PRE-AP CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 10
THE STATES OF MATTER
Kinetic theory- The tiny
particles in all forms of matter
are in constant motion.
Kinetic theory of gases- valid
only at extremely low density
1. A gas is composed of particles,
usually molecules or atoms
• Hard spheres
• Negligible volume
• Particles are far apart
• No attractive or repulsive forces exist between
particles
2.The particles in a gas move
rapidly in constant random
motion.
3.All collisions are perfectly
elastic.
The average speed of an O2
molecule is 1656 km/hr!!!
Kinetic energy (KE)- the
energy an object has because of
its motion
When a gas is heated, it absorbs
thermal energy. Some of this
energy is converted to KE to
increase the motion of particles.
Average KE of a gas is
proportional to the Kelvin
temperature. Particles at 200K
have twice the KE of particles at
100K.
The Kelvin temp scale is used
because 0K (absolute zero) is the
temp at which all motion ceases.
Gas Pressure- the result of
simultaneous collisions of
billions of gas particles on an
object
Atmospheric pressure-
• results from the collisions of air
molecules with objects
• Decreases with an increase in
elevation because the atmospheric
gases are less dense
Barometer-
instrument used to
measure
atmospheric
pressure
SI unit of pressure- pascal (Pa)
Standard atmospheric pressure =
101.3 kilopascals (kPa)
1 mm Hg = pressure needed to support a
column of mercury 1 mm high
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1 atm
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr =101.3 kPa
STP = 1 atm and 0 C
o
Avogadro’s Hypothesis- Equal
volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure have
equal numbers of particles.
Liquids and solids are condensed
states of matter.
Liquids and gases flow.
Particles of a liquid are held
together by weak attractive
forces.
http://intro.chem.okstate.edu/1515SP01/Lecture/Chapter12/PLMPhase.htm
Vaporization- the conversion of
a liquid to a gas or vapor below
its boiling point
Evaporation-
• Vaporization in an open container
• Highest energy (hottest) particles
escape, leaving the cooler ones behind
• Evaporation rate increases when heated
• Cooling process
Vapor pressure(VP)-
• pressure produced in a closed
container by vapor particles
colliding with the walls
• As temperature increases, vp
increases
Dynamic equilibrium
rate of evaporation =
rate of condensation
Section 4 Changes of State
Chapter 10
Measuring the Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
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Section 4 Changes of State
Chapter 10
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure of a Liquid,
continued
Every liquid has a specific equilibrium vapor pressure at
a given temperature.
All liquids have characteristic forces of attraction
between their particles.
Volatile liquids are liquids that evaporate readily.
They have relatively weak forces of attraction
between their particles.
example: ether
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Section 4 Changes of State
Chapter 10
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure of a Liquid,
continued
Nonvolatile liquids do not evaporate readily.
They have relatively strong attractive forces
between their particles.
example: molten ionic compounds
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Boiling Point (BP)-
• The temperature at which the vp of the
liquid equals the external pressure
• Normal bp = bp at 1 atm
• Mountains= low bp
• Pressure cooker = high bp
• The temperature of a liquid never exceeds
its bp.
Melting Point (MP)-
• The temperature at which a solid
changes into a liquid (vapor pressure of
solid and liquid are equal)
• Vibrations are strong enough to
overcome attractive forces
• Melting point = freezing point
• Ionic solids= high melting point
(strong attractive forces)
• Molecular solids= low melting point
(weak attractive forces)
Crystal-
• Atoms, ions or molecules are
arranged in an orderly, repeating,
3-D pattern called a crystal lattice.
• Regular shape
• crystal systems (can be used to
identify)
Unit cell- smallest group of
particles within a crystal that
retains the geometric shape of the
crystal
Carbon
Crystalline forms:
1.diamond
-tightly packed
-dense
-hard
2.graphite
-loosely packed
-low density
-soft
3.fullerenes
- includes Buckminsterfullerene
(Buckyballs), a 60 carbon sphere
Amorphous (non-crystalline
form)
4.soot
Other amorphous solids:
Rubber, plastic, asphalt, glass
Liquid Crystals- flow like liquids
but at certain temperatures, may
possess ordered crystalline structure
- consist of rod-shaped molecules
which may or may not be in layers
-change colors depending on
temperature or electrical charge
Phase Changes
---change of physical state
Ex. Melting, freezing,
evaporation, condensation,
sublimation, deposition
--The temperature of a substance
does not change during a phase
change.
Sublimation-
Change of a solid to a gas
without going through the liquid
phase
Deposition is the opposite
Ex. Iodine, ice cube
“shrinkage”, freeze drying,
freezer burn
Phase Diagrams- A plot of
temperature vs. pressure,
showing the state of matter that is
stable under each set of
conditions
The Phase Diagram for Water
Diagrams of
Various Heating
Experiments
Describe the
changes occurring
in each
experiment.
The Phase
Diagram for
Carbon
Dioxide
Triple Point- temp and pressure
at which the gas, liquid, and solid
phase all exist in equilibrium
Critical Temperature- temp
above which the vapor cannot be
liquefied
Critical Pressure- pressure
required to change the vapor to a
liquid at the critical temp
Critical Point- Critical temp
and critical pressure
Energy and Phase Changes-
Heat of fusion- amount of heat
required to melt one gram of a solid
at its melting point.
For H2O = 80 cal/g or 6.01 kJ/mol
Heat of solidification- amount
of heat given up as one gram of
liquid changes to a solid at its
melting point
= heat of fusion
Heat of vaporization- amount of
heat required to change 1 g of a
liquid to a gas at its boiling point at
1 atm.
For H2O = 540 cal/g or 40.7 kJ/mol
Section 4 Changes of State
Chapter 10
Boiling, continued
Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization, continued
Each liquid has a characteristic molar enthalpy of
vaporization.
Water has an unusually high molar enthalpy of vaporization
due to hydrogen bonding in liquid water.
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Heat of condensation- amount
of heat released when 1 g of a
gas condenses to a liquid at its
BP.
= heat of vaporization
Section 4 Changes of State
Chapter 10
Changes of State
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Structure of Water
Water molecules consist of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen united by polar-covalent bonds.
The molecules in solid or liquid water are linked by
hydrogen bonding.
The number of linked molecules decreases with
increasing temperature.
Ice consists of water molecules in the hexagonal
arrangement.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Structure of Water, continued
The hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid
water at 0.°C are fewer and more disordered than
those between molecules of ice at the same
temperature.
Liquid water is denser than ice.
As the temperature approaches the boiling point,
groups of liquid water molecules absorb enough
energy to break up into separate molecules.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Ice and Water
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Heating Curve for Water
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Water
At room temperature, pure liquid water is transparent,
odorless, tasteless, and almost colorless.
The molar enthalpy of fusion of ice is relatively large
compared with the molar enthalpy of fusion of other
solids.
Water expands in volume as it freezes, because its
molecules form an open rigid structure.
This lower density explains why ice floats in liquid
water.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Water, continued
Both the boiling point and the molar enthalpy of
vaporization of water are high compared with those of
nonpolar substances of comparable molecular mass.
The values are high because of the strong hydrogen
bonding that must be overcome for boiling to occur.
Steam (vaporized water) stores a great deal of energy
as heat.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Water, continued
Sample Problem A
How much energy is absorbed when 47.0 g of
Ice melts at STP? How much energy is absorbed
when this same mass of liquid water boils?
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Water, continued
Sample Problem A Solution
Given: mass of H2O(s) = 47.0 g;
mass of H2O(l) = 47.0 g;
molar enthalpy of fusion of ice = 6.009 kJ/mol;
molar enthalpy of vaporization = 40.79 kJ/mol
Unknown: energy absorbed when ice melts;
energy absorbed when liquid water boils
Solution:
Convert the mass of water from grams to moles.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Water, continued
Sample Problem A Solution, continued
Use the molar enthalpy of fusion of a solid to calculate the amount of
energy absorbed when the solid melts.
Calculate the amount of energy absorbed when water boils by using
the molar enthalpy of vaporization.
2.61 mol × 6.009 kJ/mol = 15.7 kJ (on melting)
2.61 mol × 40.79 kJ/mol = 106 kJ (on vaporizing or
boiling)
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
The Importance of Water to Living Things
The unique properties of water make it an important part
of supporting life on Earth.
• Ice floats on water. Therefore, aquatic life is
not threatened even when surface
temperatures drop below freezing.
• Water absorbs a large amount of heat.
Oceans and other large bodies of water,
therefore, can absorb and then radiate heat
from the sun and so moderate climate.
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Section 5 Water
Chapter 10
The Importance of Water to Living Things, continued
• Water stays a liquid over a wide range of
temperatures and pressures. Since living
things depend on and contain a lot of water,
living things can survive under many
conditions.
• Water can dissolve many different
substances and can transport them to the
cells of living things.
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