LECTURE 2 –
THE
ATMOSPHE
RE
SPHERES OF THE EARTH
LITOSPHERE
made up of all the hard
and solid land mass on
the earth’s surface
includes the upper
portion of the mantle and
the crust
HYDROSPHER
E
includes all the gaseous,
liquid, and solid water of
Earth
stretches all the way from the
Earth’s surface downward for
several kilometres into the
lithosphere and high above
the crust into the atmosphere
water covers 70% of the
Earth
BIOSPHERE
composes all living
things on the planet
includes humans,
animals, plants and
microorganisms
ATMOSPHERE
body of air which surrounds our planet
cannot separate ourselves from air – may be
able to survive a few days without water and
food but would die in a matter of minutes
without air
Earth without an atmosphere would have no
clouds, lakes or oceans
be unbearably hot during the day and
freezing cold at night
atmosphere protects us from the scorching
rays of the sun and provides a mixture of
gases that allows life to exist
SPHERE INTERACTION EXAMPLE: THE WATER CYCLE
many interaction among the four spheres
water cycle models the storage and
movement of water between the 4 spheres
water evaporates from the surface of the
earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools and
condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and
falls again to the surface as precipitation
water falling on land collects in rivers and
lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, and
much of it flows back into the oceans, where it
will once more evaporate
cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere
is a significant aspect of the weather patterns
THE EVOLUTION OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
Earth’s atmosphere has not always been as habitable as today
Early atmosphere (4.6 billion years ago) – mostly hydrogen and helium, some methane
and ammonia
Earth was molten and hot – many volcanoes
Second atmosphere developed from volcanic activity (outgassing) – nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour (helium, hydrogen escaped to space)
Water vapour condenses into clouds, rain and formation of rivers, lakes, oceans
Carbon dioxide dissolves into oceans, locked into rocks (chemical and biological
processes)
Nitrogen dominates
Sun rays split water vapour into Hydrogen and Oxygen (Hydrogen escapes to space)
Plant growth added more oxygen – formation of ozone layer
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COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Earth’s atmosphere is unique
no other planet has an
atmosphere with the exact
mixture of gases to sustain life
gases that make up Earth’s
atmosphere are vital to our
existence
Nitrogen and Oxygen make up
99% of the volume of clean, dry
air – no effect on the weather
PLANETS
EARTH
The Goldilocks Planet
Composition: 78% Nitrogen,
21% Oxygen, 1% other gases
(Argon, CO₂, etc.).
Pressure: 1013.25 hPa (at sea
level).
MARS
VENUS Temperature Range: -89°C to
The Thin and Cold Neighbor
The Greenhouse Giant 56°C (varies with altitude and
location). Composition: 95% Carbon
Composition: 96.5% Carbon Dioxide, 3% Nitrogen, 1.6%
Dioxide (CO₂), 3.5% Nitrogen, Unique Feature: Supports life
Argon, traces of Oxygen and
traces of Sulfuric Acid. due to the perfect balance of
Water Vapor.
Pressure: 9,200 hPa (90 times gases, liquid water, and a
protective ozone layer. Pressure: 6.36 hPa (less than 1%
Earth’s pressure!). of Earth’s pressure).
Temperature: ~465°C (hot Temperature: -125°C to 20°C
enough to melt lead!). (extremely cold, with occasional
Unique Feature: Runaway "warm" spots).
greenhouse effect – CO₂ traps Unique Feature: Thin
heat, making Venus the hottest atmosphere with frequent dust
planet in the solar system. storms that can cover the entire
CARBON DIOXIDE
efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth –
influences the heating of the atmosphere
percentage has been rising steadily for more
than a century – burning of fossil fuels
some is absorbed by the waters of the ocean or
used by plants, but >40% remains in the air
second half of 21st century – CO2 twice as high
as pre-industrial levels
increased concentrations led to warming of
atmosphere over the past several decades and
will continue to do so in the decades to come
WATER VAPOUR
varies from 0% to 4%
cold, dry arctic regions – < 1%
humid, tropical regions – 4%
source of all clouds and precipitation
potent greenhouse gas because it strongly absorbs a portion of Earth’s
outgoing radiant energy
when water changes from one state to another, it absorbs or releases
heat – latent heat (an important source of atmospheric energy,
especially for storms)
OZONE
form of oxygen that combines 3
oxygen atoms into each molecule
very little ozone in the atmosphere
– concentrated in the stratosphere
crucial to us – absorbs the
potentially harmful UV radiation
anything that reduces the amount
of ozone in the atmosphere could
affect the well-being of life on Earth
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AEROSOLS
movements of the atmosphere keep a large quantity of
solid and liquid particles (aerosols) suspended within it
originate from many sources (natural and human
made)
most numerous in the lower atmosphere near their
primary source, Earth’s surface
many act as surfaces on which water vapour may
condense – formation of clouds and fog
can absorb or reflect incoming solar radiation
contribute to optical phenomenon – the varied hues of
red and orange at sunrise and sunset
STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
atmosphere begins at Earth’s surface and
extends upwards
no clear boundary where it ends and outer
space begins
thins as you travel away from Earth
can travel for thousands of kilometres in
any horizontal direction, but if we move
above eight kilometres (vertical), we would
suffocate
almost 99% lies within 30km of the Earth’s
surface
VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
examine the atmosphere in the vertical – can be divided into a
series of layers
Each layer may be defined in a number of ways:
the manner in which the air temperature varies through it
its gaseous composition
its electrical properties
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Definition: amount of force exerted on surface by the air
above it
atmospheric (air) pressure always decreases with
increasing height – rapidly at first, then more slowly at
higher levels
sea level – atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly,
whereas at high levels it decreases more slowly
sea-level the pressure is near 1000 mb, at 5.5 km
reduced to 500 mb (50% of all the molecules in the
atmosphere)
summit of Mt Everest (9km) – air pressure 300 mb (70%
of all the molecules)
altitude of about 50 km – air pressure is about 1 mb,
99.9% of all air molecules are below this level
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
bottom layer in which we live
extends from the surface up to ~ 11 km – contains all of the
weather
lots of movement of air molecules – rising and descending air
currents
air temp decreases from surface to 11km – sunlight warms the
earth’s surface and that warms the air
rate at which the air temp decreases with height – lapse rate
(6.5°C for every 1000 m rise in elevation)
lapse rate varies from day to day and season to season
STRATOSPHERE
boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere – tropopause
air temperature stops decreasing with height and the lapse rate is
zero
temperature at first remains nearly constant to a height of about 20
km before it begins a sharp increase (temp inversion) – continues until
the stratopause (50 km)
higher temperatures because of the high concentration of ozone –
absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
inversion region keeps vertical currents from troposphere spreading to
stratosphere – reduces vertical motion in the stratosphere (stratified
layer)
MESOSPHERE
temperature decreases with height until
the meospause (80 km) – partly because
there is very little ozone
temperature reaches as low as -90 0C
mesosphere is the coldest part of the
atmosphere
air here is extremely thin and the
atmospheric pressure is quite low
THERMOSPHERE
contains only a tiny fraction of the
atmosphere’s mass
few atoms and molecules – absorption of a
small amount of solar energy can cause a
large increase in air temperature (> 1500
0
C)
molecules move over 1km before colliding
with another molecule
space satellites and shuttles often found
here
charged particles from the sun interact with
air molecules to produce aurora displays
region where atoms and molecules shoot off
into space is sometimes referred to as the
exosphere – the upper limit of our
atmosphere
HOMOSPHERE AND HETEROSPHERE
atmosphere can also be divided into layers based on its composition
Homosphere is the part of the atmosphere where gases are well mixed
due to turbulence
This includes the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere
Heterosphere is the part of the atmosphere where gases are not well
mixed
usually happens above the mesopause where distance between particles
is large due to low density – collisions between atoms and molecules
infrequent
causes the atmosphere to stratify with heavier gases like oxygen and
nitrogen present in the lower layers and lighter gases like hydrogen and
helium in the upper layers
IONOSPHERE
not really a layer – electrified region within the upper
atmosphere
Stretches from the thermosphere to the exosphere
(100 km – 700 km)
large concentrations of ions and free electrons exist
Responsible for radio propagation by reflecting radio
waves back to the Earth’s surface thereby enabling
long-distance communication
Plays an important part in atmospheric electricity (like
lightning)
Responsible for auroras
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QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
List the layers of the atmosphere, in order, from the earth’s surface to
‘space’.
Explain how the atmosphere “protects” inhabitants at Earth’s surface.
How has Earth’s atmosphere changed over time?
List the four most abundant gases in today’s atmosphere.
In which layer can ozone be found? What is the main function of ozone?
Why does air pressure always decrease with increasing height?
Briefly describe how the air temperature changes from Earth’s surface
to the lower thermosphere.
What is the ionosphere and where is it located?
