13.1.

1 Outline the wide diversity in the plant kingdom as exemplified by the structural
differences between bryophytes, filicinophytes, coniferophytes and angiospermophytes.
Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts):
• No roots, vascular system, or cuticle.
• Rhizoids similar to root hairs.
• Mosses with simple leaf-like structures.
• Liverworts have flattened shape called a thallus.
Filicinophytes (ferns):
• Roots, leaves in fronds, and vascular system.
• Cuticle on leaves.
• Can form small trees but not woody.
Coniferophytes (conifers):
• Shrubs to very large trees.
• Advanced vascular system.
• Woody stems and roots.
Angiospermophytes (flowering plants):
• Highly variable in structure-tiny herbaceous to large trees
• Roots, stems and leaves.
• Advanced vascular system.
• Can form woody tissue.

13.1.4 Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in the leaves and the
function of these tissues.
• Xylem: Bring water to replace losses due to transpiration, and inorganic minerals from the soil.
• Phloem: Transports products of photosynthesis out of the leaf.
• Stoma: A pore that allows CO2 for photosynthesis to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out.
• Guard Cells: this pair of cells can open or close the stoma and so control the amount of
transpiration.
• Upper Epidermis: a continuous layer of cells covered by a thick waxy cuticle. It prevents water
loss from the upper surface even when heated by sunlight.
• Lower Epidermis: is in a cooler position and has a thinner waxy cuticle.
• Spongy mesophyll: consists of loosely packed rounded cells with few chloroplasts. This tissue
provides the main gas exchange surface so must be near the stomata in the lower epidermis.
• Palisade mesophyll: consists of densely packed cylindrical cells with many chloroplasts. This is
the main photosynthetic tissue and is positions near the upper surface where the light intensity
is highest.
13.2.1 Explain how root systems provide a large surface area for mineral ion and water
uptake by means of branching, root hairs, and cortex cell walls.
Root hairs provide a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake. Cortex cells absorb ions that
are dissolved in water, drawn in by capillary action through cortex cell walls. Branching increases
quantity and area roots can absorb ions from.
13.2.2 Describe the process of mineral ion uptake into roots by active transport.
Plants absorb potassium, phosphate, nitrates, and other mineral ions from the soil. Active transport
pump ions into the roots. Root hairs provide large surface area for ion uptake.
13.2.5 Define transpiration
Transpiration - loss of water vapor from the leaves and stems of plants
13.2.6 Explain how water is carried by transpiration stream, including the structure of
xylem vessels, transpiration pull, cohesion, and evaporation.
Transpiration causes a flow of water from roots to stem and leaves. This movement is called
transpiration stream.
1. Evaporation of water from spongy mesophyll cell walls of leaves
2. Evaporated water is replaced from xylem, pulled out of the xylem through mesophyll
pores by capillary action
3. Low pressure is created inside xylem vessels when water is pulled out (transpiration pull).
Xylem vessels contain long, unbroken columns of water where the pressure is transmitted
across.
4. To equalize the pressure, water travels up the vessels through its property of cohesion
13.2.7 State that guard cells open and close stomata to regulate transpiration.
13.2.8 Explain how abiotic factors affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial
mesophyllic plant.
• Light - The intensity of light increases or decreases the rate of evaporation of water from
the top of leaves, causing an increase or decrease in the rate of transpiration.
• Temperature - High temperatures increase the rate of evaporation of water from the top of
leaves, resulting in an increase in the rate of transpiration. Conversely, low temperatures
decrease the rate of evaporation of water from the top of leaves, resulting in a decrease in
the rate of transpiration.
• Wind - High wind also increases evaporation by allowing more air molecules to collide with
the water molecules on leaves, resulting in an increase in evaporation of water and
transpiration. Low wind results in more stagnant, saturated air around the stomata which
decreases evaporation and transpiration.
• Humidity - High humidity decreases the rate of evaporation and transpiration of a plant.
13.2.9 Outline the role of phloem in active translocation of biochemicals.
Phloem have sieve tubes that transport organic compounds. Column cells develop into sieve tubes by
breaking down nuclei and cytoplasm, making large pores in their end walls to allow a flow of sap. The
plasm membrane pump organic compounds into sieve tubes using ATP. This creates a high
concentration of solute causing water to diffuse in, reulting in a positive pressure gradient allowing
organic compounds to be pumped anywhere in the plant.
Sugars and amino acids are transported inside plants by phloem tissue. This process is called active
translocation because phloem cells have to use energy to make it happen. Sugars and amino acids are
loaded into the phloem in parts of the plant called sources and are translocated to sinks, where they
are unloadeded. Examples of sources are parts of the plant where photosynthesis is occurring (stems
and leaves) and storage organs where the stores are being mobilized. Examples of sinks are roots,
growing fruits and the developing seeds inside of them.

13.3.3 Distinguish between pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal.

• Pollination - transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
• Fertilization - fusion of male and female gametes in the ovum
• Seed dispersal - fertilized ovums develop into fruits which are designed for seed dispersal
13.3.5 Describe the metabolic events in the germination in a typical starchy seed.
1. Absorption of water rehydrates living cells in seed
2. Plant growth hormone gibberellin produced
3. Stimulates production of amylase, catalyzing the digestion of starch to maltose
4. Maltose is transported to growth regions of seedling
5. Maltose converted to glucose
1. Used in cellular respiration until leaves can start photosynthesis above ground
 2. Used to synthesize cellulose of other substances for growth
13.3.6 Explain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed.
• Abundance of water - rehydrates dry tissue
• Oxygen - aerobic cellular respiration before photosynthesis can occur
• Suitable temperatures - Germination involves enzymatic activity in digestion of starch and
cellulose synthesis. If temperatures :*fall outside of temperature ranges for these
enzymes, germination does not occur. This causes seasonal germination in many places.
• Seeds vary in their light requirements and,therefore, this factor need not be included
13.1.3 Draw plan diagrams to show the distribution of tissues in the stem, root and leaf of a
generalized dicotyledonous plant.
13.3.1 Draw the structure of a dicotyledonous animal-pollinated flower, as seen with the
naked eye and hand eyes.
 13.3.4 Draw the external and internal structure of a named dicotyledonous seed.

Outline three differences between the structures of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous

plants.

Factor Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous plant

plant (monocot) (Dicot)
Leaf veins Parallel to one another Form in a net-like pattern
Vascular bundles Spread through stem In a ring near outside of
randomly stem
Number of stamens and Multiples of three Multiples of 4 or 5
other organs
Roots Unbranched roots grow Roots grow from other
from stems roots

Identify modifications of roots, stems and leaves for different functions: bulbs, stem tubers,
storage roots and tendrils.
Bulbs
In some monocots, leaf bases grow to form bulbs, underground organs used for food storage. They can
be identified from the series of leaf bases fitting inside each other, with a central shoot apical
meristem.

Stem Tubers
In some dicotyledon plants, stems grow downwards into the soil and sections of them grow into stem
tubers, also used for food storage. They are identified as their vascular bundles are arranged in rings
reminiscent of stem bundles.

Storage Roots
These roots are swollen with stores of food, identified by the central location of vascular tissue.

Tendrils
These narrow outgrowths from leaves rotate through the air until they touch a solid support to which
they attach, allowing the plant to climb upwards.

Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in dicotyledonous plants.

Apical meristems

All flowering plants have them

Located at the tip of the roots and stems

Shoots produces new leaves and flowers

Lateral Meristems

They are developed as they are not necessary for a plant’s growth.

In young stems, they consist of cambium in vascular bundles.

In older stems, they are a complete ring of cambium, and form similarly in roots.

Growth makes roots/trunk thicker. Lateral meristems are located inside of the bark.

Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant growth.

Auxin is a plant hormone. It controls phototropism, directional growth in response to the source of light.
Auxin is redistributed from the shoot tip (as shoot tipes can detect light intensity) on the lighter to the
shadier side.

Auxin efflux Carriers (pumps) in the plasma membrane transport genes, so growth of cells accelerates.

Assessment Statement 9.2.2

List ways in which mineral ions in the soil move to the root.

-Diffusion of mineral ions

-Fungal hyphae

-Mass flow of water in ion-carrying soil

Outline four adaptations of xerophytes that help to reduce transpiration.

-Vertical stems absorb sunlight early and late in the day, but not at midday when light is most intense.

- Thick waxy cuticle covers the stem

- CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) physiology, which involves the opening of stomata during the
cool nights instead of in the intense heat of the day

- Spines take the place of leaves to reduce surface area, preventing transpiration.

Explain how flowering is controlled in long-day and short day plants, including the role of
phytochrome.

Phytochrome is a pigment, which exists in two interconvertible forms.

Pr – the inactive form of phytochrome, absorbs red light with a wavelength of 660 nm. After absorbing
the light, it turns into Pfr.

Pfr – the active form of phytochrome, absorbs far red light with a wavelength of 730 nm, and is
transformed back to Pr rapidly after the absorption of light.

In normal daylight, there is much more red light than far red light, so phytochrome exists more in the
form Pfr. Thus, in darkness it reverts back to Pr.

Enough Pfr remains in long-day plants at the end

Red of short
light nights to stimulate flowering.
(sunlight)
Rapid conversion

Pr Far red light Pfr

(rapid conversion)

Slow conversion during darkness

State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral meritsems.

State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose, cell
turgor, and lignified xylem.

State that plant hormone abscisic acid causes the closing of stomata.