VISUAL TESTING

ASNT NDT Level II Course

Presented By: Ahmed M Sharief
ASNT NDT Level III
CSWIP 3.1 Weld Inspector
API 510/570 Inspector
ISO 9001 Lead Auditor
Radiation Safety Officer
16 Years Experience
 Introduction

• Definition of visual inspection

Visual inspection is the monitoring of
specific parameters by visual and optical
assessments of test objects and surfaces
using the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Inspection may be by the use of the eye alone

or can be enhanced using optical systems such
as magnifiers and microscopes.
Visual inspection applications
Visual inspection has applications in
virtually every industry. It is used for
inspecting exposed or accessible
surfaces of opaque objects, such as
the surface of a finished steel part,
and for inspecting the interior of
transparent objects, such as the
inside of a glass object.
Visual inspection applications
The methods employed are similar
for all visual inspections in that the
eye, sometimes assisted by optical
systems, picks up and transmits
information to the brain, which
assimilates the information and is
able to make a judgment with
reference to previous experience.
 Primary processing
inspection

This is visual inspection of the raw

materials used in a process, and of the
plant and manufacturing processes being
employed. This means checking raw
materials to ensure conformity to
specification and checking manufacturing
conditions at each stage. For
Secondary and finishing
process inspection

The inspection and monitoring of dies

and components for forging,
extrusion and drawing, the cutting
and joining in fabrication, the forming
by welding, soldering, brazing,
spinning and press forming are some
of the metal manufacturing processes
monitored by visual inspection.
 In-service inspection

Visual inspection is a vital part of in-

service inspection, which may or may not
be backed up by other NDT methods.
 Physics of Light

Radiant energy-energy transmitted by

electromagnetic waves Light
Visible light is defined as radiant energy
capable of exciting the human retina and
creating a visual sensation. It is the portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum with
wavelengths between 380-770 nm. At
these wavelengths radiant energy makes
visible anything from which it is emitted or
reflected in sufficient quantity to activate
the receptors of the eye.
 Light Quantities

Light can be quantified in Many

ways:

Luminous flux
Luminous intensity
Luminance
Iluminance
Luminous efficiency
 Light Quantities

Luminous flux

The luminous energy emitted per

second from a light source. The unit of
luminous flux is the lumen (lm). As the
lumen is a measure of energy per unit
time it must he related to the Watt
(W). The energy of a light source
depends on its wavelength, but as a
rough guide 1W equals 621 lumens of
green light (wavelength 5.54 x I0 -10m).
 Light Quantities
Luminous intensity

This is the luminous flux emitted per unit solid

angle. Solid angles are measured in steradian
(sr), and therefore the unit of luminous
intensity is the lumen per steradian or Imsr-1.
A practical unit of luminous intensity is the
candela (cd), where
1candela = 1lumen steradian -1,
or, a light source with intensity 1 candela emits
1 lumen per steradian.
 Light Quantities
Luminous intensity
 Light Quantities

Luminance

The luminance of a surface is the

luminous flux per unit area coming
from that surface. It is measured in
lumen per meter 2, or m.m -2 .
 Light Quantities

Iluminance

Considering a surface on which light

falls, illuminance is defined as the
luminous flux per unit area falling on
a surface. It is measured in lux (lx),
one lux being the illuminance of a
surface one meter from light source
of one candela.
 Light Quantities

Luminous efficiency
The luminous efficiency of a light source is
the ratio of total luminous flux (lumens) to
total radiant energy output. Overall
luminous efficiency is the ratio of the total
luminous flux to total energy input.
 Properties of Light

Light can be reflected, refracted,

diffracted, and polarized. These are
properties of waves, and it is thought
that light can be described as a wave
motion traveling in straight lines at a
speed of 2.99 x 10-8ms-1 (in a vacuum).
A wave has a wavelength, frequency
and velocity. Wavelength is usually
measured in nanometers (1x 10-9 m),
and the frequency in Hertz (Hz) or
cycles per second.
 Properties of Light

Velocity = wavelength x frequency.

 Electromagnetic
Spectrum
The visible spectrum consists of
all the colors from violet through
to red, i.e. violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange, red. White
light is all the colors combined
together.

The colors represent different

wavelengths, red being the
longer and violet the shorter.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
 Properties of Light

Reflection
A reflected ray is one turned back
from a surface. There are two laws of
reflection:
1. The reflected ray, the incident ray
and the normal to the reflected
surface all tie in the same plane (they
are in the same medium).
2. The incident angle and reflected
angle are equal.
 Properties of Light

Reflection
 Properties of Light

Diffused Reflection
Rough surface such
as paper, the light is
reflected in different
directions. At each
point on the surface
the laws of reflection
are obeyed, but the
angle of incidence of
each ray is different.
This is known as
diffused reflection.
 Properties of Light
Refraction
When a tight ray is
incident on the surface of
a transparent object, only
a small percentage is
reflected, the rest of the
light continuing through
the new medium in a new
direction. The amount that
the light is bent depends
upon the two mediums
and the incident angle.
 Properties of Light

Diffraction
Diffraction is when
light waves pass
around an object
and spread beyond
the limits of the
geometric shadow.
It operates as a
point source.
 Properties of Light
Interference
When two or more coherent light
beams reach the same area, their
effect is additive. This leads to the
phenomenon known as interference
and appears as a pattern of light and
dark bands showing where the wave-
fronts have either reinforced or
cancelled each other. The
reinforcement is called constructive
interference and the canceling effect
is called destructive interference.
 Properties of Light

Interference
 Theories of Light
There are several theories describing radiant
energy:

a. Corpuscular Theory by Sir Isaac Newton -

luminous bodies emits radiant energy in
particles, which are intermittently ejected and
travel in straight lines. The particles act on the
eye to stimulate the optic nerves to produce
light sensation,

b. Wave Theory by Christian Huygens - states

light results from molecular vibrations in
luminous material, which is transmitted through
a hypothetical medium in wave-like movements.
 Theories of Light
c. Electromagnetic Theory by James
Clerk Maxwell - suggests luminous
bodies emit light in the form of radiant
energy, which is propagated in the
form of electromagnetic waves.

d. Quantum Theory by Planck - this is an

update on the corpuscular theory. Energy is
emitted and absorbed in discrete quantities
(quanta). These packages of energy are
known as photons.
 Theories of Light
e. Unified Theory by De Broglie and
Heisenberg - based on the premise
that every moving particle has an
associated waveform, i.e. light can be
thought of as both a particle and a
wave.

At present, the true nature of light is not well

understood and there is still much debate as
to whether or not the Quantum and Unified
Theories are valid.
Measurement of Light
Although the human eye is the
main detector for white light,
instrument detectors such as
 photoconductive cells,
 photodiodes,
 phototransistors and
 photographic film etc.
The measurement of light is called photometry
with the measurement instruments being
called photometers and radiometers and are
either portable or laboratory based, the latter
being the most accurate.
 Measurement of Light
Measurement of ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet Light, known also as black
light, is not visible to the human eye, but
can be made visible by using fluorescent
dyes. These dyes absorb the ultraviolet
radiation and emit the absorbed energy as
light of wavelengths usually in the yellow-
green portion of the spectrum. Ultraviolet
radiation is defined as the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum having
wavelengths from 100-400 nm
 Eye and Vision
The eye

Components of the human eye in cross section

 Eye and Vision
The funtion of eye

The eye operates in a similar way to a camera.

1. Light passes through the transparent cornea and

enters the inner part of the eye through the pupil.
2. The size of the pupil and thus the amount of light
entering the eye is controlled by the iris.
3. The lens focuses light rays from an object onto the
retina, at the rear of the eyeball.
4. The tight rays are then converted from light energy to
electrical signals by groups of receptor cells called
rods and cones.
 Eye and Vision
Rods and Cones

a) Rods are not color sensitive but detect the

intensity of the light and can respond at very
low levels,
b) whereas cones are sensitive to different colors,
responding according to the color’s specific
wavelength, but need a much higher intensity
of light to respond.
These signals are passed along the optic nerve
to the brain which then processes the
information and forms the picture we see. To
enable the picture to he formed and identified,
the brain requires process data, which is gained
 Eye and Vision

The eye is a complex receptor organ, the

mechanism of which is only partly understood.
When the eye views a scene it views it in two
stages:

1. Entire field vision called pre-attentive

processing.

2. Localized focus on a specific object in the field.

Both of the above are processed by the brain to

produce the pictures we see.
 Eye and Vision

Conclusion:

It is thought that the eye and brain simplify the

various tight patterns into spots, lines, shadows,
edges, colors, orientation and position within
the entire field. This data is then compared with
data previously collected and stored in the
brain's long-term memory. This enables images
to be identified and compared and allows
differentiation between pattern changes and
color changes.
 Vision acuity

Vision acuity is the term used to express the spatial

resolving power of the eye. It involves near vision and
far vision to cover and identify what is seen and will be
dependent on physical, medical and physiological
conditions and differs from person to person
 Vision acuity

Near and Far sightedness:

A. Near sightedness is when the eye lens focuses

the light rays in front of the retina.
B. Far sightedness is when the lens of the eye
focuses light rays beyond the retina.

Both of these conditions can be corrected by

placing a suitable eye-glass lens 17-21 mm
from the retina.
 Vision acuity
Requirements
The majority of visual tests require near vision
acuity within 400 mm.
Far vision examination is carried out at 6. m.

The charts used for the vision examination

should be white with letters printed clearly in
black. The lighting conditions should be as
specified, e.g. the room lighting should he 800
Ix and the background luminance of the chart
should be 5 cd m2
Vision acuity Examinations

This is carried out with or without eyeglasses, usually

at a distance of 300-400 mm using suitable reading
charts - the chart used by opticians and
ophthalmologists is a standard test chart devised by
the British College of Ophthalmologists. A Jaeger chart
can be used instead. This is a standard reading chart
with text sizes ranging from Jaeger 1 (J1- very small)
to Jaeger 20 (J20 - large). It is an easy test to
administer as it involves reading a small paragraph at
a specified distance.
Vision acuity Examinations

NDT Requirements:

"All candidates shall have natural or corrected

vision to be capable of reading from a standard
test chart, Jaeger No.] letters or Times Roman
N4 or equivalent at a distance of not less than
30 cm. "Candidates will also need to pass the
Ishihara color perception test (see below).
Vision acuity Examinations

Vision Requirements on ASNT:

"the applicant is capable of reading a minimum

of Jaeger No.2 (CP 189 J1) or equivalent type
and size of letter at a distance of not less than
12 inches on a standard Jaeger test chart. The
ability to perceive an Ortho-Rater minimum of 8
or a similar test pattern is also acceptable. This
test should he administered annually.
Candidates must also he capable of
differentiating different shades of colors - this
color vision must be tested every 3 years.
Vision acuity Examinations

Color Vision testing can be carried out with:

1. An anomaloscope, which allows mixing of

colors.

2. Charts with different colored spots. A

commonly used test is one devised by 5
Ishihara, which is a set of charts using colored
dot patterns.

3. Caps with 15 changes in color hue to check for red

blindness and green blindness.
 Vision

Photopic vision

Photopic vision (foveal vision) is when the eye is

adapted to light vision - after a few minutes of
exposure to more than 3.0 cdm2. As the cones work
effectively at higher light intensities, phototopic vision
is mediated mainly by the color sensitive cones and so
color vision is clear.
 Vision

Scotopic vision

Scotopic vision (parafoveal vision) is when the

eye becomes dark adapted to low levels of
illumination of below 3.0 x 10-5cdt-2 . This
requires a considerable time of 30-45 minutes,
depending upon the initial light exposure values.
Only the rods are sensitive to low light intensities,
therefore differences in intensity can be detected
but color vision is poor or absent.
 Effect of Health in Vision
A person's health affects their sight ability, a
variable that may he difficult to detect but which
produces inconsistent or incorrect visual
assessments.

a. Diabetes impairs normal vision years after it first

appears, and may produce a gradual loss of vision
due to cataracts, which is a loss of transparency in
the lens of the eye.
b. Glaucoma is the build up of pressure within the
eye starting with slight vision impairment and,
when severe, results in total blindness and
destruction of the eye.

There are many other eye-related factors which

are not assessed and which may influence visual
ability.
 Perception
Perception is the difference between physical
reality and the view that we think we see. It is how
an observer's brain interprets the data it is being
given.
The difference between observers depends upon
pre-programming of the brain by training and
experience and the mental and physical state at
the time of observation.
Illusion
 Distortion

Falsified reproduction of an audio or video signal

caused by change in the wave form of the original
signal
Detection
 Detection

There are eleven faces

Scoring:
1-4 average
8 extraordinary
9 above average
10 very observant
11 extremely observant
 Environmental Condition

The environment in which visual inspection is to he

carried out requires careful attention. The following
considerations are the most important.

1. Cleanliness
2. Lighting
3. Access
4. Atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity etc.)
5. Safety
 Environmental Condition

Cleanliness

Cleanliness is a basic requirement for accurate

visual inspection. The subject under examination
must be clean to the extent required for accurate
visual inspection. In some cases, e.g. critical
inspection, the test-piece must be extremely
clean and free from dirt, grease, scale, flux and all
protective coatings.

Methods of cleaning is discussed later.

 Environmental Condition

Lighting

The background of the area in which testing is

carried out has to be given careful consideration.
Reflections and shadows from the structure, walls,
windows, ceiling and floor will all affect visual
perception and influence the outcome of the test.
The test area should be correctly lit - the
recommended lighting ratio is about 3:1 between
test-piece and dark background and 1:3 between
test-piece and light background.
 Environmental Condition

Access and viewing distance

If unaided visual inspection is to be carried out

accurately, observations must be made within 300 mm.
Direct access is not always available, for example, inside
small-bore pipe work, small chambers, inside combustion
chambers of internal combustion and jet engines and
environments which are hostile due to radiation, chemical
or heat hazards.
 Environmental Condition

Viewing angles and distances

The eye's resolving power is dependent on the

angle and distance from the test surface. The
average eye at 300mm can resolve the angular
separation of two points on a test-piece down to
0.01670 (1 minute of arc). This means that the
best resolution is about 0.09 mm at 300 mm and
0.18 mm at 600 mm.

It is recommended that direct vision testing

should be carried out between 250 mm and
600mm and the angle between the eye and test
surface not less than 30°.
 Environmental Condition

Atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity etc.)

Temperature and humidity should be moderate in order

for working conditions to he as comfortable as possible.
There are rules from the Health & Safety Executive
regarding the minimum temperatures allowed for
working. The minimum is 16°C after the first hour. There
are also suggestions regarding overcrowding and
ventilation. Bad conditions could affect the inspector's
perception and lead to inaccuracies.
 Environmental Condition

Safety

The test area must he made as safe as possible.

Many precautions are common sense, but special
mention should be made concerning the use of
solvents for cleaning and the safety of different
light sources. Fatigue is also an important factor
Perception is affected by stress and fatigue. It is
obviously unsafe for an inspector to work when he
is overtired and prone to accidents.
 Light Sources

The light required for visual testing can be

provided by a number of sources. The source
should be chosen according to the application of
the visual test or it may be that the source is
specified in a procedure.
a. Background lighting conditions can also vary.
b. A bright background with too much glare will
interfere with the inspection, as will a
background, which is too dark or casts shadows
over the test area.

The following light sources are the most

frequently used for visual inspection.
 Light Sources

The following light sources are the most

frequently used for visual inspection.

Daylight
Daylight is the best light possible as it provides
optimum wavelength distribution for practice;
there is no such the human eye.

Flash light
This is a tungsten filament bulb wit a battery
supply of up to 2 V.A flash light is portable,
robust, and easy to use.
 Light Sources

Hand lamp
This is a low-voltage mains operated lamp, with a
tungsten filament bulb. A transformer is used to
produce voltages of less than 10 V. It is portable
and easy to use.

Desk top/angle poise lamps

These lamps have tungsten filament bulbs and
use mains voltage. They are very useful as they
can he adjusted to all angles and positioned to
give the best possible view.
 Light Sources

Fluorescent lamps.
These are gas discharge tubes, either straight or
circular, which can be battery operated or use
mains voltages. Their usefulness is limited, but
they give a soft light, uniform over a large area.
Halogen lamp
This is the tungsten-halogen filament lamp. The
presence of a small amount of iodine helps to prevent
evaporation of the tungsten filament - this leads to longer
life for the filament and allows the lamp to he run at
higher temperatures, giving a very white light. They give
the greatest tight output of all types of bulb.
 Light Sources
Ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet lamps are used with fluorescent material
producing a secondary light emission of a longer
wavelength within the visible spectrum. The
fluorescence produces an excellent contrast usually
yellow/green against a dark violet/black background.
Caution: PPE should be worn when exposure
would exceed these values.
Effects: a. Possible cause of cataracts.
b. Reddening of the skin
(erytherma)
c. Lensfluorescence, eyestrain and
headaches or Fatigue.
e. Welder's flash.
 Light Sources
Miscellaneous
Borescopes, endoscopes, fibre optics and
microscopes require light sources which range
from battery-operated on portable equipment to
mains-operated on fixed or laboratory-based
equipment. The mains output of 240 V maybe
used at full value for high-pressure, high- intensity
light sources.
 Maximum Work Distance
The following table shows the maximum
working distances to produce 500 Ix at the
test surface.

Source Distance
Flash light 250mm
60W bulb 250mm
75W bulb 380 mm
100W bulb 460 mm
 Optical Aids
Microscope

Shop microscope -about 40x magnification. Used

for a range of inspection from plated and painted
surfaces to defective components and surface
wear. (e.g. Brinell microscope)

Laboratory microscope this is a conventional compound

microscope. A great range of magnification, field
coverage and resolution is available. Magnification can
range from 100x to 2000x.
 Optical Aids
Microscope
 Optical Aids
Mirrors

Can be made with minors allowing viewing behind

or underneath objects or components with
flexibility to obtain optimum viewing angles.

Mirrors are available in various shapes, sizes and

curvature configurations (convex, concave,
parabolic), with adjustable and telescopic
handles.

The use of mirrors requires a degree of practice to

reflect the light and obtain the desired reflection.
 Optical Aids
Borescopes and endoscopes

The borescope, which is a self-illuminated

telescope, originates from an early
development of equipment to explore inside
human bodies without having to operate.

The original equipment was called an

endoscope, derived from the Greek words
for inside view and this is the term now
used in Britain for flexible borescopes.
 Optical Aids
Types of borescopes
Rigid borescopes

The rigid borescope was originally

developed to inspect the bores of rifles and
gun barrels. The image at the eyepiece is
produced by an objective lens, prism, relay
lenses and eyepiece and may have either
fixed or adjustable focusing, the latter
having a greater advantage over the fixed
focus type.
 Optical Aids
Types of borescopes
Rigid borescopes
The rigid borescope was originally developed to
inspect the bores of rifles and gun barrels. The
image at the eyepiece is produced by an objective
lens, prism, relay lenses and eyepiece and may
have either fixed or adjustable focusing, the latter
having a greater advantage over the fixed focus
type.
 Optical Aids
Typical Borescope Lens system
 Optical Aids
Typical Borescope showing angle of view
 Optical Aids
Types of Borescopes

Right-angled borescopes - used for looking around

corners.
Wide-field borescopes - up to 1200 field of view.
Miniature borescope - down to 1.75 mm diameter.
Periscope borescopes - used to see above or over
objects.
Ultraviolet borescopes - used in fluorescent
inspection (e.g. magnetic particle inspection and
penetrant testing). Comes complete with UV
light source, filters etc.
Calibrated borescopes - used in special examinations. The
external tube is calibrated in order to indicate depth of
 Optical Aids
Endoscopes or Fibrescopes
Endoscopes are flexible systems using fibre
optics, which are used in a similar manner to
borescopes. They are used extensively in
medicine and many engineering applications.
 Optical Aids
Fibre optics
Fibre optics use very thin flexible glass fibre filaments
between 9-30 microns in diameter. These filaments
are capable of transmitting light within the boundaries
of the fibre by internal reflections, the light following
the path of the fibre irrespective of its shape. This
property allows the light or image to he transmitted
around bends and curves without additional optical
equipment.
 Optical Aids
Application of borescopes and endoscopes
The many variants of the borescope are used to
inspect the internal condition and integrity of
pipework, combustion chambers, gas cylinders,
small tanks, chambers and vessels where unaided
visual inspection is not practical.
Borescopes are widely used in the automotive industry,
to examine engine cylinders without having to take the
engine apart. In machine shops, they are used to test the
internal surface conditions of many components.
 Optical Aids
Video systems
As remote inspection requirements become ever more
complex and demanding, the systems design engineer
seeks more sophisticated solutions to inspection
problems. This often leads to the use of video systems,
using either real or virtual images. A real image is
composed of real light waves, which can be projected
onto a screen or captured on film or video tape. A virtual
image is only an apparent image and so cannot be
directly captured, but the sophisticated electronics in a
video system allows the virtual image to be converted
into a real picture.
 Optical Aids
Television camera
The optical image of the scene to be televised is
focused, via a zoom lens, onto the target of the
camera tube. The target is coated in photo-
conductive or photo-emissive material, and this
generates a pattern of electrical voltages at the
back of the target, with the voltage at any point
being proportional to the brightness of the
corresponding image point.
 Optical Aids
Be Sure

Depth of field
Depth of field is the range over which the
camera/lens produces satisfactory definition which
is in focus. It can he expected that the depth of field
will decrease with increase in magnification.
 Measuring Equipments
A measurement can be defined as a quantity,
condition, or property that can be determined
objectively. There should be a defined procedure
to accomplish the measurement. The
measurement process is always a comparison of
the measured with a reference quantity of the
same kind.
1. Rules.
2. Tapes.
6. Verniers.
3. Square and 7. Micrometers
templates. 8. Clock gauges.
4. Protractors. 9. Slip gauges.
5. Calipers (internal
and external).
10. Shadow graphs.
 Measuring Equipments
Measurement and calibration system

A supplier or purchaser needs maximum

confidence that a product meets the specified
requirements in terms of its physical attributes,
e.g. correct dimensions.
Confidence is gained by using a calibration system to
attempt to ensure that all measuring equipment is
accurate to within stated tolerances.
 Measuring Equipments
Rules
Thin steel rules are used by the visual inspector
for accuracy, i.e. less parallax error, good
dimensional stability and small width of
graticules. Measurement markings may he metric,
imperial or both. The smallest increment is
usually 0.5 mm or 1/64 inch.
 Measuring Equipments
Tape rules
These are manufactured from steel with
measurements painted or engraved.
Tape Rules Measurements can he metric, imperial or both,
the smallest increment is usually 1 mm and they
are available from about I m to 100m in length.
Tape rules should be checked for accuracy at a
specified temperature and tension.
 Measuring Equipments
Squares or templates
These are devices used to check profiles. They
should he made from a stable material, preferably
steel. The square, for checking right angles., is
placed on the component requiring checking and
viewed for contact against the surface usually
with a light source behind so that any non-contact
area can he seen.
 Measuring Equipments
Protractors
Usually manufactured from a clear stable
plastic, with engraved markings in degrees.
They are used to measure angles which are
actual, projected or transferred.
 Measuring Equipments
Calipers
There are two types of calipers, (1) for internal
use - used mainly to measure bore diameters, and
(2) for external use - used mainly for measuring
external diameters. Calipers may be used for
direct measurements or may be used to compare
dimensions on one component, or compare
dimensions between components.
 Measuring Equipments
Vernier calipers
A vernier is a small movable auxiliary scale
attached to, and sliding in contact with, a scale of
graduation. It is usually graduated in 9/10 the of
the main scale to enable readings to be made to a
fraction (usually one tenth) of a division on the
fine scale. "Verniers are either digital or direct
reading which are capable of measuring
dimensions to an accuracy of 0.01 mm, or
0.0005".
 Measuring Equipments
Micrometers
A standard micrometer is a U-shaped gauge in
which the gap between the measuring surfaces is
adjustable by an accurate screwed barrel whose
end forms one face. The measured gap is read off
a scale uncovered by the barrel. Metric
micrometers are read to the nearest 0.001 mm;
imperial micrometers are read to the nearest
0.00005".
 Measuring Equipments
Temperature indicating sticks
Temperature sticks are crayon or chalk material
with a calibrated specified temperature at which
they will melt and are available over a range of
+38°C to +1370°C with an accuracy of +/- 1%.
The stick is placed in contact with the surface of
the component and will melt at the temperature
marked on the stick. A typical application is in
welding to check preheat and post heating
temperatures. Some sticks do not melt, but
change color at the indicated temperature
instead.
 Weld Gauges
Other presentation of weld Gauges presentation will
continue the course of cleaning methods and
Defect logy
 Cleaning Methods
The component or part to be tested must be
adequately cleaned prior to inspection.
 A dirty surface will make the surface finish appear
different, obstructs visual assessment of a surface
and could mask defects.
 The cleaning method most suitable to use depends on
various factors including the properties of the test-
piece, the contaminants to he removed, skill required,
access and cost.
 Cleaning Methods
Methods of cleaning
The surfaces may have adherent materials or
surface contamination requiring different methods
for removal. The main cleaning methods are as
follows:
1. Dry abrasive blasting
6. Needle gunning
2. Wet blasting
7. Flame cleaning Paint
stripper Vapour
3. Wire brushing
degreasing
4. Grinding
8. Solvent cleaning
5. Scraping
9. Detergent cleaning
 Cleaning Methods
Dry abrasive blasting
Abrasive blasting either dry or wet, is carried out with a
concentrated stream of small abrasive particles. The
abrasive can be either metallic or mineral and includes sand,
slag, steel or chilled iron grit and shot, slag and bead. These
are blasted at the surface to remove surface scale, rust or
paint that is adherent to the surface. Grease and oil must be
removed prior to blasting.

The action of abrasive blasting results in a clean surface

which may, depending upon the abrasive used, produce a
rough surface finish which may he required for adhesion
purposes if a subsequent coating is to be used. When used
on steel, some abrasives (especially shot) plastically deform
and work harden the surface.
Small surface-breaking defects may he peened over and hidden from
view.
 Cleaning Methods
High-pressure pure water blasting
Operates at pressures up to 35,000 p.s.i, which can be
extremely dangerous. The advantages of this method are
as follows:

à Simple to operate.
à Highly flexible and mobile in use.
à Suitable for removing soluble contamination.
à Will remove millscale at high pressures.
 Cleaning Methods
Steam cleaning, with or without abrasive injection
Operates at approximately 100 p.s.i.. This method
is ideal for surfaces contaminated with oil, grease,
etc.. Disadvantages include high cost and low
efficiency.
 Cleaning Methods
Wire brushing
Hand and power wire brushing is an effective
method of removing the majority of the less
adherent materials but not as effective as abrasive
blasting for scaled and painted surfaces.
 Cleaning Methods
Grinding
The action of grinding removes the surface
metal/material in a localised area and is useful for
spot dressing. Full surface grinding is when all the
surface is dressed with machine grinding producing
a uniform surface compared to hand grinding which
tends to produce undulations.
 Cleaning Methods
Scraping
Hand or power tool cleaning with scrapers remove
lightly adherent material from the surface without
significant metal removal, except when employed
on soft materials.
 Cleaning Methods
Needle gunning
The needle gun consists of numerous air-operated
reciprocating needles and are used to clean areas
difficult to reach by other methods, welds and rivet
heads.
 Cleaning Methods
Dehydration
Rust is a combination of iron oxide and moisture.
As the moisture is rapidly driven off, the rust is
dehydrated and converted to a dry powder which
can then be removed by wire brushing.
 Cleaning Methods
Paint strippers
One of the most effective methods of removing
paint coatings without mechanical damage to the
base material is paint stripper or paint remover.
The painted surface is softened and may then be
removed by either scraping or washing. Paint
strippers are solvents and blends of solvents
specially formulated to remove different types of
paint. They do not clean dirt, scale, grease etc.
effectively.
 Cleaning Methods
Vapour degreasing
True vapour degreasing is the immersion of the
component for cleaning in a solvent vapour of 1, 1,
1 trichloroethane or similar. This is regarded as the
most effective method for the removal of grease,
oil and semi -adherent surface debris. This method
requires specialist equipment and is most useful for
components in a factory house situation. It requires
a special tank/heater and condensation tubes to
prevent the vapour from spilling out of the tank.
 Cleaning Methods
Solvent cleaning
Solvents which are capable of breaking down
grease and oil-based surface contamination are
very effective in removing lightly adherent surface
contamination. Application by immersion, brushing
or wiping requires to be thorough and may require
repeated applications on heavy deposits. No
special equipment is required, although good
ventilation is essential for safety. This method can
be used on large or small test-pieces and can be
employed in or out of doors. Care must be used to
ensure that the solvent does not react with the test
material.
 Cleaning Methods
Detergent cleaning
Detergents are either alkaline or acid based and
are generally used to remove light surface
contamination. Grease or oil-based deposits,
especially heavy deposits, are very difficult to
remove. Detergent cleaning is a relatively safe
method of cleaning.
 Cleaning Methods
Surface profile and finish
This section deals with the shape of a surface and
its texture. Defects can be difficult to identify in a
rough surface and rough surfaces can cause
problems with magnification. The roughness of a
surface is governed by the peak to trough height,
the density of texture, mainly peaks and troughs
and shape of the undulations. The peak to trough
height (amplitude) or appearance of a surface may
be assessed by a number of methods, including the
use of a surface profile needle gauge, surface
replica tape or a surface comparator.
 Cleaning Methods
Surface profile and finish

Amplitudes are often measured on blast surfaces prior to coating

application, but for most other surface assessments a judgment is made by
eye, sometimes with the aid of a comparator. Comparators are available for
a variety of surface textures including machining and blasting.
 Cleaning Methods
As Cast
Cast surfaces vary from a poor to excellent finish. The
degree of fine detail that can be detected is dependent
upon method of casting and condition of the moulds or
masters. Surface roughness ranges from about 1.0 µm R,)
on die castings to 25 µm R for sand castings.

a. Sand casting -generally rough surface finish.

b. Shell mould - smooth, good surface finish.
c. Die casting - smooth, very good finish.
d. Investment casting - depends on the master, but can be a
very good finish.
 Next session is
DEFECTOLOGY

Next Presentation