Observational Research

Week 4
9/30 & 10/2
Ch. 4
 Observational Research
• Human behavior is very complex
– There is a lot to observe!
• Observational Research is more than just
“people watching”
– We observe casually
– Unaware of factors that bias our observations
– Do not record our observations
• Scientific observations are made under defined
conditions, are systematic and objective, and
involves careful record keeping
 Observational Research
• Many times observational research occurs in
naturalistic settings
– But can also occur in laboratories
• Scientists aim to describe behavior fully and
accurately
– Cannot observe all behavior
– Observe samples of behavior
– Is this behavior usual? Does behavior change in
different contexts?
• Observations must occur across different times and settings
to provide and accurate description of “usual” behavior
 Sampling Behavior
• Samples of behavior are used to represent larger
population of all behaviors
– Similar to samples of people used to represent the larger
population
• Scientists choose settings, times, and conditions that are
representative of a population (“real life”) in order to
generalize their findings
– External Validity (“truthfulness”)- extent to which a study’s
findings can be generalized to different populations, settings,
conditions, etc.
• Settings, times, and conditions also influence who is
observed
– e.g., making observations on a college campus, at an assisted
living home, at a sci-fi convention
 Time Sampling
• Time Sampling- researchers aim for
representative samples using time intervals
– Can be Systematic, Random, or both
– Systematic- four 30 min. observations occurring every
2 hours (9AM, 11AM…)
– Random- four 30 min. observations occurring
randomly over the course of the day
– Both- four 30 min. observations occurring every 2
hours (9AM, 11AM…) where the researcher makes
observations during 2-minute intervals randomly
during those times
 Time Sampling continued…
• Use of electronic devices (e.g., pagers, video recorders)
• Not effective sampling method when the event/behavior
is infrequent (e.g., tantrums)
– May miss the event/behavior
– If event has a long duration, researcher might miss important
info (start observing after behavior started, quit observing before
behavior has ended)
• In these cases it is better to use Event Sampling
– Recording/observing when predefined event occurs
– Can be predictable (observe during school assembly) or
unpredictable (observe reactions to natural disasters)
– Can introduce biases to sampling (e.g., only observing during
“convenient” times
 Situation Sampling
• Observing behavior in many different situations
and conditions
– Reduces risk of behavior being context- or situation-
specific
– Increases external validity
• For example, observing children’s tantrums at
home, in school, in the park, at the store, at
different times of day, across cultures/countries
– Increases diversity of observations and participants
 Subject Sampling
• Nearly impossible to observe all behaviors
for all subjects during situations
• Use Subject Sampling
– Determining which subjects to observe
– Can be systematic (every 3rd child to enter a
play ground) or random
 Dimensions of Observational
Research
• Observation without intervention versus
observation with intervention
• Recording all (or most) of behavior versus
recording only specific behaviors
 Observation Without
Intervention
• Observation in natural setting- not an “artificial
environment”
– Naturalistic Observation
– Events occur naturally- not manipulated
– No attempt to interfere or intervene
– Researcher is a passive recorder
• Goals: describe behavior as it ordinarily occurs-
investigate the relationship between variables
present in the natural setting
• Moral/ethical issues for controlling or influencing
certain behaviors-- many of these behaviors
occur naturally in the real world
 Observation With Intervention
• More common form of psychological research
– Cause an infrequent event or to observe a behavior
that occurs under conditions in which it is difficult to
observe
– Observe organism’s response to varying qualities of
a stimulus
– Access to an event that is generally not open to
scientific observation
– Control antecedents of behavior (ABC’s of behavior)
– Comparison- manipulating various IV’s to determine
effects on behavior
 3 Methods of Observation with
Intervention
• Participant Observation
– Observer participates actively in the situation
– Can be undisguised or disguised
– Participant observer may have similar
experiences to participants-- immersion
• Can affect objectivity of observations and behavior
of participants
– No direct manipulation of variables in the
environment (no necessary IV)
 3 Methods of Observation with
Intervention continued...
• Structured Observation
– Observer intervenes to “set up” a situation or behavior
– Observer/researcher exerts some “control” over the
situation- manipulate IV’s
– Compromise between naturalistic observations and
laboratory studies
– Can involve elaborate schemes and “confederates”
– Can occur in natural settings or in laboratories
– Example: Simons and Levin- Change Blindness
– Often times inconsistencies in procedures occur...
 3 Methods of Observation with
Interaction continued...
• Field Experiments
– Observer manipulates IV’s in a natural setting
to determine effect on behavior
– Involves more control than other
observational research
– This will be discussed in more details in
Research Methods II- Experimental Methods
 Recording Behavior
• Determine whether you want to record a
comprehensive description of behavior or
only selected aspects/behaviors
– Depends on research questions/goals
– Depends on qualitative versus quantitative
research
 Qualitative Recording
• Narrative Records- write a description of
behavior, or use audio/visual recording
equipment
– Comprehensive record of behavior
– Scientist then classifies and organizes
records after observations have been made
 Quantitative Recording
• Measurement Scales
Scale Objective
Nominal Sort into discrete categories- eye contact, no
eye contact (presence or absence)

Ordinal Rank-order on single dimension- 1st, 2nd,

3rd in a race
Interval Specify distance between stim. on a given
dimension- Celsius scale (no absolute 0)

Ratio Specify distance between stim. on a given

dimension- express ratios of scale values- 2X
faster, heavier, etc.- Kelvin scale (absolute 0)
 Analyzing Observational Data
• Data Reduction- the process of
abstracting and summarizing behavioral
data-- often used with narrative/qualitative
observations
– Analysis of Narrative Records
– Descriptive Measures
• Observer Reliability
– Interobserver reliability
 Data Reduction
• Analysis of Narrative Records (qualitative)
– Qualitative Data Analysis: Provide a verbal
summary of observations-- develop a theory
that explains behavior
– Identify themes, categorize info, record own
observations about narrative records
– Coding: identification of units of
behavior/events based on study criteria
• Units related to goal of the study
• Coding can be very complex!
 Data Reduction continued...
• Descriptive Measures (quantitative)
– Relative frequency- ratio of behavior over total
events observed
• Proportion or percentage (nominal scales)
• Descriptive statistics (interval to ratio scales)-
mean, standard deviation, etc.
• Can give us useful statistical info
 Observer Reliability
• Interobserver reliability- degree to which two
independent observers agree
– Would another person observing the same event
obtain the same results- even if they did not know
what the other was recording/coding?
– Low interobserver reliability- often occurs when
behavior/event is not clearly defined
• Need exact operational definitions!
– For example- aggression, love
– Remember- reliability does not mean accuracy! (can
both have errors)
– But more inclined to believe observations are valid
• Most often- interobserver reliability below 85% is not
published
– Often measured using Pearson Correlations
Important Tips to Remember when
using Observational Research
• Reactivity
– Participants change behavior when being
watched
– May act in ways they think the observer wants
them to react-- demand characteristics (cues-
“what am I supposed to be doing?”)
– Not representative of “usual behavior”--
threatens external validity/generalizability
Important Tips to Remember when
using Observational Research
• Controlling reactivity
– Participants unaware they are being observed
– Unobtrusive/nonreactive measure
• Concealing observers, observing behavior indirectly-
recording devices, examining archival data
• Can code newspaper ads, newspaper models, tv
commercials
• Possible Ethical Issues- private info versus public domain
– Habituation/Desensitization- get participants used to
observer’s presence
Important Tips to Remember when
using Observational Research
• Observer Bias- systematic errors in
observation based on observer’s
expectancies
– Expectancy Effects
• Controlling Observer Bias
– Be aware that it could exist
– Limit information provided to observers
• “Blind Observers”
 Group Exercise
• Please get into groups of four
• Design an observational study on “mate selection”
• What type of sampling will you use?
– Time, situation, subject
• No intervention (naturalistic) or intervention?
– If intervention, will you use participant observer, structured
observation, etc?
• Qualitative (comprehensive) or quantitative?
– How will you record behavior? Qualitative or scales?
• How will you reduce your data to analyzable units?
– Thematic analysis, relative frequency/descriptive statistics
• How will you increase observer reliability?
• How will you control reactivity?
• How will you control observer bias?