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PATTERNS in NATURE
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of: 1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE 2. CHEMICALS MOVE IN & OUT THROUGH MEMBRANES 3. NUTRITION IN PLANTS & ANIMALS 4. GAS EXCHANGE & INTERNAL TRANSPORT 5. CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH & REPAIR
SYSTEM.
Finally, all the body systems working together form... YOU - a functioning, multicellular organism.
Cytoplasm is a jelly-l like liquid which fills the cell
Membrane on the outside contains the cell , and controls what goes in or out
Cell
& Chemistry
In this topic you will study the basics of the structure and functioning of living things. structure
Plants and animals have cells with a few important differences. Organisms such as fungi are different again, while bacteria have a totally different cell structure.
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Cell Division
Cell Chemicals
PATTERNS in NATURE
Digestion in Animals
Mitosis
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Electron Microscope
beam of electrons focused by magnetic fields
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1676 van Leeuwenhoek used a very simple microscope, but it was equipped with an excellent lens, through which he saw living micro-organisms swimming around in a drop of water. Over the next 150 years, microscopes improved, and it was suspected that cells were present in all living things. Robert Brown, 1827 Brown was the first to discover structures inside cells. He discovered and described the nucleus inside plant cells. By about 1840, the Cell Theory was becoming accepted by most biologists, because cells were observed in every organism studied. Louis Pasteurs discoveries showed that infectious diseases were caused by germs, which were microscopic, cellular organisms.
generally about up to 1,000,000 X 500 X. (500 times more Maximum powerful) about 2,000 X about 0.2 m about 0.0002 m (1,000 times better detail)
micrometres (m)
1 m = 0.000001(10-6)metre.
Rudolf Virchow, 1859 and Walther Flemming, 1879 Between them, these two German scientists clarified the process of cell division, by which cells produce more cells. This established the principle that all cells come from pre-existing cells. In the 20th century, the electron microscope opened up our knowledge of the fine detail of cell structures and their functions. 3
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NUCLEUS
There are probably no actual cells which looks just like these. Real shapes vary greatly.
CELL MEMBRANE
Chloroplast internal structure Stacks of flat membranes (grana) contain the chlorophyll
This is not only the boundary of the cell, but also controls what goes in or out of the cell. This is studied in more detail in the next section.
The ATP produced by respiration carries chemical energy all over the cell to power all the processes of life. The mitochondria are therefore, the power stations of the cell, converting the energy of food into the readily usable form of ATP.
MITOCHONDRION Outer membrane
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Membranes
Inside a mitochondrion is a folded membrane with many projections (cristae). This structure provides a greater surface area, where the enzymes (control chemicals) for respiration are attached in correct sequence for the steps of the process.
The E.R. structure provides channels for chemicals and messengers to travel accurately to the correct locations, and for chemical production to occur in isolation from other operations.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic plant cells. The electron microscope has revealed that the chloroplast is not just a bag of chlorophyll, but has an organized internal structure which makes its functioning more efficient. CHLOROPLAST
Stroma zone Lysosomes form this way
The Golgi Apparatus is a semi-circular arrangement of membranes which are concerned with packaging chemicals into small membrane sacs (vesicles) for storage or secretion. Curved GOLGI BODY
membrane sacs
One type of vesicle produced by a Golgi Body is the Lysosome. These membrane sacs contain digestive enzymes which can destroy any foreign proteins which enter the cell. Lysosome enzymes also rapidly digest the contents of a cell which has died, so that your body can clean up the remains and replace the dead cell.
The grana are stacked membrane sacs containing chlorophyll, which absorbs the light energy for photosynthesis. This lightcapturing step is kept separate from the stroma zone, where the chemical reactions to make food are completed.
List 5 additional organelles normally only visible with an electron microscope. (p)........................................ q)......................................... r).......................................... s).......................................... (t)......................................... Complete these lists to describe the functions of the organelles. Function Organelle Cell membrane (u) (v) Partitions cell into channels & compartments (w) Cellular respiration. Photosynthesis (z)
(m).........................
(j).................................
(k).................................
(l).................................
(inside (k)
Which TWO parts of this plant cell would definitely never be seen in an animal cell? (n)........................................ and (o)..................................
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES Practice Questions for this section are included in Worksheet 3
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INORGANIC CHEMICALS
These include small simple molecules like water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as mineral ions such as calcium, nitrate, phosphate, chloride, etc. Although these are often considered of lesser importance, you should remember that all living things are 75%- 95% water.
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
Organic chemicals are based on the element carbon, which can form chains, rings and networks and so build the very complex molecules needed to make a living cell. Many are polymers made by joining together many smaller molecules. There are four main categories to know about...
LIPIDS
CARBOHYDRATES
include the sugars and starch.
All cell membranes are built from lipid & protein. Lipids are used as a way to store excess energy food. Carbohydrates can be converted to fat for storage.
monosaccharides
polysaccharides (poly = many) are huge molecules made from thousands of sugar molecules joined in chains or networks. Examples are: Starch... made by plants, to store excess sugar. Glycogen... made by animals, to store sugar. Cellulose... made by plants as a structural chemical. The CELL WALL of a plant cell is made from cellulose. Disaccharide
Monosaccharide sugar molecules sugar
PROTEINS
are the main structural chemicals of organelles, cells, bone, skin & hair. Life is built from protein. Proteins are polymers, made from amino acid molecules joined in chains.
Uses of Carbohydrates
Sugars are energy chemicals. Glucose is made by plants in photosynthesis, and is the fuel for cellular respiration to make ATP to power all cells. Starch & Glycogen are polymer molecules used to store sugars as a food reserve. Starch is the main nutrient chemical in the plant foods we eat. Cellulose & Lignin are polymers of sugar used by plants structurally. Cellulose makes the tough cell wall of all plant cells. Lignin is a strong material used to reinforce the walls of veins in plants. Preliminary Biology Topic 2 Patterns in Nature copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
NUCLEIC ACIDS
are the most complex of all. DNA is the genetic information of every cell. RNA is the messenger sent out from the nucleus to control all cell activities. DNA is a huge polymer of sugars, phosphate and bases coiled in a double helix shape. 8
Starch
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Outside of cell
Protein
You will have used one or more tests on living tissue and examined the cells with a microscope. For Example: if tissue scraped from a fresh potato is mounted on a slide with a simple contrast stain (like methylene blue) the cells look like this:
Inside of cell Double layer of phospholipid molecules
POTATO CELLS
Organelles faintly visible Cell walls
Two layers of phospholipids form each membrane. The molecules cling to each other, and line up with their hydrophilic ends outwards. The water-loving ends are attracted to the watery environment both inside and outside the cell. Their hydrophobic ends are repelled from the watery surroundings, and cling together inside the membrane itself. It is like a thin layer of oil floating on water. It is fluid and flexible, but clings together forming an unbroken skin on the surface. Other molecules are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. They are mostly proteins, many with carbohydrates attached.
Membrane proteins
If a drop of iodine solution is added, the same cells change as shown: POTATO CELLS WITH IODINE
Organelles turn black This indicates the presence of starch inside the organelles (these are storage vacuoles)
Once you have an understanding of the main chemicals that cells are made from, you need to realize that all of these substances, or their raw materials or waste products, are constantly moving in or out of a living cell.
These other molecules have various functions: receptors for messenger chemicals. identification markers, so your body knows its own cells from any foreign invaders. to help chemicals get through the membrane. 9
Diffusion
Diffusion occurs in every liquid or gas because the atoms and molecules are constantly moving. The particles jiggle about at random in what is called Brownian motion. (Named for its discoverer Robert Brown, the same man who discovered the cell nucleus.) Imagine a water solution containing a dissolved chemical, but it is NOT evenly distributed... it is more concentrated in one place than elsewhere. As the molecules jiggle about at random, they will automatically spread out to make the concentration even out. This process is called DIFFUSION.
High concentration To start with, the dissolved material is not evenly distributed.
In a living cell, there is often a concentration gradient from the outside to the inside of the cell. For example, because a cell keeps consuming oxygen for cellular respiration, the inside of the cell usually has a low concentration of O2 dissolved in the water of the cytoplasm. On the outside, there may be a lot of O2.
DIFFUSION of SMALL MOLECULES into a CELL If the molecules can cross the membrane, diffusion will cause them to move from higher to lower concentration. Higher concentration outside cell Lower concentration inside
Lower concentration Diffusion causes the dissolved solute to spread out uniformly.
DIFFUSION DRIVES MOLECULES THROUGH THE MEMBRANES along the concentration gradient.
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Osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which occurs when the concentration gradient involves dissolved molecules or ions which CANNOT get through the membrane. For example, consider a cell which is The opposite situation can also happen. surrounded by a solution containing a lot A cells cytoplasm contains many of dissolved sugar. The sugar cannot dissolved chemicals. If the outside diffuse through the membrane to equalize environment around the cell is more the concentrations. In such a situation, watery (less concentrated in dissolved water (which can go through the substances) then osmosis will cause membrane) will diffuse toward the high water to diffuse inwards. H2O Dissolved chemicals sugar concentration, as if attempting to H2O cannot diffuse out... equalize by diluting the sugar. OSMOSIS
High concentration of sugar outside cell Water diffuses OUT of cell
H2O H2O
H2O Sugar cannot get in through the membrane ...so water diffuses into the cell. H2O
In this case, the cell will lose water and might shrink and shrivel up. This can be a problem for animals living in salt water.
This is how plants absorb water into their roots, even when the soil seems almost dry.
This can cause cells to pump up with water and helps maintain their shape. It can also cause problems for organisms living in fresh water environments.
Cells have other ways to deliberately move substances across the membrane apart from diffusion and osmosis. One such process involves the membrane proteins carrying things. These other ways to transport materials across membranes require the cell to use energy (ATP from cellular respiration) to move substances. We say these are active transport processes. You do not need to know the details at this stage. 11
1 unit sides
2 unit sides
Surface Area: Six squares, each 1x1 SA = 6x1x1 = 6 sq.units Volume = lxbxh = 1x1x1 = 1 cu.unit Ratio of SA to Volume SA/V = 6 / 1
Surface Area: Six squares, each 2x2 SA = 6x2x2 = 24 sq.units Volume = lxbxh = 2x2x2 = 8 cu.unit Ratio of SA to Volume SA/V = 24 / 8
Surface Area: Six squares, each 3x3 SA = 6x3x3 = 54 sq.units Volume = lxbxh = 3x3x3 = 27 cu.unit Ratio of SA to Volume SA/V = 54 / 27
Surface Area: Six squares, each 4x4 SA = 6x4x4 = 96 sq.units Volume = lxbxh = 4x4x4 = 64 cu.unit Ratio of SA to Volume SA/V = 96 / 64
SA = 6 vol
SA = 3 vol
SA = 2 vol
SA = 1.5 vol
Notice that as the cubes get larger: Surface Area increases, and... Volume increases, but... SA / Vol Ratio DECREASES, because the volume grows faster than the surface area. This pattern is the same for any shape... as any shaped object gets bigger, the ratio between its Surface Area and its Volume gets smaller. Whats this got to do with cells? The amount of food, oxygen or other substances a cell needs depends on its volume... the bigger the cell, the more it needs according to its volume.
But, all cells have to get whatever they need in through their cell membrane, and the size of the membrane is all about surface area. As any cell gets bigger, it becomes more and more difficult for it to get enough food, water and oxygen because its SA/Vol. ratio keeps shrinking. Getting rid of waste products also becomes more difficult. Large cells are impossible... all singlecelled organisms are microscopic, and all larger organisms are multi-cellular. The only way to be big is to have lots of small cells. Cells must feed their Volume, through their Surface Area
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Worksheet 2
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8. A food substance, which may be a mixture of various organic chemicals, was tested with the following results: Iodine solution gave a yellow, brown colour. Biuret reagent gave a purple colour. Benedicts reagent resulted in a pale blue colour. From these results you would conclude that the food contains: A. protein, but no starch or sugar. B. starch, but no protein or sugar. C. sugar and protein, but no starch. D. sugar and starch, but no protein.
10. (2 marks) Using either the nucleus or mitochondrion as your example, discuss the way that the structure of the organelle relates to its function.
11. (4 marks) Using examples, discuss the difference between the organic & inorganic chemicals found in living cells.
12 (2 marks) The cell membrane is described as being semipermeable. Explain what this means.
13. (4 marks) Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis, identifying what substances are involved and the direction of movement (compared to any concentration gradient)
14. (4 marks) Explain why all living cells have to be very small in size.
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Photosynthesis in Plants
All plants make their own food from the simple, low-energy raw materials water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) using the energy of sunlight, to make the high-energy sugar glucose (C6H12O6), with oxygen gas (O2) as a by-product.
green pigment in chloroplasts of plant cells
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN
ligh te ner gy
ATP
chlorophyll
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN
from soil
from air
to air
What is really happening is ENERGY FLOW through the food chains of an ecosystem. Photosynthesis captures the energy of light and stores it in a high energy food compound like glucose. Cellular respiration releases that stored energy in the form of ATP which can power all cellular and life activities... growing, moving, keeping warm etc. As you learned in Topic 1, in all ecosystems there is a constant input and flow of energy via the food chains, while the chemicals such as H2O, O2, and CO2 simply get re-cycled over and over.
6H2O
6CO2
C6H12O6
6O2
This brief summary equation is very deceptive. Photosynthesis actually occurs as a complex series of chemical steps inside the chloroplast. There are 2 main stages, which take place in different parts of the chloroplast, as summarized below. PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the CHLOROPLAST
ligh t
Phase 1 In the grana, chlorophyll absorbs light energy and uses it to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
Phase 2 In the stroma, a cycle of reactions builds glucose from CO2 and the hydrogen from water
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Glucose can also be converted chemically into lipids... fats and oils, since they contain exactly the same chemical elements (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen only - CHO). GLUCOSE LIPIDS (oils)
Making proteins and nucleic acids is more difficult, since these contain additional chemical elements, especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. This is where the minerals such as nitrate, phosphate and sulfate come in. Soil minerals are often called plant nutrients, and a gardener may say he/she is feeding the plants when applying fertilizer, but these minerals are NOT food. They are the essential ingredients needed so plants can make proteins and DNA etc, from the real food... glucose.
In fact, plants convert glucose to STARCH so rapidly that the chloroplasts in a plant leaf become packed with starch grains when it is photosynthesising. THIS IS THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTS YOU MAY HAVE DONE
Lig ht
Experimental Set-u up
After several days, the leaf is decolourized (so the test can be seen more easily) and then tested with IODINE solution. Why Iodine? It detects STARCH, not glucose. As explained above, the glucose produced by photosynthesis is immediately converted to starch. The iodine test is used because it is the test for starch.
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Soil minerals
Amino acids
PROTEIN
GLUCOSE
chemical conversion
Polymerisation
Result
Iodine test shows lots of starch here
Sure enough, you probably found that any part of the leaf exposed to light turned black when soaked in iodine, while parts under the foil did not go black. This proves that any part of a leaf allowed to photosynthesise will build up a store of starch from the glucose it makes. The first product of photosynthesis is glucose, but it is rapidly converted to other things. 16
Structure & Function... How Plants Get Water & Carbon Dioxide
In order to photosynthesise, plants must collect water and carbon dioxide. In a land plant, water is collected by the roots from the soil, and carbon dioxide is collected from the air into the leaves. Both roots and leaves require special structures to gather these vital chemicals. Plants Absorb Water through special outgrowths on the roots called root hairs. Each root hair is part of one, very elongated cell. Root hairs help absorption of water by greatly increasing the surface area of the root in contact with the soil.
MICROSCOPIC VIEW NEAR A ROOT TIP LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE SECTION SECTION
XYLEM TUBES
The actual absorption of water is achieved by osmosis. The cell cytoplasm has a higher solute concentration than the water solution in the soil, so water diffuses into the cell through the cell membrane of the root hair cells. Once absorbed into the root hair cells, water diffuses from cell to cell towards the central xylem tubes which carry the water (and dissolved minerals) upwards to the leaves. This upward flow is achieved by the plant constantly allowing water vapour to evaporate from each leaf (Transpiration). This creates a suction at the top of the xylem tube, rather like drinking through a straw. Alongside the xylem tubes are the phloem tubes which carry food from the leaves to any part of the plant which cannot photosynthesize... especially down to the roots. Together the xylem and phloem tubes form the veins in a plant. They not only carry substances around the plant, but are important as reinforcement and support structures.
Phloem tubes
ROOT HAIRS
Epidermis layer
The more finely divided a solid is, the greater its surface area, so the powder has more surface area than the lumps. This experiment demonstrates the principle that things happen faster when more surface area is available for reaction or absorption.
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The veins contain xylem tubes for carrying water and minerals up from the roots, and phloem tubes for carrying manufactured food away. Being specially reinforced with tough lignin, the veins also support the flimsy leaf, and keep it in shape and positioned to catch maximum light.
The Palisade Layer of cells are tightly packed in an orderly row immediately under the top epidermis where there is maximum light. Each cell contains many chloroplasts. This is the engine room for photosynthesis.
The epidermis layer of cells is transparent like a window, to let light through to the cells underneath. Veins run throughout each leaf. The xylem tubes bring water and minerals from the roots and release them into the spongy layer. From there, some diffuses into the cells for photosynthesis, while the rest evaporates through the stomates. There are phloem tubes as well, which collect the food manufactured in the leaf cells and carry it away to feed other parts of the plant, such as roots, stem and flowers which might not be able to photosynthesise. Veins also act as reinforcing, helping to keep the flimsy leaf deployed to catch maximum light.
The Spongy Layer has very loosely packed cells, with lots of spaces around them. This allows gases (CO2 & O2) and water to easily move around by diffusion. The lower leaf surface has many openings, called stomates. These allow: water to evaporate from the leaf (Transpiration). This ensures that water and minerals continue to be sucked up from the roots. CO2 to diffuse into the leaf for photosynthesis. O2 to diffuse out of the leaf into the air. A magnified surface view of a stomate is shown.
magnified and rotated to surface view
Each stomate pore is an opening formed between two special guard cells. These cells can change shape to open the pore, or close it up to minimize water loss in dry conditions. The guard cells change shape by using osmosis to either pump-up full of water (pore open), or deflate and shrivel (pore closed).
Pore opening
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Nutrition in Animals
Animals are Heterotrophs. They must eat energy-rich food made by other organisms, either plants or other animals. The food an animal eats is composed largely of complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats which must be digested before being absorbed into the body and used by the cells. Digestion involves chemically breaking large molecules down into smaller units which can be carried around the body and transported across cell membranes.
Starch molecule
ENZYME
Sugar molecules
ENZYME
Protein molecule
Chewing the food begins the digestion process. Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces with greater surface area, so digestive enzymes can attack it faster.
Liver receives and processes digested nutrients after they are absorbed into blood stream. Gall bladder adds bile to dissolve fats so enzymes can digest them. Small Intestine completes digestion with a cocktail of enzymes, then absorbs nutrients into the blood stream. Inside, it has many folds or villi which increase surface area for absorption.
Stomach churns food with acid. Enzymes digest proteins in food Pancreas adds a cocktail of enzymes to futher digest food Large Intestine absorbs water, vitamins & minerals into blood stream.
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Digestion in Herbivores
Plant-eaters face a problem... a lot of plant material has a low nutrient value and contains a lot of fibrous matter which is difficult to digest. The fibre is mostly the plant cell walls, made of cellulose... a polymer of glucose, but animals lack the necessary digestive enzymes to break the cellulose down. Herbivores usually have: flat, grinding teeth to chew the food thoroughly to increase the surface area exposed to enzymes. relatively long intestines and caecum, for more surface area and longer time available for digestion. bacteria living in their gut which have enzymes to digest cellulose. This is an example of mutualism.
Huge Caecum
Digestion in Carnivores
Flesh eaters dont need such huge digestive systems. Their food is much more concentrated in its nutritional value, and relatively easy to digest. Carnivores usually have: sharp, tearing teeth to cut flesh into chunks for swallowing... chewing is not so important. relatively short intestines. a highly elastic stomach, which allows them to swallow a large meal. The stomach acid and enzymes are vital for digesting their high protein meat diet.
Shorter intestines
Grinding teeth
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Worksheet 4
Fill in the blanks.
Nutrition in Plants
Amino acids can then be joined together to form (p).................................. The structures mainly responsible for absorbing water into a plant are the (q)....................................... which are outgrowths of root cells and greatly increase the (r)........................................ of the roots. Water is absorbed by the process of (s)............................................ then transported up to the leaves through (t).................................. tubes. In a leaf, there are many examples of structure matching function, such as: The shape of the leaf gives maximum surface area for (u).................................... The (v)................................................ layer of cells, packed together & full of chloroplasts for maximum photosynthesis. The spongy layer of loosely packed cells to allow (w)........................................ The (x)..................................... which can open and close and allow water to evaporate (called (y)............................) and to let the gas (z).................................. in for photosynthesis. Digested nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream from the (f)........................., then carried in the blood to the (g)........................... for processing. Herbivorous animals usually have: (h)...................... teeth to chew thoroughly relatively (i)........... intestines and caecum mutualistic (j).................... living in their gut to help them digest (k)........................... which is a major part of their diet. Compared to them, carnivores usually have (l).......................... teeth and relatively (m)............................ intestines Nectar feeders, such as (n)....................... have digestive systems which are very (o).......................... and .........................
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(a)....................................... (e.g. plants) are organisms that can make their own food, while (b)................................ (such as animals) cannot. The process of photosynthesis can be summarized as (c)................. + (d).................................... (e).................. + (f)..................... Photosynthesis occurs in the (g)................................ (organelle) in plant cells. The green pigment (h).................... absorbs (i)...................... energy for the process. This energy is stored as chemical energy in the (j)................................. molecules produced. Thousands of glucose molecules can be joined together by the process of (k)..................... to form (l).......................... (used for storage) or cellulose which is used to build (m)..................................... Glucose can also be chemically converted into (n).................................. To convert sugar to amino acids, the plant needs a supply of (o)...........................................
9. (5 marks) a) Summarize the process of photosynthesis by a word equation, including the energy source.
b) Give two reasons why photosynthesis can be considered the most important biological process on Earth.
3. A structural feature which helps the functioning of the leaf is that the cells at P: A. are transparent B. are loosely packed C. contain many chloroplasts D. open up to let gases in/out 4. The guard cells are labeled A. Q B. R C. S D. T 5. Soil minerals such as nitrates, phosphates and sulfates are essential to a plant for which purpose? A. To provide energy. B. To make starch from glucose. C. As raw materials for photosynthesis. D. To make proteins from glucose. 6. In a mammalian digestive system, the main chemical digestion in the stomach involves the breakdown of: A. starch. B. protein. C. lipids. D. sugars. 7. An animal with large, flat, grinding teeth and a very large caecum (a blind pocket of the intestine) probably eats mainly: A. nectar, pollen and flowers. B. the flesh of other animals. C. plant leaves and grass. D. fish & other seafood.
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10. ( 5 marks) In experiments on photosynthesis, the presence of starch in leaves is often taken as proof that photosynthesis has taken place. a) Explain why it is starch, not glucose, that the leaves are tested for.
b) Outline the method of testing for starch in a leaf, including any preliminary treatment(s).
11. (4 marks) Discuss the relationship between structure and function shown by the leaf cell layers known as the palisade layer & the spongy layer.
12. (3 marks) Briefly outline how the length and complexity of an animals digestive system is related to its diet. Refer to 3 different types of diets in your answer.
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Lungs in a Mammal
Using the human as a typical example: Lungs are not hollow, but sponge-l like
WASTE PRODUCTS such as CO2 must be excreted
A single-celled organism exchanges these chemicals with the environment directly through its cell membrane. However, in all multicellular organisms most of the cells are located deep within the body. There have to be body systems to: absorb nutrients, water and oxygen excrete wastes transport all these chemicals between the cells and the environment. In animals the body systems involved are: Digestive system absorbs nutrients and water. Respiratory system (e.g. lungs) exchanges gases, absorbing oxygen, and excreting carbon dioxide. Excretory system (kidneys) removes other wastes such as urea. Circulatory system (blood, heart, veins etc) transports all these things around the body. Plants also have systems for exchanging gases, and for transporting substances around their bodies.
Each Alveolus has a wall just 1 cell thick, and the internal surface is kept moist
Blood flow AIR flows in and out
Blood capillary
Bronchiole
O2 CO2
The lung is not just a hollow space like a balloon. If it was, the surface area for gas exchange would be about the size of this page. By dividing into millions of alveoli, the total surface area inside your lungs is about the same size as a tennis court! The inside surface is always moist, for gases to dissolve and diffuse, and each alveolus is in intimate contact with a blood capillary to transport the gases to and from the body cells.
Gills
The gills are a series of feather-like plates around which the water flows. Each gill plate consists of thousands of tiny filaments each one a thin leafshaped structure packed with blood capillaries.
BLOOD FLOW IN CAPILLARIES
WATER FLOW
Mouth and throat cavity are moist & lined with blood vessels
The frog makes up for its inefficient lungs by carrying out gas exchange through other body surfaces which are kept moist and are lined with blood vessels... its mouth and throat cavity and the skin all over its body.
Blood flow
GILL FILAMENTS
Gills have to be highly efficient, because remember from Topic 1, that the level of oxygen dissolved in aquatic environments is much lower than the concentration in air.
This system is quite efficient in a small animal, but rapidly becomes inadequate as the animal grows larger, because the Surface Area to Volume Ratio gets smaller. Thats why theres no such thing as a really big bug! Hollywood fantasies cannot actually happen.
Study each system again... mammal, frog, insect, fish and note of how each system achieves the three essential features of any gas exchange system... LARGE SURFACE AREA MOIST MEMBRANE SURFACE for diffusion CLOSE CONTACT WITH BLOOD STREAM or body cells.
Trachea The trachea tubes are moist inside for gas exchange. Gases diffuse directly to the body cells, which are never far from a trachea tube. The network of tubes increases the surface area for gas exchange.
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CO2
O2
Veins Fluid slowly collects back into veins. Wastes (but not CO2) are taken away for excretion, and blood returns to the heart.
Arteries
Veins
The open system is not very efficient, because the blood is not forced to keep flowing through blood vessels as in a closed system. However, in a small insect, with its separate gas exchange system which is not dependent on blood flow, this is obviously quite adequate... after all, insects are the most numerous animals on the planet!
Body cells receive O2 & nutrients, and get rid of CO2 & other wastes
This system is highly efficient because the blood can be kept flowing within the vessels, guaranteeing a steady flow of nutrients, gases and wastes between body cells and the outside environment. This efficiency allows vertebrates to grow very large and still function perfectly despite the poor SA/Vol ratio of a large body. Be aware that fish, amphibians and most reptiles do not have a system quite the same as a mammal, but in all cases the system is closed.
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Xylem
tubes carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Hollow, dead cells, joined end-t to-e end forming a tube
Phloem
Plants have a separate set of tubes for transporting sugars and other food nutrients; the phloem tubes. While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the phloem are living cells joined end-to-end. The ends of each cell are perforated (sieve plates) so each cell is open into the next so they form a continuous tube. The movement of food via the phloem is called Translocation. It is an active transport operation, meaning that the plant has to use energy to cause the material to flow.
PHLOEM CELL
sugars are actively transported in the cytoplasm of the cells
alive and filled with cytoplasm. Movement of cytoplasm carries sugars through each cell
The upward movement of water in xylem tubes happens without any effort by the plant... it is passive transport. The evaporation of water from the leaves through the stomates, (Transpiration) causes a suction effect at the top of each xylem tube. This draws more water from the roots.
Rate of Transpiration
You may have done experiments on transpiration to measure it, and the factors which affect its rate. A common way to do this is with a potometer:POTOMETER METHOD FOR MEASURING TRANSPIRATION Fresh plant shoots
The flow of liquid is caused by differences in osmotic pressure has many mitochondria to provide ATP to the phloem cell
Companion cell
A companion cell beside the phloem cell supplies ATP from cellular respiration to power the active transport in the phloem tube.
Rubber tube (filled with water) connects glass tube to live plant shoot
Glass tube filled with water. As Transpiration occurs from the leaves and sucks water up from below, an air bubble is sucked in at the end of the tube. A ruler gives a scale to measure rates of transpiration under different conditions.
While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the phloem system can carry food (especially sugars) in either direction. If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem will carry sugar to storage sites in roots or stem. If photosynthesis is not possible for an extended time, then the phloem will carry sugars back from the storage sites to feed the leaf cells, or supply a growing flower or fruit.
Typically it is found that the rate of transpiration is increased by higher temperatures, air flow (wind), low humidity and increased light. (The effect of light is because when lit, most plants open their stomates to get CO2 in for photosynthesis. The open stomates then allow more transpiration.)
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Lenticels
are simple structures on the stems and trucks of plants which allow gas exchange to the cells by simple diffusion from the air.
Tightly packed stem cells Surface cells
Lenticel opening
For example: If a leaf is exposed to CO2 containing carbon-14 (a radio-active isotope of carbon):
Radioactive CO2 absorbed by leaf Soon, radiation is detected in starch grains in leaf cells.
From studies like this we learn the details of the chemistry and transport systems inside living things
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Worksheet 7
Fill in the blank spaces & diagram labels. The 3 requirements for an efficient Gas Exchange system are: large (a)................................................... gas exchange membrane which is kept (b).............................. close contact with (c)....................... ...... In any gas exchange system, the gases move across the membrane by the process of (d)...........................................
(e)............................. (g)..................................... .. (h)........................ (microscopic air sacs) (f) ............................
Compared to a mammals lung, the lung of a frog is (i)......................... Frogs exchange gases through their (j)......................... and ............................... as well as lungs.
Worksheet 8
Fill in the blanks
Gases exchange in a plant occurs through the (a).................................... of the leaves, and via the (b).............................. of stems, and the (c)............................. in the roots. Xylem tubes carry (d)................................ and ........................ from (e)....................... to (f).............................. The evaporation of water from the leaves is called (g)....................................
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It is increased by factors such as (h)........................... and (i)........................ Food nutrients are carried by the (j)......................................... tubes. This transport is called (k)................................ and is considered active transport because (l)................................................. .............................. In contrast, xylem transport is (m)..................................................
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7. (4 marks) One of the main features of any respiratory system is a large surface area for gas exchange. Outline how a large surface is achieved in a a) mammal
b) frog
c) fish
d) insect
8. (4 marks) Using simple schematic diagrams, contrast the circulatory systems of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Answer on reverse. 9. (4 marks) a) Identify THREE structures in a plant which are involved in gas exchange.
b) Choose ONE of the structures listed in part (a) and describe one feature of it which aids gas exchange in the plant.
10. (4 marks) Outline the way in which technology, such as radio-isotope tracing is used to study the path of elements through a living plant or animal.
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Chromosomes have lined up in the middle of the cell. Chromosomes being pulled apart into 2 identical groups.
...more information
Genetic information is stored in the cell nucleus, as DNA. The DNA is contained like in thread-l chromosomes which are not normally visible.
The chromosomes condense together and become visible. They line up in the middle of the cell, then separate into 2 identical groups
The nuclear membrane dissolves so chromosomes can move right across the cell. They are moved by threads called the spindle which act like fishing lines, reeling them to opposite sides of the cell
Finally, the cell membrane grows to divide the cell in 2 parts, with a share of cytoplasm and organelles in each
These 3 lower diagrams show how mitosis is often drawn in textbooks, in a stylized way. If you need to sketch them, do it like this for greater clarity
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Plants
grow only at certain places meristems. These are located: known as
at the root tip. at the buds where shoots & flowers grow. in the cambium layer, between xylem & phloem. (cambium growth is how the stem/trunk gets larger)
Insects
grow differently in two distinct stages. Most insects hatch from their egg as a larva... a caterpillar, grub or maggot. The larva does not undergo cell division at all, but grows rapidly by increasing the size of each cell. (within the limits imposed by the SA/Vol ratio, of course) Next, the insect larva undergoes metamorphosis and totally changes its body plan. This is achieved by special disks of cells which begin mitosis in particular directions, each forming a different body part such as a wing, leg or vein. These disks correspond to the meristems of a plant, as special sites of mitosis.
A Final Note...
The main store of genetic material is the DNA in the nucleus, but thats not the only place in a cell where DNA is found. DNA is also located in the mitochondria, and in chloroplasts in plant cells. These organelles are able to reproduce themselves (at least in part) in mini-versions of cell division.
Nuclear DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
Chloroplast DNA
This occurrence of DNA in these two important organelles (both concerned with food & energy, and its flow in ecosystems) will be dealt with in a later topic. The evidence points to a very interesting evolutionary origin for these organelles...
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Worksheet 10
Fill in the blank spaces In a multicellular organism, cell division is necessary for (a).................................. and to replace damaged or worn out cells. Mitosis refers to the division of the (b)............................., while the division of cytoplasm into 2 cells is called (c)............................................................ Before mitosis becomes visible in a cell the genetic information (d).............................. ........... The genetic information is contained in the chemical (e).................... which is built into thread-like structures called (f)............................. The visible sequence of mitosis is: chromosomes thicken, become visible, and the nuclear membrane (g).................... chromosomes (h).................................... in the middle of the cell chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell, pulled by the threads of the (i)............................................
Cell Division
Each group of chromosomes forms a new (j)........................................................ then cytokinesis divides the cell itself. The results of cell division include that the daughter cells are genetically (k)......................................, and identical to the (l).......................... cell. Apart from the nucleus, 2 other organelles contain DNA. These are the (m).......................... and ..................................... Sites of mitosis in a plant are called (n)................... located at (o)........................, and (p)................................ as well as the cambium layer in the stem. Most insects hatch from their egg as a q)................. which grows by cell r)......................, without cell s).............................. Later, they undergo t)......................................... in which their body tissues totally u).......................................... and are re-built to form the totally different adult. During this process, cell division occurs only in special v)......................................... of cells.
Worksheet 11
Multiple Choice
1. The sketch shows some plant cells which are undergoing cell division. The correct sequence of cell division is shown by the cells A. SPQTR B. RSPTQ P C. RQPTS D. PQTSR
Q
R S
b) Contrast the general pattern of growth of a plant with that of a vertebrate animal such as a mammal.
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PATTERNS in NATURE
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Answer Section
Worksheet 1 Cell Structure
a) all living things.... b) ...pre-existing cells c) microscopes d) resolution e) electron f) magnification g) Robert Hooke h) cytoplasm i) nucleus j) chloroplast k) cell wall l) cell membrane m) vacuole n) cell wall & (o) chloroplast (p)-(t) (any order) golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes (u) controls substances going in/out of cell v) Endoplasmic reticulum w) packaging substances for storage or secretion x) mitochondria y) chloroplast z) strength/ rigidity/ protection on outside of plant cell
11. Organic chemicals are mainly complex molecules, often polymers, based on the element carbon. e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids & nucleic acids. Inorganic chemicals in living cells are small, simple molecules or mineral ions e.g. water, oxygen, nitrate & chloride ions. 12. Semi-permeable means that some chemicals can diffuse through it easily, while others cannot get through . 13. Diffusion is the movement of any solute, solvent or gas along the concentration gradient. Osmosis is the diffusion of WATER, against the concentration gradient, through a semipermeable membrane. 14. As any object gets larger, its SA/Vol ratio gets smaller. A cell needs nutrients, oxygen, etc in proportion to its volume, but must get these substances in through its cell membrane, the size of which is its surface area. Therefore, a large cell (with a smaller SA/Vol ratio) would not be able to take in necessary substances fast enough to survive.
Worksheet 2
a) inorganic b) carbon c) proteins d) membrane e) energy storage compoundsf) carbohydrates g) C6H12O6 h) photosynthesis i) cellular respiration j) DNA k) sugar (glucose) l) Biuret reagent m)yellow/brown n) black/dark blue o) phospholipid p) permeable q) high(er) r) lower s) water t) gradient u) passive v) energy or ATP w) Surface area / Volume x) volume y) cell membrane z) surface area aa) many ab) large
Worksheet 4
Plant Nutrition
Worksheet 3
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. B 8. A 9. The light scope forms images by focusing light beams with glass lenses. Electron scopes focus beams of electrons using magnetic fields. Light scopes achieve magnifications around 500X and resolution of about 0.2 um. Electron scopes are 500-1,000 times better in each department. 10. Nucleus- membrane has pores to allow RNA messengers to go out into the cell. OR Mitochondrion- inner membrane is highly folded for more surface area. The enzymes of cellular respiration are arranged on these membranes for greater efficiency.
a) Autotrophs b) heterotrophs c) carbon dioxide d) water e) glucose f) oxygen g) chloroplasts h) chlorophyll i) light j) glucose k) polymerization l) starch m) cell walls n) lipids o) minerals (inorganic ions) p) proteins q) root hairs r) surface area s) osmosis t) xylem u) light absorption v) palisade w) circulation of water & gases throughout the leaf x) stomates y) transpiration z) carbon dioxide
Worksheet 5
Animal Nutrition
a) enzymes b) sugars c) amino acids d) salivary glands, stomach, pancreas & small intestine e) surface area f) small intestine g) liver h) large & flat i) long j) bacteria k) cellulose l) sharp, tearing m) short n) hummingbirds o) short & simple
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Worksheet 6
1. B 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. C 8.Autotrophs are organisms that can make their own food. example: Plants Heterotrophs have to eat food made by other organisms. example: animals. 9. light energy a) Carbon dioxide + water
Worksheet 7
a) surface area c) blood supply e) trachea g) bronchioles i) simple/ less S.A. k) spiracles m) SA/Vol o) filaments q) counters) heart
Animals
b) moist d) diffusion f) bronchi h) alveoli j) skin & mouth/throat cavity l) trachea n) gills p) in opposite direction r) closed t) invertebrate
Glucose+ Oxygen
b) 1. It makes all the food, and is the basis of all the food chains 2. It makes all the oxygen in the atmosphere. 10. a) Although glucose is the immediate product of photosynthesis, it is rapidly polymerised to form starch. Therefore, starch is found in large quantities in a photosynthesising leaf, but very little glucose could be detected. b) First the leaf is boiled, then washed in hot alcohol to decolourise it, so colour tests can be seen. Then it can be soaked in iodine solution to test for starch. A black colour indicates the presence of starch. 11. Palisade layer: composed of cells neatly and tightly packed together under the upper epidermis where there is maximum light. Each cell is packed with chloroplasts. These features all help the palisade layer carry out maximum photosynthesis. Spongy layer: composed of cells that are very loosely packed. This allows spaces for water & gases to more easily diffuse to/from stomates & veins and so helps supply photosynthesising cells. 12. Grazing herbivores need very long intestines & large caecum, so food has more time in the gut while mutualistic bacteria digest the cellulose. Meat-eating carnivores do not need such long intestines because meat is easier to digest and more nutritious. They have shorter intestines but a stomach that can take in a large meal, less often, and digest the high protein meat. Nectar feeders (e.g. honey-eater birds) eat a diet high in sugar which needs no digesting at all. They have very simple, short systems since they only need to absorb the sugar into their bloodstream.
Worksheet 8
Plants
a) stomates b) lenticels c) root hairs d) water & minerals e) roots f) leaves g) transpiration h)& i) temperature/wind/humidity/light j) phloem k)translocation l) the plant must expend energy m) passive
Worksheet 9
1. C 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. a) b) c) Transpiration water xylem passive Translocation food nutrients (sugar) phloem active
6. Respiratory system: carries out gas exchange. Excretory system: removal of wastes. Circulatory system: transports substances around the body, including gases and wastes... therefore connects with respiratory and excretory systems. 7. a) Mammals lungs have millions of tiny air sacs (alveoli). b) Frog has very simple lungs, but increases respiratory surface by using skin, mouth and throat membranes for gas exchange as well. c) Fishs gills are made up of thousands of leafshaped filaments. Each is flat & thin, giving large contact area with water flowing past. d) Insects have microscopic, branched air tubes (trachea) that penetrate throughout their body. This gives a large area of contact with air for gas exchange. 8. The main thing is to show that vertebrates have a closed system (blood is always inside a blood vessel) while many invertebrates have open systems, where the blood leaves blood vessels and bathes the cells at some part of the circulation.
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Worksheet 9 (cont)
9. a) stomates, lenticels & root hairs b) Root hairs: these microscopic outgrowths from root cells increase the surface area available. This helps gas exchange (as well as water absorption). 10. Chemicals containing radio-active tracers are introduced into living things, and any movement is tracked by detecting the radiation produced by the radio-isotope. For example, CO2 gas, containing radio-active carbon-14, is absorbed by a plant leaf, converted to sugar and transported to storage in the roots. This movement can be studied and tracked by the radiations from the carbon-14.
Worksheet 11
1. C 2. Genetic information (DNA) is replicated. Chromosomes become visible in the nucleus. Nuclear membrane dissolves. Chromosomes line up in centre of cell. Spindle forms. Chromosomes pulled apart into 2 identical groups. Each group forms a new, identical nucleus. Cytokinesis now divides the cytoplasm & organelles into 2 separate cells. 3. a) Meristems located at root tips, buds and cambium. b) Plants grow only at the meristems, and usually grow dis-proportionally in different parts of their body. This means they may drastically change their shape & proportions as they grow. In contrast, mammals grow fairly evenly in every body part and stay more or less in proportion all their life.
Worksheet 10
Cell Division
a) growth b) nucleus c) cytokinesis d) is copied/duplicated/replicated e) DNA f) chromosomes g) dissolves h) line up i) spindle j) nucleus k) identical l) parent m) mitochondria & chloroplast n) meristems o) root tips p) shoot tips (buds) q) larva r) enlargement s) division t) metamorphosis u) break down / change v) disks
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