the designation n = 3? Answer: 4. How many electrons can have the designation n = 3? Answer:

Quick Calculations with the Quantum Numbers:

many electrons can have the quantum numbers n = 5, l = 4, ml = +1? Answer: ms = +1/2 or -1/2 2 electrons 3. How many orbitals can have the designation Answer: n2 = 32 = 9 orbitals n = 3? n = 3?
2. How

4. How many electrons can have the designation Answer: 2n2 = 2 x 32 = 18 electrons

Electron Orbitals
Orbits and orbitals
When a planet moves around the sun, you can plot a definite path for it which is called an orbit. This is similar to the motion of an electron in a Bohr atom. An electron of an atom is located in a region of space known as an orbital. It is a sort of 3D map of the places that an electron is likely to be found.

Diagrams of orbitals

Electron Orbitals
Shapes of the s orbitals
Representations of (a) 1s, (b) 2s, and (c) 3s orbitals. Cutaway views of these spherical orbitals are shown on the top, with the probability of finding an electron represented by the density of the shading. Electron probability distribution plots of y2 as a function of distance from the nucleus are shown on the bottom. Note that the 2s orbital has buried within it a spherical surface of zero probability (a node), and the 3s orbital has within it two spherical surfaces of zero probability. The different colors of different regions in the 2s and 3s orbitals correspond to different algebraic signs of the wave function, analogous to the different phases of a wave,

Electron Orbitals
The three 2p orbitals. Part (a) is a plot giving the probability of finding a 2p electron as a function of its distance from the nucleus. Part (b) shows representations of the three 2p orbitals, each of which is dumbbell-shaped and oriented in space along one of the three coordinate axes x, y, or z. Each p orbital has two lobes of high electron probability separated by a nodal plane passing through the nucleus. The different shadings of the lobes reflect different algebraic signs analogous to the different phases of a wave.

Shapes of the p-orbitals

Electron Orbitals
Shapes of the d orbitals
Representations of the five 3d orbitals. Four of the orbitals are shaped like a cloverleaf (a-d), and the fifth is shaped like an

elongated dumbbell inside a donut (e). Also

shown is one of the seven 4f orbitals (f). As with p orbitals, the different shadings of the lobes reflect different phases.

Cool Stuff To See And Do Web Videos

The Quantum Number Rag http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tilkl4lRqzo The Quantum Number Rag - Michael Offutt

Cool Stuff To See And Do Web Simulations

Atomic orbitals (USEFUL) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/at omicorbitals/ Observe s, p, d, and f orbitals. http://michele.usc.edu/105a/atomic_structure/o rbitals/orbitals.html (DOWNLOAD CHIME FIRST) On this advanced page, you can view representations of various orbitals and the equations that describe them (from the University of Southern California site).

3.2 Section Review (p.138):

#1, 2, 3, 5, and 6