PRODUCED WELL FLUID IS A MIXTURE OF OIL,GAS,WATER,SOLIDS etc.

BUYERS HAVE CERTAIN REQUIREMENTS WHICH ARE TERMED AS SPECIFICATIONS FIELD PROCESSING ACHIEVES THIS BY PROCESSING THE WELL FLUID

WELLS WELL FLOW LINES RECEIVING MANIFOLD SEPARATION FACILITY STORAGE TRANSPORTATION

WELLS ARE CONNECTED TO A RECEIVING MANIFOLD BY FLOW LINES RECEIVING MANIFOLD HAS PROVISION TO DIVERT WELLS TO NECESSARY PROCESSING SYSTEM RECEIVING MANIFOLD CAN BE DESIGNED TO SPECIFIC REQUIREMENT DEPENDING UPON TYPE OF WELL FLUID

PROCESSING FACILITY COMPRISES OF: separation facility to separate oil, gas and water treatment of produced water, solids(if any) for their disposal auxiliaries like power generation, compressors, pumps, instrumentation, safety systems, fire fighting system

emergency systems means of evacuation etc. requirement will differ for onshore and offshore operation but basic processing system is same capital intensive can be custom made

SEPARATION SYSTEM OIL separators a. two phase b. three phase c. horizontal d. vertical e. spherical

separation can be single stage or multistage depending upon crude type and pressure separator is a pressure vessel which is designed to separate oil water and gas by gravity separation separator sizing is done based on crude quality separator type is decided by crude properties

separators are fitted with different internals to facilitate separation provided with different instruments for pressure and level control down stream may have a meter for measurement of quantity and taken to storage tank or separated oil may be taken for further treatment

separated gas is taken out of separated and may be sent for sale or for process requirement gas may further be treated if required gas compressors are used for compressing for transportation

VESSEL INTERNALS Inlet Diverters: Two main types: baffle plates and centrifugal diverters, baffle plate can be a spherical dish, flat plate, angle iron, cone, or anything that will accomplish a rapid change in direction and velocity of the fluids and disengage the gas and liquid, design of the baffles is governed by the structural supports required to resist the impact-momentum load, advantage of using a half sphere or cone is , they create less disturbance than plates or angle iron, cutting down on re-entrainment or emulsifying problems.

Centrifugal inlet diverters use centrifugal force, rather than mechanical agitation, to disengage the oil and gas, have a cyclonic chimney or may use a tangential fluid race around the walls, these inlet diverters are proprietary but generally use an inlet nozzle sufficient to create a fluid velocity of about 20 fps centrifugal diverters work well in initial gas separation and help to prevent foaming in crudes

Wave Breakers In long horizontal vessels it is necessary to install wave breakers, which are nothing more than vertical baffles spanning the gas-liquid interface and perpendicular to the flow. Defoaming Plates Foam at the interface may occur when gas bubbles are liberated from the liquid. This foam can be stabilized with the addition of chemicals at the inlet. Many times a more effective solution is to force the foam to pass through a series of inclined parallel plates or tubes

Vortex Breaker It is normally good to include a simple vortex breaker to keep a vortex from developing when the liquid control valve is open. A vortex could suck some gas out of the vapor space and re-entrain it in the liquid outlet.

Mist Extractor Liquid carryover occurs when free liquid escapes with the gas phase, mist extractors are made of wire mesh, vanes, centrifugal force devices, or packing. wire mesh pads are made of finely woven mats of stainless steel wire wrapped into a tightly packed cylinder, liquid droplets impinge on the matted wires and coalesce,

effectiveness of wire mesh depends largely on the gas being in the proper velocity range, if the velocities are too high, the liquids knocked out will be re-entrained , if the velocities are low, the vapor just drifts through the mesh element without the droplets impinging and coalescing

Separator must do the following Separate the bulk of the liquid from the gas in a primary separating section, lower the gas velocity to allow liquids to drop out, scrub the gas through as efficient mist extractor, retain liquids long enough for separation to occur, control and maintain the gas-oil interface (and oil-water, if present)remove all phases through their respective outlets.

Information required: for design Separator operating temperature and pressure. Gas: flow rate; specific gravity; acid-gas content. Oil: flow rate; specific gravity; viscosity; foaming tendencies. Water: flow rate; specific gravity; corrosion and scaling tendencies. Impurities: quantities and description of paraffin, waxes, sand, etc.

DRAG FORCE

IF FLOW IS LAMINAR THEN

FOR TERBULENT FLOW

HORIZONTAL SEPARATOTOR -SIZING

GAS CAPACITY

LIQUID CAPACITY

SLENDERNESS RATIO

SEAM TO SEAM LENGTH

VERTICAL SEPARATOTOR -SIZING

GAS CAPACITY

GAS CAPACITY

SLENDERNESS RATIO SEAM TO SEAM LENGTH

SINGLE PHASE FLOW LIQUID GAS MULTIPHASE FLOW WELL FLOW LINES PROCESS LINES

MULTIPHASE FLOW BUBBLE PLUG STRATIFIED WAVY SLUG SPRAY

Pressure Drop for Liquid Flow. General Equation. d5 = (11.5 10-6) fLQl2 (SG) P where d = pipe inside diameter, in., f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless, L = length of pipe, ft, Ql = liquid flow rate, B/D, SG = specific gravity of liquid relative to water, P = pressure drop, psi (total pressure drop).

Pressure Drop for Gas Flow. P12 P22 = 25.2 [ SQ2g ZT f L] d5 Where P1 = upstream pressure, psia, P2 = downstream pressure, psia, S = specific gravity of gas, Q g = gas flow rate, MMscf/D, Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless, T = flowing temperature, R, f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless, d = pipe ID, in., and L = length, ft.

Weymouth Equation: used for high-Reynoldsnumber flows Qg = 1.1d2.67 [P21 P21 ]1/2 [LSZT1 ]1/2 where :Qg = gas-flow rate, MMscf/D, d = pipe inside diameter, in.,P1 = upstream pressure, psia, P2 = downstream pressure, psia,L = length, ft, T1 = temperature of gas at inlet, R S = specific gravity of gas, And Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless.

Panhandle Equation.: used for moderate-Reynoldsnumber. Qg = 0.028E [ P21 P2 2 2 ]0.51 d2.53 [ S0.961ZTLm] 0.51 Where:E-efficiency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average operating conditions: 0.85),Qg-gas-flow rate, MMscf/D, dpipe ID, in., P1-pressure, psia, P2-downstream pressure, psia, Lm-length, miles, T- temperature of gas at inlet,R, S-specific gravity of gas, Zcompressibility factor for gas, dimensionless

Spitzglass Equation. For vent lines Qg = 0.09[ hwd5]1/2 [ SL(1 + 3.6/d + 0.03d)]1/2 Where:Qg-gas-flow rate,MMscf/D, hW- pressure loss,inches of water, d-pipe ID, in. Assumptions: f-(1+ 3.6/d + 0.03d) (1/100), T-520R, P1-15 psia, Z = 1.0,P- 10% of P1

Simplified Gas Formula: recommended for most generaluse flow applications. Weymouth Eqn.: for smaller-dia.pipe (generally, 12 in. and less), also recommended for shorter lengths of segments (<20 miles) within production batteries and for branch gathering lines, medium- to high-pressure (+/100 psig to > 1,000 psig) applications,and high Reynolds number. Panhandle Eqn.:for larger-dia.pipe (12-in.+diameter),also recommended for long runs of pipe (> 20 miles)like cross country transmission pipelines and for moderate Reynolds numbers. Spitzglass Eqn:for low-pressure vent lines< 12 in.in dia.(P<10% of P1).

Simplified Friction Pressure-Drop provides an approximate solution for friction pressure drop in twophase-flow problems that meet the assumptions stated. P =3.4 10-6 f LW 2 M d5 Where P = friction pressure drop, psi, f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless, L = length, ft, W = rate of flow of mixture, lbm/hr, M -density of the mixture, lbm/ft3, and d = pipe ID, in. API RP14E

The formula for rate of mixture flow is W = 3,180Q gS + 14.6QL(SG) where Q g = gas-flow rate, MMscf/D, QL = liquid flow rate, B/D, S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1), And SG = specific gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft3.

The density of the mixture is given by

M =12,409(SG)P + 2.7RSP 198.7P + RTZ

Where P = operating pressure, psia, R = gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl, T = operating temperature, R, SG = specific gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft3, S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions, lbm/ft3 (air = 1), And Z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless.

The pressure drop at low flow rates associated with an uphill elevation change may be approximated with Equation PZ 0.433(SG)Z , Where PZ = pressure drop because of elevation increase in the segment, psi, SG = specific gravity of the liquid in the segment, relative to water, and Z = increase in elevation for segment, ft. The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill segment.

Calculate the erosional velocity of the mixture with Ve =C/M1/2 where C = empirical constant. M is the average density of the mixture at flowing conditions. It can be calculated from M = (12409)(SG)P + (2.7)RSP (198.7)P + ZRT Where SG = specific gravity of the liquid (relative to water), and S = specific gravity of the gas relative to air. Industry experience to date indicates that for solids-free fluids, values of C = 100 for continuous service and C = 125 for intermittent service are conservative. 150 to 200 may be used for continuous, non-corrosive or corrosion controlled services, up to 250 have been used successfully

Once a design velocity is chosen, to determine the pipe size,

d=

[ (11.9 + ZT R/ 16.7P )QL] 1/2 [1,000V] 1/2

Where d = pipe ID, in., Z = compressibility factor, dimensionless, R = gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl, P = flowing pressure, psia, T = gas/liquid flowing temperature, R, V = maximum allowable velocity, ft/sec, And QL = liquid-flow rate, B/D.

FOR EROSIVE SERVICE FITTINGS

Multiphase-Line Sizing: minimum fluid velocity in multiphase systems must be relatively high to keep the liquids moving and prevent or minimize slugging, recommended minimum velocity is 10 to 15 ft/sec, maximum recommended velocity is 60 ft/sec to inhibit noise and 50 ft/sec for CO2 corrosion inhibition. In twophase flow, it is possible that liquid droplets in the flow stream will impact on the wall of the pipe causing erosion of the products of corrosion. This is called erosion/corrosion. Erosion of the pipe wall itself could occur if solid particles, particularly sand, are entrained in the flow stream, guidelines from API RP14Eshould be used to protect against erosion/corrosion.

Wall-Thickness Calculations: B31.3 Code. ANSI/ASME Standard B31.3 is a very stringent code with a high safety margin. The B31.3 wall-thickness calculation formula is t = te + tth + [ Pdo ] [ 100 ] *2(SE + PY) + *100 Tol] where t-minimum design wall thickness, in.,te-corrosion allowance, in.,tth-thread or groove depth, in. P-allowable internal pressure in pipe, psi, do-outside diameter of pipe, in., S-allowable stress for pipe, psi E = longitudinal weld-joint factor [1.0 seamless, 0.95 electric fusion weld, double butt, straight or spiral seam APL 5L, 0.85 electric resistance weld (ERW), 0.60 furnace butt weld],Y-derating factor (0.4 for ferrous materials operating below 900F), andTolmanufacturers allowable tolerance, % (12.5 pipe up to 20 in.-OD, 10 pipe > 20 in. OD, API 5L).

B31.4 Code. is used often as the standard of design for crude-oil piping systems in facilities, such as pump stations, pigging facilities, measurement and regulation stations, and tank farms. The wall-thickness formula for Standard B31.4 is t = Pdo 2(F ESY ) , Where t = minimum design wall thickness, in., P = internal pressure in pipe, psi, do = OD of pipe, in.,SY = minimum yield stress for pipe, psi, F = derating factor, 0.72 for all locations, and E = longitudinal weld-joint factor [1.0 seamless, ERW, double submerged arc weld and flash weld; 0.80 electric fusion (arc) weld and electric fusion weld, 0.60 furnace butt weld].

B31.8 Code. is often used as the standard of design for natural-gas piping systems in facilities, such as compressor stations, gas-treatment facilities, measurement and regulation stations, and tank farms. The B31.8 wall-thickness formula is t = Pdo 2F ETSY Where t-minimum design wall thickness, in., P-internal pressure in pipe, psi, dO - OD of pipe, in., SY - minimum yield stress for pipe, psi F-design factor E- longitudinal weld-joint factor and T-temperature derating factor

DIFFERENT TYPE OF PIGS(for cleaning) foam rubber cups brush pigs etc. PIGGING OPERATION REQUIRES PIG LAUNCHERS AND RECEIVERS. SLUG CATHCERS ARE REQUIRED AT THE RECEIVING END OF THE PIG. INTELLEGENT PIGS (for health monitoring)

ONSHORE: ZONE CLASSIFICATION SELECTION: a) diameter b) wall thickness c) material of construction d) pipe coating

ROUTE: a)selection b) route survey c) right of way or use SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS: a) area b) highway , road , street crossing c) railway crossing

d) bridge crossing e) river, water streams f) wet lands and marshes etc ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS SAFTY CONCERNS

PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION: PIPE LINE STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION SITE PREPRATION LINE STRINGING TRENCHING WELDING(API 1104,ASME SECTION IX Boiler and pressure vessel code)

WELD TESTING JOINT AND PIPE LINE COATING PIPE LINE LOWERING BACKFILLING VARIOUS CROSSINGS FINAL TIE INS TESTING

WELDED PIPES ARE LOWERED FROM THE REAR OF THE BARGE. IN SHALLOW WATERS PIPE IS S LAYED AND IN DEEPER WATERS IT IS J LAYED. IN S LAY PIPE IS WELDED IN HORIZONTAL POSITION AND LEAVES THE BARGS HORIZONTALLY. IN J LAY PIPE IS WELDED VERICALLY HELD AND PIPE LEAVES THE BARGE VERTICALLY

PIGGING OPERATIONS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair

UTILITY PIGS

Mandrel pigs

Foam pigs
11

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair

UTILITY PIGS

Solid cast pigs

Spherical pigs or spheres

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair

12

IN LINE INSPECTION TOOLS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair

14

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TOOLS

PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair

16

LIQUID PROCESSING

an emulsion is a heterogeneous liquid that consists of two immiscible liquids, one of which is intimately dispersed as droplets in the other, for an emulsion to exist, oil and water are the two mutually immiscible liquids, emulsifying agent in the form of small solid particles, paraffins, asphaltenes, etc., is present in the formation fluids, agitation occurs as fluid flows into the well bore, up the tubing, and through the surface choke.

TYPES: WATER IN OIL OIL IN WATER WATER IN OIL IN WATER

Prevention of Emulsions: Excluding all water from the oil while the oil is produced and/or preventing all agitation of well fluids would prevent emulsion from forming; however, because these both are impossible, or nearly so, emulsion production must be expected from wells, poor operating practices increase emulsification , operating practices that involve the production of excess water because of poor cementing or reservoir management can increase emulsion-treating problems, as can a process design that subjects the oil/water mixture to excess turbulence

Emulsifying Agents: surface-active compounds that attach to the water-droplet surface and lower the oil/water interfacial tension, some emulsifiers are asphaltic , barely soluble in oil and strongly attracted to water, they come out of solution and attach themselves to the droplets of water as these droplets are dispersed in the oil, asphaltic emulsifiers form thick films around the water droplets and prevent droplet surfaces from contacting when they collide, thus preventing coalescence.

Oil-wet solids (sand, silt, shale particles, paraffin, iron hydroxides, zinc compounds, aluminum sulfate, calcium carbonate, iron sulfide ,etc. collect at the oil/water interface) can act as emulsifiers, these substances usually originate in the oil formation, but can form because of an ineffective corrosioninhibition program,

most crude-oil emulsions are dynamic and transitory, interfacial energy per unit of area is fairly high in petroleum emulsions compared to that in emulsions commonly encountered in other industries, so they are thermodynamically unstable in that the total free energy will decrease if the dispersed water coalesces and separates

Stability of Emulsions. Generally, crude oils with low API gravity form more stable and higherpercentage-volume emulsions than do oils of high API gravity, asphaltic-based oils tend to emulsify more readily than do paraffin-based oils, emulsions of high-viscosity crude oil usually are very stable and difficult to treat because the viscosity of the oil hinders movement of the dispersed water droplets and thus retards their coalescence, highviscosity/high-density oils usually contain more emulsifiers than do lighter oils.

Effect of Emulsions on Fluid Viscosity.: Emulsions always are more viscous than the clean oil in the emulsion, in oilfield emulsions, the ratio of the viscosity of an emulsion to that of the clean crude oil depends on the shear rate to which the emulsion has been subjected, for many emulsions and for the shear rates normally encountered in piping systems,

this ratio can be approximated using equation , if no other data are available. e / o = 1 + 2.5 f + 14.1 f2 where e = viscosity of emulsion, cp; o = viscosity of clean oil, cp; and f = fraction of the dispersed phase.

Sampling and Analyzing : treating unit or system performance can be monitored by regularly withdrawing and analyzing samples of the contents at multiple levels in the vessel or multiple points in the system, particularly beneficial when treating emulsions that involve viscous oils, samples should be representative of the liquid from which they are taken, so emulsification should not be allowed to occur when the sample is extracted ,samples from a pressure zone can be taken without further emulsification of the liquids if the velocity of the discharging liquid is controlled

Bottle Tests Most Common Method

Measure Sedimentation Rate Estimate Resultant Oil Quality Vary Chemical Type and Dosage

Electrostatic Bench Tests

Measure Response of Emulsion to Electrostatic Field: Power Requirements & Sedimentation Rate Measure Resultant Oil Quality Vary Chemical Type & Dosage and Electrostatic Field Type

BOTTLE TEST

Chemical Dossage Mixing

100 cc Emulsion
Heating to process temperature 24 hours settling evaluation

cc Oil

cc Emulsion

cc Water t = t1

t=0

Chemical

Bottle Test Water in Oil

% By Difference

Electrostatic Bench Test BS&W

Measured %

A B C D E

2.2 4.6 5.3 5.7 6

2.12 2.01 1.62 1.20 2.35

Red: Best Performance

EMULSION STABILITY HOW TO DESTABLIZE METHODS TO DESTABLIZE: 1. HEATING 2. CHEMICAL ADDITION 3. SETTLING OF SEPARATED WATER a) NATURAL SETTLING b) FORCED SETTLING

WHY HEATING: Using heat to treat crude-oil emulsions has four basic benefits: Heat reduces the viscosity of the oil, which allows the water droplets to collide with greater force and to settle more rapidly The chart can be used to estimate crude-oil viscosity/temperature relationships.

Crude-oil viscosities vary widely, and the curves on this chart should be used only in the absence of specific data. Heat increases the droplets molecular movement, which helps coalescence by causing the dispersed-phase droplets to collide more frequently

Heat might deactivate the emulsifier (e.g., dissolve paraffin crystals), or might enhance the action of treating chemicals, causing the chemical to work faster and more thoroughly to break the film around the droplets of the dispersed phase of the emulsion. Heat also might increase the density difference between the oil and the water, thus accelerating settling. In general, at temperatures below 180F, adding heat will increase the density difference.

Heating well fluids is expensive. Adding heat can cause a significant loss of the lower-boiling point hydrocarbons (light ends). This causes shrinkage of the oil, or loss of volume. Because the light ends are boiled off, the remaining liquid has a lower API gravity and thus might have less value. The vapor leaving the oil phase can be vented to a vapor recovery system or compressed and sold with the gas. Either way, there probably will be a net income loss

Fuel is required to provide heat, and so the cost of fuel must be considered. If the oil is above inletfluid temperature when it is discharged from the treating unit, it can be flowed through a heat exchanger with the incoming well fluid to transfer the heat to the cooler incoming well fluid. In some geographic areas, emulsion-heating requirements vary in accordance with daily and/ or seasonal atmospheric temperatures e.g., at night, during a rain, or in winter months

BENEFITS OF HEATING

the fuel required for treating depends on the temperature rise, the amount of water in the oil, and the flow rate, heating a given volume of water requires approximately twice the energy needed to heat the same volume of oil, beneficial to separate free water from the emulsion to be treated,

the heat input for an insulated vessel (heat loss is assumed to be 10% of heat input) can be approximated Q = 16T(0.5qoo + qww) where Q = heat input, Btu/hr, T = temperature increase, F, qo = oil flow rate, B/D, qw = water flow rate, B/D, o = specific gravity of oil, and w = specific gravity of water.

DISADVANTAGES: EXPENSIVE GAS EVOLUTION LOSS OF LIGHTER FRACTION REDUCES API GRAVITY SOME TIME DECREASES GRAVITY DIFFERENCE IN PHASES

TYPES: Water soluble Oil soluble ACTION INJECTION Injection point Dilution CHEMICAL SELECTION

NATURAL AIDED

NATURAL SETTLING: COALSCING SYSTEM Plates Packing AGITATION SETTLING TIME AIDED SETTLING Electrostatic coalescence

Gravity Settling. Gravity settling is the oldest, simplest, and most widely used method for treating crude-oil emulsions, density difference between the oil and the water causes the water to settle through and out of the oil by gravity, gravitational separation of water from oil is controlled by the well known Stokes law V =2gr2(D2- D1 ) /9 V-droplet falling velocity g-gravitation constant r-particle radius D2-specificgravityof water D1-specific gravity of oil -viscosity of oil

parameters which control the falling velocity of water particle are the droplet size, density difference and viscosity of oil. Application of heat will reduce the oil gravity as well as viscosity Rewriting Stokes equation in more easily usable form V= Cr2(D2 D1)/ value of C is 2.5665 x 10-2 when r-particle size in microns D2-specificgravityof water at conditions D1-specificgravityof oil at condition -viscosity of oil at conditions in centipoises.

Emulsion subjected to high voltage electrical field high voltage, water droplets polarize and align with electric force, the positive and negative poles of the droplets are brought adjacent to each other, electrical attraction brings the droplets together and causes them to coalesce.

droplets dispersed in oil that are subjected to alternating-current (AC) field become elongated along the lines of force, as voltage rises during the first half-cycle,droplets are relaxed during the lowvoltage part of the cycle, the surface tension pulls them back toward a spherical shape, effect repeats with each cycle, weakening the film so that it breaks more easily

force existing between droplets is mathematically given by the following equation: F= K2d6/S4 (with Sd) F-attractive force between droplet K-Dielectric constant for the system voltage gradient d-diameter of droplet s-distance between droplet From this equation it is evident that in order to increase the force between droplets to help them coalesce, it is required to increase that the applied voltage gradient, increase the droplet diameter decrease the distance between droplet

. If the voltage gradient applied to a particular droplet is increased beyond a certain critical voltage (Ec) peculiar to the droplet, the droplet will distort sufficiently to rupture its film at a critical point causing the droplet to break into smaller , submicronic droplets The critical voltage gradient can be expressed for a particular droplet as Ec k(T/d)1/2 where Ec- Critical voltage gradient Dielectric constant for the system T-Surface tension d-Diameter of droplet

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL WITH ONLY HEATING ARRANGEMENT WITH ELECTROSTATIC COALESCENCE

EMULSION ENTERS AT THE TOP IN GAS SEPARATION CHAMBER EMULSION FLOWS THROUGH THE DOWNCOMES TO THE BOTTOM OF THE VESSEL EMULSION MOVES UP THROUGH HEATING SECTION WATER SEPARATION IN COALESCING SECTION

INTERPHASE CONTROLLER CONTROLS WATER LEVEL IF PROVIDED WITH ELECTRSTATIC COALESCER OIL MOVES ACROSS IT FOR FURTHER DEHYDRATION INTERPHASE CONTROLLER MAINTAINS WATER LEVEL WATER CAN BE DRIANED THROUGH WATER SIPHON

BATTERY OF VERTICAL TREATERS

MOST WIDELY USED CONSTRUCTION SIMILAR TO FREE WATER KNOCK OUT VESSEL THOUGH NOT EXACTLY SAME HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL FLOW CONFIGURATTION OIL AND WATER INTERPHASE CONTROLLERS MAINTAIN LEVELS

HORIZONTAL FLOW CONFIGURATION: EMULSION ENTERS AT THE TOP OF THE VESSEL FLOWS ALONG A LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE ENTERS HEATING SECTION FROM THE BOTTOM HEATED OIL TRAVELS THROUGH A SLOT IN THE PARTITION

FREE WATER AT THE BOTTOM FLOWS OUT CLEAN OIL FLOWS TO THE TOP AND COLLECTED VERTICAL FLOW CONFIGURATION: OIL ENTERS THROUGH FORNT SECTION AND FLOWS DOWN FREE WATER IS SEPARATED

EMULSION FLOWS THROUGH A SPREADER AND IS HEATED HEATED OIL ENTERS THE INERMEDIATE OR SURGE CHAMBER ADDITIONAL GAS SEPARATES OUT EMUSION ENTERS COALSECING CHAMBER THRUGH BOTTOM SPREADER

OIL MOVES THROUGH THE WATER ALYER AND GOES TO THE TOP CLEAN OIL IS COLLECTED FROM THE TOP WATER DARINED OUT FROM THE BOTTOM

ELECTROSTATIC TREATERS

OIL PRODUCTION BATTERY WITH SEPARATION AND TREATING

ELECTROSTATIC COALESCENCE DISCUSSED EARLIER COALESCING CHAMBER CONTAINS ELECTROSTATIC GRID ELECTROSTATIC GRID: AC COMBINATION

AC FIELDS USED ARE IN THE RAGE OF 12 TO 23 Kv. MOST EFFECTIVE FOR LARGER WATER DROPLETS DIFFERENT COFIGURATIONS: TWO GRID SYSTEM ALSO KNOWN AS SINGLE HOT DOUBLE AND TRIPLE HOT DESIGN ALSO AVAILABLE

EMUSION FLOWS THROUGH THE GRID AND ELECTRIC COALESCENCE TAKES PLACE SEPARATED WATER FLOWS DOWN AND CLEAN OIL GOES TO THE TOP DOUBLE AND TRIPLE HOT SYSTEMS INCREASE THE RETENTION TIME OF EMULSION ACROSS THE ENERGISED ELECTRODES THEREBY INCREASING EFFICIENCY

 DIPOLAR ATTRACTION

FILM STRETCHING WATER TOLERANCE

LIMITATIONS
MINIMAL

DROP MOVEMENT

LOW CHARGE DENSITY

LIMITS ON USEFUL FIELD STRENGTH

AC/DC TREATERS ELECTRODES ARE PARALLEL PLATES PLATES ARE CONNECTED TO TWO OPPOSITELY ORIENTED DIODES BOTH DIODES ARE CONNECTED TO SAME END OF TRANSFORMER SECONDARY WINDING PLATES ARE CHRGED ON ALTERNATE HALF CYCLES OF AC

AC/DC TREATERS ELECTRODES ARE PARALLEL PLATES PLATES ARE CONNECTED TO TWO OPPOSITELY ORIENTED DIODES BOTH DIODES ARE CONNECTED TO SAME END OF TRANSFORMER SECONDARY WINDING PLATES ARE CHRGED ON ALTERNATE HALF CYCLES OF AC

+
+

- +
UPWARD OIL FLOW

- +

DC FIELD BENEFITS MOST AC FIELD BENEFITS, PLUS . . . DROPLET TRANSPORT NET ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
BUT. . . MUST AVOID ELECTROLYTIC REACTIONS WATER TOLERANCE IS REDUCED

INSULATOR HANGERS RAILS

ELECTRODE PLATES

DUAL POLARITY: Dual polarity AC/DC Electrostatic unit provides this needed electrical gradient. The use of AC in the low gradient area between the water interface and the charged electrode has proven to be essential in this higher water content area of the process. The droplets removed from the stream in this area are very large and respond quite readily to this changing field because their individual size and number places them closer together.

The application of dual polarity DC potential, both positive and negative to the high gradient area between the electrodes successfully coalesces the majority of even the one and two micron droplets resulting in a much lower water content in the clean oil.

Provides Combined AC/DC Fields For Combined Benefits

Drop Polarization

Film Rupture
Water Tolerance Drop Movement Drop Charge Density Minimizes Induced Corrosion

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
AC Field
Proven technology in conventional desalting process Electrostatic dehydration/desalting under AC electric field Traditional desalting technology Lower comparative cost High oversizing design High sensitivity to emulsion tightness (high stability) and high water content High desalting multiple stages requirements Good technical support High control requirements

Dual Polarity
Proven technology in conventional desalting process Electrostatic dehydration/desalting under Dual polarity (AC/DC) electric field and electrodynamic desalting process (exclusive technologies) Improved desalting technologies Higher comparative cost Optimal design (low oversizing) Low sensitivity to emulsion tightness (high stability) and high water content Low desalting multiple stages requirements Excelent technical support High control requirements

To reduce salt content in crude oil Source of salt: water produced along with oil some times produced oil contains salt crystals Desalting Why Salt may cause corrosion, foul equipment Contract requirement

Single stage desalting Two stage desalting

Dilution water fresh water water recycle Water mixed with crude mixing efficiency problem of water solubility in oil at elevated temperatures

In produced brine with a high salt concentration, it might not be possible to treat the oil to a low enough water content ( < 0.2% is difficult to guarantee), desalting system such as the one shown schematically consists of a mixing device (in which fresh water is used to wash the crude oil) and any of the electrostatic treating systems described(which then are used to dehydrate the oil to a low water content)

mixing dilution water with the produced water lowers the effective value of Csw in eqn. if a singlestage desalting system requires too much dilution water or is unable to reach the desired salt concentration, then a two stage system is used, such as the one shown schematically

THE MIXING VALVE

Differential Pressure Controller
DPC

To Desalter Crude Flow Mixing Valve Static Mixer (Optional) is occasionally installed either upstream or downstream of the mixing valve

SIZING EQUATIONS

RETENATION TIME

WATER DROPLET SIZE

Function of viscosity
For conventional treaters

For Electrostatic traters

Oil field processing generally consists of two categories of operations: Separation of natural gas from free liquids ( crude oil, brine ) and entrained solids, (sand). Removal of impurities from natural gas and any condensate form.

NATURALGAS PROCESSING

It is crucial link between natural gas production and its transportation to market

NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

Pipe line Quality Natural Gas

Calorific Value 1035 (+ 50) Btu / cu feet Specified dew point temperature level H2S < 4 ppm, CO2 2-3%, H2O < 7 lb / MMSCF, N2,O2 traces Free of particulate solids & liquid water

Other key Byproducts of Natural Gas Processing

Helium Carbon- di-oxide Hydrogen Sulphide

It involves:

Simple Separation + Dehydration (Separation of hydrocarbon condensate, liquid water and solid particles) Gas Compression (Condensate Removal) (Involves removal of condensate by compression) Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) Recovery (NGL is recovered by coding to ease transportation) Gas Dehydration (Dehydration is the removal of water content to prevent formation of gas hydrates and to increase the calorific value Gas Sweetening (It is to remove acid gas (CO2, H2S) component as H2S is toxic and both are corrosive)

The individual unit operations commonly used in field handling natural gas are: Basic fields processing schemes: Prevention of hydrate formation Sweetening Dehydration Condensate recovery and hydrocarbon dew point control Compression Flow measurement Heating and cooling Pipe line transport of natural gas

Glycol and methanol are comparable Merits of methanol: It can be used at any temperature Recovery is marginally economically due to its low cost and high vaporization losses. Lower capital investments Methanol can dissolve existing hydrates

DE-MERITS OF METHANOL

It is co-absorbed with water vapor by glycol, increasing glycol regeneration heat load. Aqueous methanol can corrode steel in glycol steel and re boiler. Methanol can also reduced the capacity of solid desiccant pallets because methanol is readily co-absorbed.

Merits of glycol (TEG/DEG) It exhibits higher depression of hydrate formation temperature. Cheaper where continuous injection is required. Can be recovered easily. Demerits of glycol Its not chosen below 15 F because of its high viscosity and difficulty of separation from liquid HC

Without intimate mixing glycol injection may not prevent hydrate formation . It can not attack or dissolve existing hydrates.

Removal of Acid Gases Permissible Acid Gas Concentration

H2S concn < 4 ppm v (0.25 gr / 100scf) Max total sulfur content including mercaptans (RSH), Carbon Sulfide (COS), disulphide (RSSR) etc is usually 10 to 20 gr / 100 scf (160-200 ppmv) CO2 concn 2-3%

Batch Process

Iron Sponge, Chem Sweet, Sulpha Check

Aqueous Amine Solutions

Moethanolamine Diethanolamine Diglycolamine Methyl diethanolamine

(Solutions are regenerated, are used to remove large amount of Sulfur and CO2)

Mixed Solutions (Mix of Amine, Physical Solvent, Water Sulfinol, Ucarsol, Flexsorb & Optisol)
(These Solution absorb organic sulfur and are capable of high acid gas loading)

Physical Solvents
Selaxol

Rectisol Purisol Fluor Solvent These can be regenerated without heat and simultaneously dry the gas (Used for bulk removal of CO2 frequently offshore)

Hot Potassium Carbonate Solutions

Hot Pot Catacarb etc.

Direct Oxidation to Sulfur

Stretford, Sulferox Locat (These Process practically eliminate H2S emissions)

Adsorption

Linde, Zeochem & Davison Chemical Molecular Sieves For low acid gas concentration, gas is simultaneously dried

Membranes

Example AVIR, Air Products, Cynara (Dow), Du Pont, Grace, International Permeation and Monsanto are most suitable for bulk CO2 separation, especially when the feed gas concentration is very high In General,

If S < 20 lb/day Batch Process If S > 100 lb / day Amine Solution Sulfur Content, lb / day = 1.34 (MMSCFD) (gr/H2S/100SCF)

Gas from Compressor

HP flare Fuel gas contactor

Fuel gas HUT

LP flare

coalescer sep

PIC

G/L
9

over head scrubber

meter
flow

Flash vessel

Closed drain
1 LP flare

Glycol Dehydration Unit M

Rich glycol

TCV

Reboiler

Storage tank
Stripping gas

Closed drain

Recirculation pump

Booster pump

Ajay Kumar Neelam

RECTANGULAR HORIZONTAL VERTICAL SPHERICAL

OPEN FIXED ROOF FLOATING ROOF: EXTERNAL FLOATING ROOF INTERNAL FOATING ROOF CLOSED FOATING ROOF

RIVETED BOLTED SHOP WELDED FIELD WELDED

LIQUID GAS

ACCURACY Linearity Repeatability Resolution Turndown

Accuracy: difference from the actual measurement and the meter reading, accuracy is stated in following terms: Repeatability :meters ability to reproduce same measurement for a set of constant conditions of flow rate, temperature, viscosity, density, pressure. Repeatability of a custody transfer meter should be within +/-.025% in 3 runs or +/- 0.05% of each other in 5 consecutive prove runs. Linearity :ability to maintain a meter factor through-out the stated turndown. Depending on meter size and application this is typically +/-0.15% or +/-0.25% for custody transfer use.

Resolution. is a measure of the smallest increment of total flow that can be individually recognized by the meter. Turndown. Turndown is the meters flow range capability. The flow range of the meter is the ratio of maximum flow to minimum flow over which the specified accuracy or linearity is maintained. a meter with a minimum flow rate of 100 bbl/hr and a maximum flow of 1,000 bbl/hr is said to have a 10:1 turndown.

FLOW RATE PRESSURE TEMPERATURE VISCOSITY ACCURACY

DIRECT - POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT INDIRECT - INFERS FLOW

Positive displacement flowmeters, also know as PD meters, measure volumes of fluid flowing through by counting repeatedly the filling and discharging of known fixed volumes. A typical positive displacement flowmeter comprises a chamber that obstructs the flow. Inside the chamber, a rotating/reciprocating mechanical unit is placed to create fixed-volume discrete parcels from the passing fluid. Hence, the volume of the fluid that passes the chamber can be obtained by counting the number of passing parcels or equivalently the number rounds of the rotating/reciprocating mechanical device. The volume flow rate can be calculated from the revolution rate of the mechanical device.

TURBINE METERS CORIOLIS METERS PRINCIPLE : INFERS FLOW BY MEASURING SOME DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF THE FLOW STREAM

Measures density and mass flow rate Principle: As fluid moves through a vibrating tube(s),Coriolis force causes distortion which is directly proportional to mass flow rate. Density is related to frequency, though not linearly, by the following equation = C0 + C1T2 Where, = Density of fluid C0 & C1 = Constants T = Tube time period

ORIFICE METER TURBINE METER CORIOLIS METER ULTRASONIC METER

Principle: differential pressure proportional to squire of flow rate Standards: AGA 3 ISO 5167

BASIC EQUATION: qh =C (hw pf )1/2 where: qh - quantity rate of flow at base conditions, cfh C - orifice flow constant, hw differential pressure in inches of water at 600F, pf absolute static pressure, psia

C =(Fb)(Fr)(Y)(Fpb)(Ftb)(Ftf)(Fg)(Fpv)(Fm)(Fl)(F) Where: (Fb) basic orifice factor, cfh(Fr) Reynolds number factor (Y) expansion factor (Fpb) pressure base factor (Ftb) temperature base factor (Ftf) flowing temperature factor (Fg) specific gravity factor(Fpv) supercompressibility factor(Fm) manometer factor for mercury meter(Fl)gauge location factor,(F) orifice thermal expansion factor

Principle: Difference in transit time of high frequency sound waves travelling between a pair of fixed sound transducers with the flow and against the flow determines the flow

Sucker Rod

Tubing Anchor/Catcher

Sucker Rod Pump Assembly

Reservoir

High System Efficiency, Optimization Controls Available, Economical to Repair and Service, Positive Displacement/Strong drawdown, Upgraded Materials Reduce Corrosion Concerns, Flexibility -Adjust Production Through Stroke Length and Speed, High Salvage Value for Surface & Downhole Equipment

Potential for Tubing and Rod Wear Gas-Oil Ratios Most Systems Limited to Ability of Rods to Handle Loads ( Volume Decreases As Depth Increases

Wellhead Surface Drives Continuous & Threaded Sucker Rods Subsurface PC Pumps & Accessories

Vertical Electric Wellhead Drive

Tubin g

Sucker Rod
Stator Rotor

Low Capital Cost Low Surface Profile for Visual & Height Sensitive Areas High System Efficiency Simple Installation, Quiet operation Pumps Oils and Waters with Solids Low Power Consumption Portable Surface Equipment Low Maintenance Costs Use In Horizontal/Directional Wells

Limited Depth capability Temperature Sensitivity to Produced Fluids Low Volumetric Efficiencies in High-Gas Environments Potential for Tubing and Rod Coupling Wear Requires Constant Fluid Level above Pump

Injection Gas In

Produced oil

Completion Fluid Production Packer

Side Pocket Mandrel with Gas Lift Valve Reservoir

High Degree of Flexibility and Design Rates Wireline Retrievable Handles Sandy Conditions WellAllows For Full Bore Tubing Drift Surface Wellhead Equipment Requires Minimal Space Multi-Well Production From Single Compressor Multiple or Slim hole CompletionProduced

Needs High-Pressure Gas Well or Compressor One Well Leases May Be Uneconomical Fluid Viscosity Bottom hole Pressure High Back-Pressure

Wellhead Equipment Power Cables Pumps & Motors Variable Speed Drives Gas Separators

ESPs can be very effective at moving large volumes of fluid with low GLRs, however, capital costs and run life must be fully understood to ensure profitability: high PI low GOR oil wells (up to 1000 scf/bbl with separator) high water cut producers Casing size limits size and capacity Requires reliable electrical supply at reasonable cost Normally run on tubing, cable deployed for offshore

Inadequate design as a result of poor IPR data gather data on first pump run for re-design Inadequate service facilities Scaling on impellers Solids erosion Inadequate gas separation > 10% through pump Emulsion formation in pump High bottom hole temperatures high temperature insulation is available

Produced Hydrocarbons Out Tubin g Pum p Seal Section

Motor Control

Motor

High Volume and Depth Capability High Efficiency Over 1,000 BPD Low Maintenance Minor Surface Equipment Needs Good in Deviated Wells Adaptable in Casings > 4-1/2 Use for Well TestingVent

Available Electric Power Limited Adaptability to Major Changes in Reservoir Difficult to Repair In the Field Free Gas and/or Abrasives High Viscosity Higher Pulling Costs

BROADLY DEFINED AS DETERIORATION OF MATERIAL OR ITS PROPERTIES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT INEVITABLE PHNENOMENON IN OILFIELD OPERATIONS IT EXTENDS FROM WELL TO DELIVERY POINT INITIALLY NOT ENOUGH ATTENTION WAS GIVEN

UNTIMELY FAILURE OF EQUIPMENT STARTED ANALYSIS OF CAUSE LEAD TO CONCLUSION THAT CORROSION WAS THE CULPRIT PROBLEM MULTIPLIED WHEN NEWER TECHNOLOGIES LIKE STEAM INJECTION,INSITU COMBUSTION,POLYMER INJECTION etc. WERE PUT TO USE DEEPER AND HIGH TEMPERATURE WELLS MULTIPLIED THE PROBLEM

IMPORTANCE OF CORROSION The three main reasons for the importance of corrosion are: economic, safety, and conservation. economic impact of corrosion result from the corrosion of piping, tanks, metal components of machines, ships, marine structures , etc

safety of operating equipment by causing failure (with catastrophic consequences) of, for example, pressure vessels , boilers , turbine blades and rotors, etc. Loss of metal by corrosion is a waste not only of the metal, but also of the energy, the water, and the human effort that was used to produce and fabricate

Temperature Typical E&P process temperatures range from -100C to >200C Corrosion rates increase with temperature Pressure Pressure: up to 10,000psi Increase partial pressure of dissolved gases Flowrate & flow regime High-flow: erosion and corrosion-erosion. Low-flow or stagnant conditions promote bacteria
245

CORROSION IN OIL FIELD

ENTIRE CHAIN OF OPERARITONS EXPOSED TO CORROSION WELLS: Tubing Casing Down hole equipment like pumps, packers etc. WELL HEAD

FLOW LINES well fluid line process lines water injection lines etc. PROCESS EQUIPMENT STORAGE TANKS TRUNK LINES WATER HANDLING SYSTEMS

THERMODYNAMIC CRITERIA ELECTROCHEMICAL CRITERIA

H2S CORROSION

250

Formation of a thin protective FeS surface film often means general corrosion rates are low on steels Main risk is localised pitting corrosion where film is damaged Pitting will be galvanically driven

251

H2S is soluble in water Produces a weak acid and lowers the pH H2S H+ + SH At low concentrations, H2S helps form protective FeS film Main risk is localised pitting corrosion which can be rapid H2S also poisons combination of atomic hydrogen into molecular hydrogen Atomic hydrogen H+ + e- H dangerous to steels!! X H + H H2

252

H2
H

H+

2+ Fe 2S
FeS Film Metal Matrix

Applied Stress
Higher Strength Steels YS > 500 MPa

No Applied Stress
Low Strength Steels YS < 550 MPa

H2

H H HH H

H2
253

Key parameters: pH and pH2S Domain diagrams for carbon steel Material hardness High strength steels and areas of high hardness susceptible. Temperature Maximum susceptibility at low temperatures for carbon steels (15-25C), higher for CRAs (570C). Stress Cracking promoted by high stress levels e.g. residual welding

HAZ

WELD

HAZ

Hardness readings

254

Avoid wetness Minimise hardness Guidance on limits in ISO 15156 Optimise microstructure and minimise residual stresses

Upgrade to CRAs Martensitic and duplex stainless steels have limited resistance H2S limits for duplex and super-duplex steels are complex Function of temperature, pH, chlorides, pH2S Nickel-base alloys such as 625 and 825 have high resistance Testing: NACE TM0177
255

Materials requirements Reference ISO 15156 and GP 06-20 pH2S and pH Temperature Chlorides Hardness limits Welding QA/QC (HIC) Maintain hardness limits HIC testing for plate products

256

CO2 CORROSION

257

CO2 always present in produced fluids Corrosive to carbon steel when water present Most CRAs have good resistance to CO2 corrosion.

Mechanism CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H2CO3 + e- HCO3- + H 2H H2 Fe Fe2+ + 2eFe + H2O + CO2 FeCO3 + H2

258

General & pitting corrosion

Mesa corrosion

Flow-assisted-corrosion (CO2)

Localised weld corrosion

259

 6 CS production flowline (Magnus, 1983) 25mm thick, 90bar, 30C, 2%CO2

Heavily pitted pipe wall and welds (not necessarily uniform corrosion)
Didnt fail removed due to crevice corrosion of hub sealing faces
260

Main factors pCO2, temperature, velocity, pH - CO2 prediction model

For an ideal gas mixture, the partial pressure is the pressure exerted by one component if it alone occupied the volume. Total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas component in the mixture

Temperature, (C) 130 75 149

pCO2 (bar) 0.6 0.6 30

Carbon steel corrosion rate (mm/yr) 7 6 >50

261

Produced sand can affect inhibitor efficiency Inhibitor adsorption loss Sand (and other solid) deposits give increased risk of localised corrosion; Prevent access of corrosion inhibitor to the metal Provide locations for bacteria proliferation Galvanic effects (area under deposit at more negative potential than area immediately adjacent to deposit) Formation of concentration cells/gradients

262

Internal CO2 corrosion of carbon steel needs to be managed Usually mitigate by chemical inhibitors Simple geometries only (mainly pipelines) Assume inhibitor availability (90-95%) Inhibited corrosion rate of 0.1mm/year Remaining time at full predicted corrosion rate Apply a corrosion allowance for the design life If calculated corrosion allowance >8mm use CRAs

263

Filming type Retention time Continuous injection Adsorption onto clean surfaces

Clean steel

264

CO2/H2S > 500 500 > CO2/H2S > 20 20 > CO2/H2S > 0.05

CO2 dominates mixed CO2/H2S H2S dominates

H2S corrosion (CO2/H2S < 20) Initial corrosion rate high Protective FeS film quickly slows down corrosion to low level The corrosion rate is much less than the Cassandra prediction

265

dissolved gases: oxygen can cause severe corrosion even at very low ppm(less than 1 ppm) usually causes pitting solubility a function of pressure and temperature

being a strong oxidizing agent, it will increase corrosion rates in presence of other gases like hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide carbon dioxide forms a weak acid with water not so corrosive as compared to oxygen called sweet corrosion

solubility a function of pressure and temperature increased pressure increases solubility, increased temperature reduces solubility hydrogen sulfide very soluble in water forms a weak acid

reaction with iron produces iron sulfide ( which deposits in the form of black powder) and hydrogen produced hydrogen may cause blistering combination of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide is more aggressive

even minute quantities of oxygen can be disastrous may occur naturally or may be formed by sulfate reducing bacteria PHYSICAL VARIABLES: temperature rates generally increase pressure concentration of dissolved gases

velocity stagnant or low velocity may have low rates but can cause pitting higher velocities generally cause higher corrosion higher velocities in presence of suspended solids can cause corrosion-errosion

EROSION & EROSIONCORROSION

272

 Various multi-phase flow regimes possible;

erosion characteristics distribution of phases carrier phase for solids Flow regimes with particles in the gas show higher erosion rates than those with particles in the liquid phase.
Bubble (bubbly) flow

Liquid
Plug flow

Gas

Gas Liquid
Stratified flow

Gas Liquid
Wave (wavy) flow

Gas Liquid

Liquid

Gas
Slug flow

Annular flow

Churn flow

Mist (spray) flow

273

Erosion Caused by high velocity impact & cutting action of liquid and/or solid particles Erosion failures can be rapid Erosion-corrosion Occurs in environments that are both erosive and corrosive. Erosion and corrosion can be independent or synergistic.

Erosion of tungsten carbide choke trim

274

Areas wherever flow is restricted or disturbed

T-pieces, bends, chokes, valves, weld beads

Trinidad

Areas exposed to excessive flow rates Sand washing

Washing infrequently allowing sand to accumulate High pressure drop during washing of separators

Sea water systems

High flow areas in water injection / cooling systems

Algeria (duplex)
275

Sand accumulation

Build up of sand in a test separator

Large pressure drop across sand drain pipework during washing Occurred within 2 minutes of opening the drain

Pressure drop

Rapid failure

Erosion at bend

276

Sand allowed to accumulate in separator Wash nozzles embedded in sand PCV not working properly High pressure / flowrate Nozzle not erosion-resistant Erosion of wash nozzle Spray changed to a jet causing erosion of shell Local changes to operating procedures not communicated Frequency of sand washing Risk not captured or assessed in RBI

Water spray

Water jet

277

Progressive nozzle damage

278

Occurs in environments that can be erosive and corrosive. Erosion and corrosion can either be: independent of each other; wastage equals sum of individual wastage rates synergistic; wastage rate > sum of individual rates localised protective film breakdown at bends, elbows areas of turbulence

279

Water speed or local turbulence damages or removes protective film 90-10 Cu-Ni susceptible to internal erosion-corrosion (impingement) at velocities >3.5ms-1 Water-swept pits (horse-shoe shaped)
280

Occurs at high fluid velocities Formation & collapse of vapour bubbles in liquid flow on metal surface. No solids required Typical locations
Pump impellers (rapid change in pressure which damages films) Stirrers, hydraulic propellers

Use erosion resistant materials

Stellite, tungsten carbide

281

UNIFORM CORROSION: idealized form of corrosion less damaging uniform thinning prevention: protective coating proper material selection, use inhibitors

GALVANIC CORROSION:(BIMETTALIC CORROSION) two dissimilar metals with different corrosion potential metal with lower potential will corrode first grooving of interface this principle is applied in beneficial way for corrosion control in cathodic protection

Three conditions are required for galvanic corrosion; A conducting electrolyte (typically seawater). Two different metals in contact with the electrolyte. An electrical connection between the two metals. Relative positions within the electrochemical series (for given electrolyte) provides driving potential and affects rate. Corrosion of base metal (anode) stimulated by contact with noble metal (cathode). Relative area of anode and cathode can significantly affect corrosion rate. Higher conductivity increases corrosion e.g. presence of salts

284

Firewater CuNi / super duplex stainless steel connections. 4CuNi pipe with a 550mm isolation spool (i.e. 5x OD) Leaks experienced on CuNi spools at welds Same problems with CuNi / 6Mo

285

ETAP platform Techlok joints in a firewater piping system Piping: super-duplex Seal rings: 17-4PH

286

Brass tubesheet in seawater service Brass is Cu-Zn alloy Cu is more noble than Zn Zn dissolves preferentially leaving Cu behind Result Loss of strength Difficult to seal Remedy Add arsenic to the brass

287

Avoid dissimilar materials in seawater system designs MoC for later changes Avoid small anode/large cathode Avoid graphite gaskets & seals Avoid connecting carbon steel to titanium alloys Galvanic corrosion or hydrogen charging of titanium may occur

Electrical isolation between different alloy classes Install distance spools, separation of at least 20x pipe diameters Solid non-conducting spool e.g. GRP Line the noble metal internally with an electrically non-conducting material e.g. rubber Apply a non-conducting internal coating on the more noble material. Extend coating for 20 pipe diameters.
288

Example : CuNi-Super duplex

Distance spool: solid, non-conducting material e.g. GRP

Distance spool: noble metal internally lined with an electrically non-conducting material such as rubber

Apply a non-conducting internal coating on the more noble material.

289

OTHER CORROSION MECHANISMS

290

Chemicals can be corrosive Carbon steel OK for non-corrosive chemical piping, e.g. methanol Corrosive chemicals (e.g. concentrated solutions of inhibitors and biocides) require CRAs vendor will specify

316 SS is typical

Notable exceptions:
Hypochlorite: very corrosive, titanium or GRP piping required Avoid titanium alloys in dry methanol service due SCC

SCC of a titanium seal exposed to pure methanol instead of 5% water content

291

 Carbon steel open drain pipework. Seepage of scale inhibitor (passing valve) Scale inhibitor pH <2. Chemical entered drains, not flushed

292

Inadequate mixing corrosion Intermittent use switch off when not flowing Areas affected Impingement / turbulent areas Bends and low points Use quill/other mixer Upgrade material Thicker schedule Valve arrangement Make self-draining Enable quill removal
Main Flow

Injected Fluid

Impingement

293

Environments less common in E&P Flare tips, fired heaters, boilers Oxidation Oxidation significant >530C Oxidation rate varies with temp, gas composition and alloy Cr content Firetubes: usually CS, but CrMo alloys needed for high temps Flare tips: 310 SS, alloy 800H Other high temperature mechanisms sulphidation (H2S and SO2) carburizing, metal dusting, hot salt thermal fatigue and creep
294

Material: carbon/low-alloy steels Environment: aqueous amine systems Cracking due to residual stresses at/next to non-PWHTd weldments Cracking develops parallel to the weld Mitigation: PWHT all CS welds including repair and internal/external attachment welds. Use solid/clad stainless steel 304 SS or 316 SS

Intergranular cracking

Amine piping welds require PWHT to avoid SCC

295

Glycol usually regarded as benign Corrosion in glycol regeneration systems usually due to; Acid gases absorbed by rich glycol or Organic acids from oxidation of glycol and thermal decomposition products Condensation of low pH water giving carbonic acid attack. Risk recognised in design On-skid: CRA piping & clad vessels However, off-skid piping mix of regular CS and LTCS
296

Combined action of cyclic tensile stress and a corrosive environment Fatigue is caused by cyclic stressing below the yield stress Cracks start at stress raisers Can occur due to vibration e.g. smallbore nozzles & with heavy valve attachments Presence of corrosive environment exacerbates the problem Can lead to pitting, which acts as stress concentrators

297

2 A106 GrB carbon steel piping Wet gas service, 1.2%CO2 and 160ppm H2S Operating @ 120C and 70bar Elbow exposed to vibration (used in a gas compression train) Crack located at 12 o'clock position Crack initiated internally

298

EXTERNAL CORROSION SURFACE FACILITIES

299

External corrosion of unprotected steel surfaces External corrosion of coated surfaces Corrosion under insulation (CUI) Corrosion under fireproofing (CUF) Pitting & crevice Corrosion Environmental cracking

300

Bare steel surfaces At locations of coating breakdown Under deposits such as dirt, adhesive tape or nameplates Mating faces between pipe/pipe support saddles & clamps Isolated equipment not maintained or adequately mothballed Water sources include: sea spray and green water (FPSO or semi-sub) rain deluge water leaking process water condensation downwind of cooling towers.

301

Damage can be extensive or localised. Corrosion can be general attack, pitting or cracking. Seen as flaking, cracking, and blistering of coating with corrosion of the substrate.

302

Carbon/low alloy steels usually covered in compact scale/thick scab Stainless steels have light stains on the surface possibly with stained water droplets and / or salts. Corroding copper alloys covered in blue/green corrosion products.

303

304

25Cr super-duplex (PREN 40) Seawater service 12 months exposure in tropical climate External corrosion along welds Poor quality fabrication

305

Bolted joints Onshore and offshore: exposed to frequent wetting Low alloy bolts General or localised corrosion Galvanic corrosion in stainless steel flanges CRA bolts susceptible to pitting and/or SCC Crevice corrosion under bolt heads and nuts Hydrogen embrittlement possible Fatigue

306

General corrosion

Galvanic corrosion

Crevice corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking

307

Corrosion General surface corrosion Galvanic corrosion e.g. 316 SS / carbon steel Use of graphite gaskets Potential problems Failure of flanged connection due to corroded fasteners Joint leak Corrective actions Change gasket/fastener materials Replace graphite gaskets with non-asbestos or rubber material

308

Location of graphite gaskets

309

Valves Valve handles Chain-wheels Valve body Structures Stairways and walkways Gratings, ladders, handrails Cable trays and unistruts Threaded plugs Valve bodies, xmas trees, piping Dissimilar metals

310

Deterioration of coating with time All paints let water through - continuously wet areas will fail Poor original surface preparation / paint application Mechanical damage Small area of damage can lead to major corrosion

311

CUI Water seeps into insulation and becomes trapped, results in wetting and corrosion of the metal Carbon steel corrodes in the presence of water due to the availability of oxygen. CUF Same mechanism except water gets behind the fireproofing.

312

Typical insulation types; Process Personnel protection (PP) Winterisation Acoustic Challenge the need Remove unnecessary insulation Replace PP with cages

Mitred joint

Lobster-back joint

Pre-formed bends
313

4 gas compression recycle line Operating pressure, 35bar 3 bar pressure surge Temperature: 50C 6.02mm nominal WT Rockwool insulation Extensive corrosion rupture Unusual, burst rather than leaked

314

2 fuel gas piping outside edge of platform - exposed CS, heat-traced, Rockwool Operating @ 5bar, 45C, 5.4mm NWT Failed during plant start-up External corrosion scale, CUI

Focus on internal corrosion Previous survey found defect in an adjacent line. Failed line in survey but not failed area. Features selected from onshore not site survey

315

 4 CS hydrocarbon line 55C, inlet to PSV (153 bar) Thermally-sprayed aluminium (TSA) CUI found, radiographed ok to refurbish. Found during needle-gunning (paint removal)

Max pit depth 10mm

Insulation permanently removed

316

CS offshore vessel Operating at 85C and 11 bar PFP coating (passive fire protection) Extensive corrosion scabbing on both sides of vessel. Scaling runs in two horizontal distinct lines along each side. Scaling directly above lower seam of insulation location of water retention.

400x300x30mm

400x100x25mm
317

Stainless steels in marine environments (chlorides, O2) 316L stainless steel commonly used for instrument tubing Particularly susceptible at supports and fittings. Primary mitigation is materials selection (higher PREw) Tungum, 6Mo, superduplex Alternative mitigation methods (coating, cleaning), not easy or practical.
318

316 SS tubing

super-duplex tubing

316 SS (pitting/crevice corrosion)

super-duplex (no pitting)

319

Pitting and crevice corrosion of 316ss piping Clamps Plastic retaining blocks

320

Mechanism same as internal chloride SCC however: Numerous variables influence susceptibility therefore guidance differs Material, stress, chlorides, oxygen and temperature No absolute guidance available, seek expert advice

Chloride SCC is characterised by transgranular crack paths

321

UK HSE: Coat 22Cr duplex >80C NORSOK M-001 SCC temp limits: 22Cr duplex >100C 25Cr super-duplex >110C Recent testing has shown failures at 80C now recommend 70C as limit Reliant on external coatings to act as barrier (isolate from environment) Beware solar heating - can raise external temperature above threshold limits! SCC failure of 316L

322

well casings: external corrosion caused by faulty electrical insulation between wellhead and flow line or gas gathering line oil wells with known casing leaks should be checked for external corrosion internal corrosion is frequently caused by " breathing of air if the casing-tubing annulus is open to the atmosphere.

vessels: external corrosion of tanks set on soil foundations, buried drain lines beneath tanks and crevices where moisture can collect between tank and supports. internal corrosion caused by "breathing " air into vessels , faulty gas blankets, and solids accumulation on tank bottoms .

MEASUREMENT OF CORROSION: measurements are usually made over an extended time because single tests do not provide reliable values of damage, a comparison of several tests conducted periodically at a single point or simultaneously at several points in a system give a more accurate appraisal of whether corrosion control can be economically justified four techniques are used commonly

a specific technique may be more suitable , depending on the cause of the corrosion, the equipment involved, and operating conditions a combination of techniques will provide the most useful information. visual inspection: out of service equipment can be inspected to determine corrosion damage entire equipment can be scanned rather than the local areas , records and descriptions are essential for future reference and comparison.

caliper survey: surveys are run with wire line to inspect the internal surface of tubing or casing, mechanical feelers contact the inside metal surface and detect metal loss due to pitting , metal thinning, or rod wear, better detail is obtained with instruments where all infeelers record, such as the Kinley tool . caliper surveys are most useful if they are conducted periodically to determine the progression of pits or area metal loss.

casing inspection log: magnetic flux leakage detection tools are available from a variety of service companies, tools use the distorted magnetic field around an anomaly in the pipe wall, such as a pit, to create a signal in a pick-up coil , which is transmitted to the logging truck where it is recorded as a "kick" on a strip chart. principal of magnetic flux leakage was adapted by Shell Development Company for use on a downhole logging device, and tools have since evolved

ultrasonic thickness tests: use the principle of speed of transmission of a sound wave through a material is a constant characteristic of the material, time required for an ultrasonic pulse introduced at one surface to traverse the metal thickness, reflect off the other surface, and return to the detector is measured and converted to metal thickness. disadvantage : measures a tiny area of the total surface, pitting is easily missed, useful where erosion, erosion corrosion etc. are problems .

metal loss rate tests: most common of all corrosion rate measurement tests, corrosion coupons are strips of mild steel, after being exposed to the corrosive fluid for four to six weeks, coupon are removed cleaned of all corrosion products without any attack of the metal by cleaning weight loss,area of coupon , and exposure time used to calculate corrosion rate , which is reported in mils per year (MPY) of metal loss (one mil equals. 00 1 in)

corrosion rates through coupons can be inexpensive if the number of coupons used in a system is large and personnel for processing coupons are available. metal of the coupon is seldom identical with metal of the pipe line; therefore, corrosion rate of coupon may not be identical with that of the pipe, if corrosion is negligible on installed coupon, corrosion of the pipe may also be negligible.

coupon preparation: usually by sandblasting and degreasing, coupons must be accurately weighed before exposure ,corrosion of the coupon must be prevented while it is stored or being transported to and from the test location grease, oil, or fingerprints on the uncorroded coupon will prevent the coupon from corroding properly when exposed.

electrical resistance method: instrument measures electrical resistance of an exposed metal sensor and is an adaptation of the Wheatstone bridge, bridge consists of four resistances, the probe resistances , small strip, wire or tube of steel etc is exposed to the corrosion environment, changes in resistance as corrosion reduces the cross-section of the probe provide a very precise measure of corrosion rate this technique appreciably reduces total time required to obtain reliable corrosion rate

Disadvantages of the electric resistance meter to measure corrosion rate are: 1 . somewhat expensive. 2. sensitive instrument not easily repaired in the field,however, the instrument and measurements can be checked easily for accuracy. 3 . results do not always correlate with results from longer term coupon tests .

Linear Polarization Resistance Method-(Corrosion Rate Meter)- meter uses a two or three-electrode probe that is inserted into the system. meter measures corrosion current but does not measure metal loss from corrosion as the electric resistance meter does, an external current is applied from the auxiliary electrode to the test electrode to change its potential with respect to the reference electrode by 10 to 20 mill volts . applied current is related to metal loss and corrosion rate .

Chemical Test for Corrosion Rate: measurement of iron dissolved in produced water stream can indicate a metal-loss rate, corrosion product must be water soluble, the test is applicable primarily to CO2 corrosion in which water-soluble ferrous bicarbonate Fe(HC03)2 is the corrosion product, this type of corrosion is usually associated with gas wells and wells producing sweet crude .

iron content is measured in parts per million and then converted to iron loss in pounds per day using the water production rate of the test well, with uniform corrosion , the loss may be high and damage small but in pitting corrosion, the loss could be low and damage severe, common practice is to supplement iron count data with tubing caliper surveys run in key wells at intervals of one to two years,iron loss rates may not correlate with equipment failures.

Corrosion Records In any production operation, a study of corrosion records can be started at any time if records of purchases and repairs due to corrosion are available, preliminary study may show that leaks and repairs are confined to certain parts of the system, example, most flow line leaks may occur at road crossings or near tank batteries or wells . Control measures might then be limited to vulnerable places

CORROSION CONTROL: usually impossible or too expensive to stop all corrosion, may sometimes be allowed to proceed at an acceptable rate if the projected economic loss from corrosion is less than the cost of corrosion control corrosion control is also influenced by safety aspects, governmental regulations , and environmental considerations . ways to minimize corrosion: materials selection, engg. design , coatings , cathodic protection etc.

Material selection Metals and Alloys iron and steel are most commonly used in oil field operations because of lower cost, ease of fabrication and strength, there are applications where high-priced alloys are more economical than the use of steel, expensive alloys are used in sucker rod pumps because other means of corrosion control are not so effective ,materials used in sucker rod pumps in sour service are categorized for use by the degree of system corrosiveness in NACE Standard MR-O I - 76 .

when hydrogen sulfide is present, the effect of hydrogen embrittlement on the strength and durability of a metal is a concern, acceptable metals to resist embrittlement in an H2S environment are shown in NACE Standard MR-O l -75 . 17 In carbon dioxide and oxygen environments , embrittlement is not a problem , metals are selected for metal loss control, NACE Standard RP04-75 lists materials that have been used in aerated and nonaerated salt water handling systems .

Galvanic corrosion is primarily a metals selection problem,simple solution is to use similar metals . other means of controlling ( 1 ) select metals close together in the galvanic series, (2)use inhibitors, (3) use proper coatings, (4) electrically insulate , (5) use cathodic protection, or (6) select metals so that anodic area is large compared to cathodic area.

Corrosion Control Through Original Design savings in future repair and maintenance are usually possible through proper planning for corrosion ,new installation should be designed to last the life of the project, but over-design should be avoided , future failures are inadvertently built into system design, many types of corrosion can be eliminated or minimized by proper engineering design, some of the more prevalent corrosion problems resulting from improper design:

1.Crevices cause concentration cell corrosion . 2.Poor drainage of lines and equipment may cause concentration-cell corrosion. 3. Dissimilar metals coupled together cause galvanic corrosion. 4. Improper selection of metal may result in sulfide embrittlement. 5.If fluid velocity is too slow , solids settle and shelter bacteria. Trace amounts of oxygen set up concentration cells . If it is too high , protective films are eroded. 6. Air-exclusion equipment is undersized.

7.Pump suction conditions may promote cavitation 8.Flow lines or gas-gathering lines are either not insulated from the well, or insulation is not maintained These are only a few examples of corrosion problems resulting from poor design. Installation of insulating flanges or fiberglass-reinforced plastic nipples should be standard procedure at the wellhead in flow lines and gas-gathering lines.

Galvanic Cells and Corrosion-Resistant Metals Two different metals , immersed in the same electrolyte (salt or acid solution) , will have an electrical potential difference between them, and, if the two metals are connected together, current will flow from one metal to the other. This system is called a galvanic cell; it is the basic arrangement of the drycell battery .

Metals such as magnesium , zinc , or aluminum etc.are active" metals such as nickel and monel, are "passive" metals, definite values of the electric potentials are not given because metals and alloys do not have definite and fixed potentials in sea water, an extreme example , serious pitting of admiralty brass tubes in a cooling system was observed adjacent to steel baffles.

Galvanic Series of Metal and Alloys in Flowing Sea Water Magnesium and magnesium alloys Zinc Com mercially pure a l u m i n u m ( 1 1 00) Cad m i u m Aluminum 2024 (4. 5 Cu, 1 . 5 Mg, 0.6 Mn) Steel or iron Cast iron Chromium stainless steel 1 3% Cr (active)

Ni-Resist Cast Iron (high Ni) 1 8-8 stainless steel (active) 1 8-8 Mo stainless steel (active) Lead-tin solders Lead Tin Nickel (active) Inconel (active) Hastelloy B (60 Ni, 30 M o, 6 Fe, 1 Mn)

The relative area of the steel is large, so the galvanic couple causes only a slight increase in the corrosion rate per unit area of the steel , and the steel body is so heavy that it seldom fails,in cathodic protection through the use of sacrificial anodes including sacrificial metallic coatings , corrosion is transferred from the steel to the more active metal whose only function is to corrode and protect the steel .

Insulating Flanges or Nipples: Insulating flanges , couplings , or nipples in a pipe line can be installed and tested during construction at a much lower cost than after the pipe line is in operation, during construction, it is not always possible to determine where the insulating joints will be needed; when in doubt, insulating flanges or nipples should usually be installed, they can be easily shorted out if not needed .

CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects--Corrosion problems can be so severe that they become the limiting factor in determining whether CO2 injection projects are economical . Materials that will be contacted by wet CO2 or water containing CO2 must be carefully selected Wellhead equipment where water and CO2 are alternately injected are generally constructed of special alloys. Valves and meters are commonly type 316 stainless steel or aluminum bronze

Low carbon stainless steel ( 316-L) should be used for welded components to avoid sensitization to rapid corrosion in the heat-affected zone, threaded stainless steel connections should be avoided because of frequent galling problems during makep,thick-film epoxy coatings have blistered severely in high pressure CO2 service, thin-film phenolics and epoxy-modified phenolics have given good service in injection well tubing

Separators and water tanks should be internally coated and have cathodic protection,continuous inhibitor treatments may be required in the water injection system ,special precautions are usually taken to separate the CO2 and water injection piping,bind flanges or removable spools are used to prevent backmixing of CO2 and water in surface piping .

Coatings: prevent corrosion by isolating the substrate metal from the corrosive environment, coatings, such as galvanizing or zinc-rich paints, have the additional effect of protecting the steel at pinholes, or holidays, in the coating by sacrificing themselves through galvanic action, importance of surface preparation, which is the most critical step in any coating application must be stressed

coatings in production operations can be catagorized as ( 1 ) internal coatings and liners for tubulars, (2) immersion coatings such as used in oil field tanks , (3) external pipeline coatings, (4) atmospheric coatings or paints , and (5) ceramic and metallic coatings for smaller parts including those coatings used for purposes other than corrosion resistance e.g.chrome hard-facing.

Coatings are seldom used as the sole method of preventing corrosion, except in the case of paints or where corrosion is rather mild. inhibitors and cathodic protection are usually used in combination with coatings to approach 100% protection as closely as economically possible,joint has always been a weak link in corrosion resistance for internally coated pipe ,threaded and coupled pipe should use couplings that have been coated in the stand-off area with the same material

Inhibition with Chemicals: is widely used to reduce corrosion. Inhibitors control corrosion in tank s , flow lines, tubing , well casing, waterflood equipment, and gas plants . There are two general types of inhibitors based on chemical composition:1 . Inorganic inhibitors , which include chromates, phosphates , nitrites, arsenic , and other chemical s . 2 . Organic inhibitors , which include a wide variety of high molecular weight compounds.

Inorganic inhibitors are used in closed cooling systems , in high temperature acidizing and in the treatment of steel surfaces in preparation for painting. Organic inhibitors have wide application in petroleum production,they provide an effective means for controlling corrosion in gas condensate wells and sour oil wells and in acidizing oil and gas wells

Most of the effective chemicals used in oil and gas wells, service wells,and lease equipment are long-chain nitrogen compounds, this type of inhibitor, a film formed on the wall of the pipe or vessel,increases resistance to corrosion current , film can be formed and maintained on metal surfaces by continuously adding the inhibitor to a flow stream, or it can be created by " slugging" the flow, film efficiency depends on inhibitor concentration and contact time with the metal surface

Removal of Corrosive Gases:sourcesof water used in waterflooding contain up to 8 ppm oxygen. with 1 ppm oxygen, steel or iron corrodes several times as fast as in oxygenfree water,oxygen causes growth of bacteria, which further aggravates corrosion and increases solids content of the water, mixing oxygen-containing water with oil field waters containing either dissolved iron or hydrogen sulfide causes precipitation of iron oxide or iron or iron sulfide

Three methods that are economically feasible for the removal of oxygen are chemical scavengers , vacuum deaeration , and counter flow gas stripping . Chemical Scavengers-Sodium sulfite , ammonium bisulfite , or sulfur dioxide may be added to water to react and remove oxygen. Vacuum Deaeration-Creating a vacuum in a packed tower and passing water over the packing will reduce the oxygen content in water. The low pressure and the small amount of oxygen in vapor contacting the water causes the dissolved oxygen to bubble out of solution

Gas Stripping-Natural gas in a counter-flow stripping column causes an oxygen-free environment, which permits dissolved oxygen to escape from water,a packed column or tray-type column can be used, tray-type column is preferred where fouling with suspended matter or bacterial slime is a problem this system is usually designed to use not more than two cubic feet of gas per barrel of water being stripped of oxygen .

Cathodic Protection :corrosion occurs where electrical currents discharge from metal into an electrolyte , for example , from pipe into soil, tank wall into salt water, or casing wall into the formation,if an outside electrical power source is used to impose a counter current with sufficient voltage to overpower the voltage of the corrosion cell, corrosion current stops flowing and corrosion stops. This technique is called cathodic protection-steel becomes a cathode .

Design of Cathodic Protection:cathodic protection system should be designed so that the output of the anodes will provide the minimum-required current density to all parts of the protected structure ,on coated structures , the required current cannot be predicted exactly because the exposed area is not known,in these cases , the corrosion engineer must use voltage measurements to fix current requirements and the location of anodes or an estimate based on prior experience with similar coated structures.

Nonmetallic Materials: if operating temperatures and pressures allow , plastic pipe and plastic tanks are frequently used to eliminate corrosion . fiberglass reinforced plastics (FRP) are replacing steel in many environments where only steel was available to handle the stresses earlier, fiberglassreinforced polyester sucker rods are available with ultimate strength exceeding that of some steel rods , although the fiberglass must be used at a lower percentage of ultimate strength than steel.