Aoptics2 Lens

Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.
Yazd
University
Spherical single , thin lens,

thick lens
Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.Yazd
University
Surface power
For curved refracting surfaces, the extent by which the incoming light is deviated
from its original path is known as the “surface power” (D) and is dependent on:
(I) the difference in refractive index
(II) the radius of curvature of the surface, r.
Glass Block
n n'
r
DF = n' - n
r
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Surface power
Surface Power, D:
D = n’ – n r must be measured in metres

r
⇒ unit for D is the reciprocal metre , i.e. 1/metres or m-1
The reciprocal metre is better known as the dioptre
Higher values for D result from

1- large differences between the refractive indices
2- when the value for r is small (i.e. the curvature is steep)
Rays aimed at the centre of curvature of a spherical refracting

surface will pass through undeviated. Why ?
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Vergence(1)
How do we specify the extent to which the incident/emergent
rays converge or diverge?
Rays of Light Diverging from a Point Object
The arc shown is called a wavefront, & the curvature of the

wavefront is called the vergence
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Vergence(2)
Note: with increased distance from source, wavefront gets less
curved (i.e. has less vergence)
so inverse relationship exists
Vergence ∝ 1
distance-to-source
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Vergence(3)
⇒ the vergence of the wavefront is determined by:
(i) distance from point of interest to source
(ii) refractive index of medium in which rays are travelling
Unit for Vergence?

V=n/d
Reciprocal metre.... ⇒ Dioptre
-ve vergence: ⇒ rays diverging
+ve vergence: ⇒ rays converging

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Sample Calculation 1:
Light is made to converge by a lens in air to a point that is
75cm from the lens. Find the vergence of the wavefront when
the ray leaves the lens, and at 50cm and 100cm from the lens.
Converging 50cm behind lens
+75cm
Diverging 100cm behind lens

Which is the point of interest?
Converging 50cm behind lens University
+75cm
Diverging 100cm behind lens
On leaving the lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = +1.33D
(“Image Vergence”) l’ +0.75
50cm from lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = +4D

l’ +0.25
100cm from lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = -4D

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Vergence
8 cm 8 cm
V= 1/(-0.08) = -12.5 m-1 V=1/(+0.08) = 12.5m-1
V=1/∞ = 0
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Vergence
1→2
1
2
n n
V1 = ⇒L
L V1
n
V2 =
d L−d
V1
n( )
n n V1
V2 = = ⇒ V2 =
n n V d
− d ( − d )( 1 ) 1 − V1 ( )
V1 V1 n n
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Refraction at spherical interfaces

“Some rules”
1. Light travels left to right

2. V = origin – measure all distances from here
3. R = positive to the right of V, negative to the left
4. S = positive for real objects (i.e. one to the left of V), negative for
virtual
5. S’ = positive for real image (to right of V), negative for virtual
images
6. Heights – y,y’ – positive up, negative down
+
R+
R-
V
- + _
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Refraction
Refraction by
by Spherical
Spherical Surfaces
Surfaces
At point P we apply the law of
refraction to obtain
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
Using the small angle
approximation we obtain
n1θ1 = n2 θ 2
Substituting for the angles θ 1 and
θ 2 we obtain
n1 ( α − ϕ ) = n2 ( α ′ − ϕ )
Neglecting the distance QV and
writing tangents for the angles gives
h h   h h
n2 > n1 n1  −  = n2  − 
 s R  s′ R 
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Refraction
Refraction by
by Spherical
Spherical Surfaces
Surfaces IIII
Rearranging the equation we obtain
n1 n2 n1 − n2
− =
s s′ R
Using the same sign convention as

for mirrors we obtain
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ =
s s′ R
n2 > n1
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Guss`s Formula and surface power
n1, n α
n2, n`
γ
R
γ
S,O S`, I
n n' n'−n
+ =
s s' R
S = positive for real
objects (i.e. one to
the left of V),
negative for virtual
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Other sign convention

• In some references Gauss` formula is
defined as:
n1 n2 − n1 n2
+ =
o R i
O= negative for real object +
R- R+
O- i+
_
+
_
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Vergence & surface power

n1 n 2 − n1 n2
+ =
o R i n1 n2
O i
n1/o = inter vergence

(n2-n1)/R = surface power
n2/i = exit vergence
Inter vergence+ surface power (optics system power)
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Example
Example:
o = 5mm, n2 = 1.5,
(n1=1)
radius of the lens=1.43mm
What is exit vergence? O
What is i? i
n1 n2 − n1 n2
+ =
o R i
n1 n2 n2
+ =
n1 n2 − n1 n2 o f2 i
+ =
o R i 1 1 1
+ = Gauss` formula
V + β =V` o f2 i
1/(5x10-3 )+(1.5-1)/(1.43x10-3 )=1000/1.5

V=1000/1.5 i=1.5/V i=10 mm
Image Formation—Single Curves Surface University
n (air)
object n’ (glass)
image
object
distance, r
o
image
distance,
i
Gauss’s Equation for
refraction by a single n (n’ - n) n’
+ =
spherical surface o r i
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Gaussian lens equatioin vergence notation
n (n’ - n) n’
+ =
o r i
n
V = o OBJECT VERGENCE
n’
V` = i IMAGE VERGENCE
(n’ - n)
β = r POWER OF REFRACTING SURFACE
β + V = V`
FOCAL LENGTH AND LENS CURVATURE

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R = 4 mm
R = 8 mm
R = 10 mm
Longer R ⇒ less curved lens

Less lens curvature ⇒ longer focal length
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From Gauss’s Equation to the Vergence Equation
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = - = s’ + =
-s s’ f f -s f s s’
1 1 1
P= U= s V=
f s’
Lens power Object vergence Image vergence
f, s, s’ in meters
P+U=V
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Optical system & Vergence
Inter V V` Exit
vergence vergence
Optical
system
O i
β
V int er , vergence + βoptics, systempower = Vexit , vergence *

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example
A small object is located 0.1 m in front of a convex surface. Ground with a 0.03 m
radius on a block of glass of index 1.66. find the position of image;
(a) If the object and glass are in air.
(b) If both are immersed in water (n=4/3)
Solution :
(a) from Gauss`formula, we find that;
o i
n1/o+(n2-n1)/R+n2/i
1.66/i=1.00/-0.1+1.66-1.00/+0.03→ i=+0.138 m (image is real)
(b):
1.66/i=4/3/-0.1+(1.66-4/3)/+0.03→i=1.66/-2.444=-0.679 (image is virtual)
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Spherical Surface Focusing
Example: Example
s = 5mm, n2 = 1.5, s' = 10mm
(n1=1)
n n' n'− n
+ =
What is the radius of the lens?
s s' R
1 n2 ( n2 − 1)
+ = const = n
s s' R n`
1 15. 2 15. 05 .
+ = + = s s,
5 10 10 10 R
35
. 05 .
= n1 n2 − n1 n2
10 R + =
. R=5
35 o R i
5
R= = 143
. mm
35
.
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More Spherical Surface Focusing

Examples
For the same lense, consider s = 6mm. What is s’?
R = 1.43 mm
6 mm
8.18 mm
5 mm
10 mm
1 1.5 0.5
+ =
6 s′ 1.43
1.5
= 0.35 − 0.1666 = 0.1833
s′
1.5
s′ = = 8.18mm
0.18333
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Interesting
Let s Case
∞
from
1 n2 (n2 − 1)
+ = = constant
s s′ R
as “s” increases “s' “ decreases (and vice versa.)
As the point “O” goes to ∞ , O' moves in to a certain
distance -- called the focal length f':
A n1 n2
O'
f'
Focal University
f' is lengths
the focal length in the glass.
Now let O' go to ∞:
B n1 n2
• If we had a light source at f' (in the glass,) the lens collimates the
output A
• Similarly for a light source at f in B
f and University
f’
What are f and f'? n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ =
s s' R
Since s = ∞ f':
n2 (n2 −n1 )
=
f′ R f R f``
and since s' = ∞ f:
n1 (n2 −n1 ) n1
= n2
f R
so f' R f
= =
n2 ( n2 − n1 ) n1
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Case
General case (we do not prove):
For any system of lens (no matter how complicated)
n1 n2
f
ººº ? f'
f f′
System of lenses =
n1 n2
Sometimes
n1 n2 (n2 −n1) is written as

+ =
s s′ R
1 n2 1
+ = (It is easier to measure f than R and n)
s s′ f
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• If we want to calculate the image of the system, we can

calculate the image of spherical surface one after
another.
• The image of first surface is regarded as the object of
the second surface and so on.
• Especially, pay attention to the signs of object distance,
image distance and curvature radius of each spherical
surface.
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Example : A glass ball has a radius of 10cm and

refractive index of 1.5. Use paraxial rays formula to
calculate the image of an object that is 40cm from the ball.
n2 (glass)
n1 (air) n1 (air)
O I1
I2
· p1 p2
v2
u1 20cm u2
v1
Solution: for the first surface, we know
n1 = 1, n2 = 1.5, u1 = 40cm, r = 10cm,
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n1 n2 n2 − n1 1 1.5 1.5 − 1
+ = + =
u1 v1 r 40 v1 10
v1 = 60cm
This is the first step. I1 is the virtual image for the

first lens and it is regarded as the object of the
second spherical surface. So for the second surface,
we have:
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1, u2 = −(v1 − 20)
= −40cm, r = −10cm
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Substituting the above data to the paraxial

ray formula, we have:
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ =
u 2 v2 r
1.5 1 1 − 1.5
− + =
40 v2 − 10
v2 = 11.4cm
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Thin lenses
• A lens is a simple coaxial system and it is an optical system
including two refracting surfaces.
• If the thickness of a lens is much smaller than curvature
radius, the object and image distances, the thickness of the lens
can be negligible in comparison with them. Such a lens is called
thin lens.
• Lens can converge and diverge light.
D<<r, S, S`
D
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Thin lens:
Thickness small in comparison to distances
of optical properties (radius of curvature,
focal length, image and object distances)
focal point
T
Some special rays for converging and diverging University
lenses
(1). Light rays parallel to the axis of a converging lens are
refracted through the focal point on the opposite side of the
lens.
First and second focal point Planes through the focal points
of a lens. of a lens are called focal planes.
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(2). Light rays parallel to the axis of a diverging lens are

refracted so that their backward continuations pass through
the focal point on the same side of the lens.
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(3) Definition of converging and

diverging lenses
A lens is converging if the glass is thinner around

the circumference than at the center and
diverging if the situation is reversed.
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(4). Graphical method

A light ray through the center of a thin lens
continues un-deviated and un-displaced. A light ray
parallel to the axis passes through the second focal
point of a converging lens
F Real image
Virtual image
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The lens equation n

n0
n0
According to the
formula of single
spherical surface, we
can use it one by one v
and finally calculate u v1
the lens equation.
u1 = u, v1 = -u2, n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ =
v2 = v, u v r
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For the first surface, n1= n0, n2 = n
n0 n n − n0
+ =
u v1 r1
For the second surface, n1= n, n2 = n0
n n0 n0 − n
− + =
v1 v r2
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The above two equations can be added

together, then we have
1 1 n − n0  1 1  n0 n n − n0
+ =  −  + =
u v1 r1
u v n0  r1 r2 
n n0 n0 − n
− + =
If lens is in the air, n0 = 1, v1 v r2
1 1 1 1
+ = (n − 1) − 
u v  r1 r2 
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first focal distance for thin lens

−1
1 1 n − n0  1 1   n − n0  1 1  
+ =  −  ⇒ f1 =   −  
f1 ∞ n0  r1 r2   n0  r1 r2  
second focal distance for thin lens:
−1
1 1 n − n0  1 1   n − n0  1 1  
+ =  −  ⇒ f2 =   −  
∞ f2 n0  r1 r2 
 n0  r1 r2  
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Therefore we have f1 = f2 . we can suppose

that they are all equal to f and for air
medium, we have
1 n − n0  1 1  1 1
=  −  = (n − 1) − 
f n0  r1 r2   r1 r2 
Finally we obtain the lens equation,

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example
• b) solving using Vergence:
V1
V2 =
d
P1=1/+0.2 =+5, P2= -16, P3=+10 1 − V1 ( )
n
V2 = 5/[1-(5)(0.06)]=7.1429 m-1
Onleavinglens2
V`=V+P=(+7.1429)+(-16)=-8.8571
Translationfromlens2to3:
V`=(-8.8571)/{1-(-8.8571)(0.06)=-5.7836m-1
Onleavinglens3;
V``=(-5.7836)+(+10 )
= +4.2164
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7.3.3 Systems of two lenses University
Many optical instruments include combinations of two or

more lenses. In systems of multiple lenses, the image formed
by one lens becomes the object for the next lens (see the
following figure).
f1
u1 v1 u2 f2
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However, same as before, sometimes the second lens is placed

between the first lens and the image. The original image
disappears, and the second lens may or may not form a new
image, but the image that the first lens would have formed
still serves as the object for the second lens. Because the first
image is not actually formed but still functions as the object
for the second lens, we call it a virtual object. The object
distance u of a virtual object is negative.
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The case of two connected thin lenses:
For the first lens, u1 = u

1 1 1
+ =
u v1 f1
For the second lens,

v
u2 = -v1, v2 = v,
u1= u v1= -u2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− + = + = +
v1 v f 2 u v f1 f 2
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Suppose that the focal distance for the

group of thin lenses is f, we have
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2
For the more lens systems, we could use
this method one by one to solve them.
Written as dioptric strength,
D = D1 + D2 + 
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Example 7.3: A converging lens of focal

length 12 cm is placed 52 cm from
another converging lens of focal length 8
cm. Calculate the image position of an
object that is 16 cm in front of the first
lens.
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f1=12cm 52cm f2=8cm
air air air

· · ·
16cm
u1
v1
u2
v2
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Solution: the image formed by the first lens

can be obtained by the given data and the
thin length equation. Substituting the first
object distance of 16 cm and the focal
distance of first lens into thin lens equation,
we have
1 1 1
+ =
u1 v1 f1
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v1 = 48cm
16 v1 12
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As the distance between the two lenses is 52

cm, the object distance for the second lens
is 52 – 48 = 4 cm. Using the focal distance
for the second lens of 8 cm, the final image
can be obtained as
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ v2 = −8cm
u 2 v2 f 2 4 v2 8
The image is virtual.

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Magnification
• Transverse Magnification
• Axial Magnifiacation
• Angular Magnification
Magnification* University
object
X f f
immage
s
do s’
di
1. Any ray that comes in parallel on one side proceeds toward a particular
point, called the focus (on the other side of the lens, at a distance f from
the lens).
2. Any ray that arrives at the lens from the focus on one side comes out
parallel to the axis and the other side.
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Magnification
cont’dA F G
y C B D I
y'
E
H
X f f x'
s (d0 ) s'(di )
Triangles ABC and EDB are similar, so:
y/ y
=
f x
Triangles DFG and IHG are also similar, so:
y/ y
/
=
x f
Magnification y/ f
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Fromcont’d
equation 1, =
y x
y/ x /
From equation 2, =
y f
y/ x / f
Or, = = = M , the magnification.
y f x
Consider triangle ADC and HDI, which are also similar:

y y/ y / di
= , or = =M .
do di y do
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Vergence & Magnification
h γ
h γ
=γ
o o
` h`
h
=γ′ i
i
i γ
=
o γ′
i n2 γ n2 n1 o V
= ⇒ = =M
o n1 γ ′ n1 n2 i V ′
h′
M =
h
n1 hγ = n 2 h ′γ ′Smith − Helmholtz , Re lationship
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Axial (longitudinal) Magnification
∆ ∆i
o
o1 i1
o2 i2
o1i1 oi
f = = 22
o1 − i1 o2 − i2
o1i1 (o 2 − i2 ) = o 2 i2 (o1 − i1 )
i2 − i1 ii
= 12
o2 − o1 o1o2
i2 − i1 ∆i
= = M α = M t1 M t 2 = M t
o2 − o1 ∆o
Magnification and Angular Spread (Angular
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Magnification )
αo h αi
X f f X'
d0 di
Consider an optical source with an angular optical output spread of

αo . What is the resulting angular spread αi
after it is focused by the lens?
Recall that:
Magnification and Angular Spread Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.Yazd
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So, cont’d
 αo  h   αi   h 
tan   =   tan  =  
2  do  2  di 
Therefore,
 α o h
tan
 2  do  h   di  di
= =  = = M.
 α i h  do   h  do
tan
 2 di
For small θ , (i.e. < 20 degrees or < 0.35 radians) tan θ = θ

so:
α0
M= ( if the angles are small )
αi
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Coupling
•
•
• Coupling Laser & Fiber
Magnification and Angular Spread University
cont’d
Common Problem: the emission angles from a laser diode (or LED) can
be 40 to 60 degrees. The acceptance angle for a fiber can be 10 to 30
degrees. The solution is to use a lens to increase the coupling efficiency.
Laser α β Fiber
Lens
Example 2-4:
Suppose a source radiates with a 40 degree full cone angle,and it
has the dimensions 20 µm x 20 µm (must be an LED). Design a
lens system to decrease the beam spread to 10 degrees. Also
determine the image size.
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Lens System Example
Solution: Problem
 α o  40 
tan tan
 2  2 0.3639
= M= = = 4.16
 α i  10  0.08748
tan tan
 2  2
αo
2 20
Note: M ≈ α = =4
i 5
2
This means that the image size is 83.2 µm

20x4.16=83.2
Lens University
Systems
Starting from: ( Multiply both sides by d0 )
1 1 1 do do do 1 do
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ 1+ =
do di f do di f M f
So if M = 4.16, then: d0 di
f
1 do
1+ = = 1.24
4.16 f
d0=1.24f
Lens Systems University
cont’d
If the lens has a focal length of 10 cm, then:
do = 1.24 f = 12.4cm
And since
di
= M ⇒ di = 4.16do ⇒ di = 51.6cm
d0
80µm x
80µm
20µm x 20µm
40 deg 10 deg
Laser Fiber
f f
d d
0 i
Systems Lens University
cont’d
Note: We could have chosen f = 1 mm, then our
do = 1.24mm,di = 5.16mm
This solution is reasonable if we are coupling to a

large diameter fiber,i.e. a fiber diameter of greater
than 80 µm.
However, single mode fibers have core diameters on

the order of only 4 to 12 µm. Fortunately, laser
diodes have small apertures, i.e. only 1 to 2 µm in
height and 2 to 5 µm in width.
for Ray Rules University
Tracing
Four Rules for Ray Tracing:
1. Rays travelling through the center of the lens are
undeviated,(using the thin lens approximation, parallel
surfaces).
2. Incident rays travelling parallel to the lens axis pass through

the focal point after emerging from the lens.
3. An incident ray travelling parallel to a central ray intersects

that ray in the focal plane after transmission through the lens.
4. An incident ray passing through the focal point travels

parallel to the lens axis after it emerges from the lens.
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Ray Tracing Rules
Illustration
f f
2
3
Figure 2-10: The numbers refer to the rules.

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Magnification vs. do/f
1 1 1 1 1 1
From our basic equations: + / = ⇒ + = , and
s s f do di f
1 do 1 do
1+ = ⇒ = −1
M f M f
1
5 Therefore, M = d
o
−1
4
f
and the text considers values of
M3
do
2 1< < 2
f
Fig. 2-18
1 d0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 f
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Other
Possibilities:
do
= ∞
Case 1:
f
• The object is at infinity
• Only the parallel rays make it to the lens (this is why the sun's
rays focus to a point).
Other Possibilities
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do
cont’d
Case 2: 2 < <∞
f
1 1
Example: d0/f=3, M = =
3−1 2
The image is real, inverted, reduced (demagnified), and located
between f and 2f.
A
B'
P P'
2f f
A'
B f
Object Image
Figure 2-11: The image formed by a converging lens of an object

that is located at a finite distance beyond 2f'.
Other Possibilities
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cont’d
do
Case 3: =2
f
1 1
M= = =1
2−1 1
The image is real, inverted, the same size as the object, and
is located at 2f on the other side of the lens.
A B'
P P'
2f f' 2f
f
B A'
Figure 2-12: The image formed by a converging lens is real, inverted,

and the same size as the actual object itself.
Other Possibilities Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.Yazd
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dcont’d
Case 4: 1 < ≤2
o
f
1 1
Example: d0/f=1.5, M = = = 2
1.5 −1 0.5
The image is real, inverted, enlarged (magnified), and located

beyond 2f on the opposite side of the lens.
B'
A
P P'
2f' f' f 2f
B
A'
Other Possibilities Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.Yazd
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do cont’d
Case 5: =1
f
1 1
M= = =∞
1−1 0
No image is formed.
P P'
f' f 2f
B
Figure 2-13: No image is formed when the object is located at

the principle focus.
Other Possibilities
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do
cont’d
Case 6: 0 ≤ <1
f
1 1
Example: d0/f=0.5, M = = = −2
0.5 −1 −0.5
The image is virtual, enlarged, and located on the same

side of the lens as the object!
A'
f' f
B
B'
The image formed of an object
less than a focal length from the lens.
Magnificatio
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Magnification as a function of do/f

5
4
3
2
Magnification
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
do/f
University
Using a GRIN to collimate
light
Lens
(a) Fiber
Rod Lens
(b) Fiber
GRIN rod lenses can also be used to collimate light from

a laser diode.
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Other Types of Lenses - Cylindrical
lens
Focal Line
Fig. 2-11
Lens Axis
f
• Focusing, collimation
only in the vertical
direction
• 1D version of the
spherical lens
Fig. 2-12
f
Cylindrical
University
Cly. lens
lens Source
Point Source
Side
View
Point Source
Top
View
Semiconductor lasers (and some LEDs) have asymmetric ray

divergences (or beam spread) because the emitting aperture is
asymmetric.
Planar Source Emitting

University
Apertures
emittting aperature
θ//
laser
Side View
θ⊥
Planar Source
Emitting θ
Aperature
Top View
The Graded Index Rod Lens University
r (GRIN) r
r
n2
a
2a
0 z n(r)
n n
2 1
Fig. 5-4
Fig. 5-6
Ray paths inside a GRIN

University
Rod
2a
Figure 5-5 Ray paths along a GRIN fiber.
P
(c)
GRIN rod.
(c) A typical ray path.
GRIN
University
cont’d
P/4 P/4
(a) (b)
Graded Index Rod.

(a) A quarter-pitch lens collimates light emerging from
a point.
(b) A quarter-pitch lens focuses a collimated light beam.
University
Using a GRIN to collimate
light
Lens
(a) Fiber
Rod Lens
(b) Fiber
GRIN rod lenses can also be used to collimate light from

a laser diode.
The Numerical University
Aperture
Numerical Aperture (NA or N.A.)

Originally defined for microscope objectives.
NA = n sinθ
The Numerical
University
Aperture
β
θ α
n1 optical system
Where θ is the angle of the outermost ray that enters (and is useful
to) the system.
Consider an "optical receiver system" consisting of a

lens and a photodetector:
University
Determining the Numerical
(a) Aperture
(b) (c)
f β
f θ
d θ
d/ 2
Photo Detector
For this system, the maximum angle θ is given

by d 
 2 d
tan(θ ) = =
f 2f
Example: this receiver system has a focal length of 10cm and the
photodetector has a diameter of 1cm. Find NA.
Determining the Numerical Aperture University
d 1
tanθ = = = 0.05
2 f 20
−1
θ = tan (0.05) = 0.04995rad (2.862º)
NA = n1 sin(θ ) = 1sin(2.862º )
NA = 0.04993
θ β Fib e r
α NA ≡ n1 sinθ
NA = sinθ , n=1
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Acceptance
Angle 0.6
Numerical Aperture
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Single M ode
0.1
Fiber
0.0
0 10 20 30
Acceptance Angl e
Figure 2-23: Numerical aperture and

acceptance angle. NA = sin θ
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Thick lens*
*Thick lenses contain two systems of coaxial
spherical surfaces.
*Thickness of the thick lenses cannot be negligible
while the thickness of thin lenses can be ignored.
*such a system can be solved by spherical surface,
but it contain a lot of trivial details especially for
coaxial optical system of more spherical surfaces.
University
Thick Lenses and Cardinal Points
Aims & Objectives

-learn about concept of refraction at front and back surfaces of
a thick lens
-introduce the step-along and step-back equations
- learn how to determine image location with a thick lens
-discover the properties of principal planes
-find the cardinal points of a thick lens

University
Thick Lenses and Cardinal Points
Image size is determined by:

shape
thickness
refractive index
Thick Lenses versus Thin Lenses?
Thin Lenses:
D = D1+D2 (shape & refractive index)
Thick Lenses:
DE = D1 + D2 - (t/ng)D1D2 (shape, thickness & refractive index)
Thick Lens Terminology University
D1 D2
n1 n 1 ' or n g or n 2 n 2'
F A1 A2 F'
D1 and D2 are the first (front) and second (back) surface powers
n1′ − n1 n2′ − n2
D1 = D2 =
r1 r2
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D1 D2 D1 and D2 are the first
n 2'
n1 n 1 ' or n g or n 2
(front) and second (back)
F A1 A2 F' surface powers
n1′ − n1
D1 =
r1
n2′ − n2
D2 =
t r2
A1 and A2 are the front and back vertices.
Distance from A1 to A2 is the axial thickness of the lens.
The line joining the centre of curvatures of the first and second
surfaces (C1 and C2) is called the principal axis, or optical axis.
f and f’ are the first and second focal points for the lens as a whole.
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Ray 1 H H'
F P P' F'
Ray 2
G G'
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For Ray 1: the two
Ray 1 H H' refractions, which take place
at the front and back
F P P' F'
surfaces, are equivalent to
one refraction at H’
Ray 2
G G'
For Ray 2: the two refractions, which take place at the front and
back surfaces, are equivalent to one refraction at G
x
A1 O A2 Rays directed towards P leave
y
the lens unchanged in direction
P P'
as though they had come from P’
Back Vertex Focal Length: (fv’) University
Distance from back vertex of the lens to the second focal point of
the lens
H'
F P' A2 F'
fv '
e'
fE '
e' = f v ' - f E '
University
H'
F P' A2 F'
fv '
1
Dv′ =
e'
Back Vertex Power: f ′ fE '
e' = f v ' - f E ' v
“the vergence of the light leaving the back vertex when rays
parallel to the principal axis are incident on the front surface”
D1 + D2 − ( t ng ) D1 D2
Dv′ =
1 − ( t ng ) D1
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Attention: In ‘Ophthalmic Lenses and Dispensing’ you will

derive another (equivalent) expression for back vertex power:
D1
Dv′ = + D2
[
1 − ( t ng ) D1 ]
Front Vertex Focal Length: (fv) University
Distance from front vertex of the lens to the first focal point of the
lens
F A1 P
fv G
e
fE e = f v - fE
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Front Vertex Power:
1
Dv = −
F A1 P
fv
fv G
e
fE e = f v - fE
“ the vergence of the incident wavefront at the front vertex of the

lens with the special condition that the emergent vergence is
parallel”
Dv = − =
(
1 D1 + D2 − t ng D1 D2 )
fv (
1 − t ng D2 )
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DE is the equivalent power
i.e. the power of the thin lens which could be used to replace the
thick lens
DE = D1 + D2 - ((t/ng)D1D2)
DE
⇒ Dv =
1 − ( t ng ) D2
(front vertex power)
DE
Dv′ =
1 − ( t ng ) D1
(back vertex power)
1 1
DE = =−
f v′ fv
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Draw in fE, fE’ fv and fv’
fE’: “ second equivalent focal length”

fE: “ first equivalent focal length”
Ray 1
Note: H H'
(1) where the first and last

refractive indices are F fv P P' f ‘v F'
the same, the values

for fE and fE’ are equal Ray 2
in size but opposite in G G'

fE f ’E
sign.
(2) The equivalent power
DE is the power of the
thin lens that could be
used to replace the
Image Position with a Thick Lens University
Note: l2 = l1’ - t
L1
B1 A2
B1 '
l1
l1'
Image Position with a Thick Lens University
Note: l2 = l1’ - t
L1 L1'
L2 L '
2
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
t
l2
l1'
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L1 L1' Refraction at 1st surface:
L2 L2'
L1’ = L1+ D1
B1 A2 B2 '
Object distance is l1
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
Image distance l1‘
t
l2
l1'
University
L2 L2'
L1’ = L1+ D1
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
t Refraction at 2nd surface:
l2
L2’ = L2+ D2
l1'
Image distance is l2’

University
L2 L2'
L1’ = L1+ D1
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
l2
L2’ = L2+ D2
l1'

since l2 = l1’ – t L2 = n2 = n2
l2 (l1’ - t)
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L2 L2'
L1’ = L1+ D1
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
l2
L2’ = L2+ D2
l1'

since l2 = l1’ – t L2 = n2 = n2
l2 (l1’ - t)
(divide above and below line by n2)
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L1 L1'
L2 L2'
note: n2 = n1’ = ng
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
l2
l1'
L2 = n2 = 1 = 1
(l1’ - t) l1’ - t l1’ - t
n2 n2 n1’ ng
University
L1 L1'
L2 L2'
note: n2 = n1’ = ng
B1 A2 B2 '
B1 ' or B2
l1
l2 '
l2
l1'
L2 = n2 = 1 = 1
(l1’ - t) l1’ - t l1’ - t
n2 n2 n1’ ng
(Multiply top & bottom by L1’)
1 L1′ University
L2 = ⋅
l1′ t L1′
−
n1′ ng
⇒
L1′
L2 =
1 − ( t ng ) L1′
This is the step along equation
The step back equation:

L2
L1′ =
1 + ( t ng ) L2
University
Usage of vergence
• Determining the Position of the Cardinal Points
(Thick lens):
• f `E
• fE
• fV
• f `V
• P
• P`
University
Thick lens: a numerical calculation
Determining the Position of the Cardinal Points
1) Calculate the surface powers
2) Find the position of the second focal point (F’) and the back vertex
focal length, fv’
3) Find the position of the first focal point (F) and the front vertex focal
length, fv
4)Calculate the equivalent power DE and first and second equivalent

focal lengths fE and fE’
5) Find the position of the first principal point (P) and second principal
point (P’)
University
n 1=1
F A1
r1 = +8cm
t= 3.046cm
University
D1 D2
n 1=1 n2' = 1.33
F A1 A2 F'
r2 = -12cm
r1 = +8cm
t= 3.046cm
University
n 1' or ng or n2 = 1.523
D1 D2
n 1=1 n2' = 1.33
F A1 A2 F'
r2 = -12cm
r1 = +8cm
t= 3.046cm
t/ng = 3.046/1.523cm =0.02m

University
n 1' or ng or n 2 = 1.523
DF1 1 D2
F2
n1=1 n2' = 1.33
F A1 A2 F'
r2 = -12cm
r1 = +8cm
1) Calculate the surface powers
t= 3.046cm D1 = n1’ - n1 = 1.523 - 1

t/n g = 3.046/1.523cm =0.02m r1 +0.08
= +6.5375D
D2= n2’ - n2 = 1.33 - 1.523

r2 -0.12
2) Find the position of the second focal point (F’) and the back University
vertex focal length, fv’
To find the second focal point we need the light incident upon the
lens to be parallel, i.e. L1 = 0 and l2’ = fv’
L2
L1 L1` L2`
H'
F P' A2 F'
fv '
e'
fE '
e' = f v ' - f E '
For the first surface: University
L1’ = L1 +D1
H'
L1 = 0 F A2
P' F'
D1= +6.5375D
L1’ = 0 +6.5375 = +6.5375D
fv '
Now we need to use the step
along equation e'
fE '
t/ng = 0.03046/1.523 = 0.02
L2 = L1’ = +6.5375
1 - (t/ng)L1’ 1- ((0.02) . 6.5375)
University
For the second surface:
L2’ = L2 +D2
L2 = +7.5209D D2= +1.6083D
⇒ L2’ = +9.1292D
L2’ = n2’/l2’ so l2’ = n2’/ L2’
n2’ = 1.33 L2’ = +9.1292D

Thus l2’ = +0.14569m
But l2’ = fv’ when the light incident on the first surface is parallel
(i.e. L1 = 0)
3) Find the position of the first focal point (F) and the front University
vertex focal length, fv
To find the first focal point the light which emerges from the lens
must be parallel, i.e. L2’ = 0 and thus l1 = fv
F A1 P
fv G
e
fE e = f v - fE
University
For the second surface:

L2’ = L2 +D2
F A1 P
⇒ L 2 = L 2 ’ - D2
L2’ = 0 fv G
D2= +1.6083D e
⇒ L2 = 0 - 1.6083 = -1.6083D fE e = f v - fE
Now we need to use the step back equation
L1’= L2 = - 1.6083
1 +(t/ng)L2 1+ ((0.02). -1.6083)
L1‘ = -1.6618D
University
For the first surface:
L1’ = L1 +D1 ⇒ L 1 = L 1 ’ - D1
F A1 P
L1‘ = -1.6618D
D1= +6.5375D fv G
⇒ L1 = -1.6618 - 6.5375 e
= -8.1993D fE e = f v - fE
L1 = n1/l1 so l1 = n1/ L1
n1 = 1.0 L1 = -8.1993D ⇒ l1 = -0.12196m

But l1 = fv when the light emerges from the lens parallel
(i.e. L2’ = 0)
University
4)Calculate the equivalent power FE and the first and second
equivalent focal lengths fE and fE’
DE = D1 + D2 - (t/ng)D1D2 P = β 1+β 2-
In our example: β 1β 2(d/n)
D1 = +6.5375D D2 = +1.6083D
t = 0.03046m (t always +ve) ng = 1.523 t/ ng = 0.02
Inputting values into equation

DE = D1 + D2 - (t/ng)D1D2
gives DE= +7.9355D

University
In our example:
D1 = +6.5375D D2 = +1.6083D
t = 0.03046m (t always +ve) ng = 1.523 t/ ng = 0.02
Inputting values into equation

DE = D1 + D2 - (t/ng)D1D2
gives DE= +7.9355D
DE = n2’/fE’ and DE = -n1/fE ⇒ fE’ = n2’/ DE and fE = -n1/ DE
so the second equivalent focal length (fE’)
fE’ = 1.33/+7.9355= 0.16760m = fE’
and the first equivalent focal length (fE)
fE = -1/+7.9355= -0.12602m = fE
5) Find the position of the first principal point (P) and the second
University
principal point (P’)
position of the second principal point is given by:
e’ = fv’ - fE’
using e’ = fv’ - fE’
fv’ = +14.569cm fE’ = +16.760cm
thus e’ = -2.191cm
The -ve value indicates that the second principal point is located
2.191cm to the left of the back vertex.
University
thus e’ = -2.191cm
The -ve value indicates that the second principal point is located
2.191cm to the left of the back vertex.
To determine the position of the fist principal point we can use:

e = fv - fE
fv = -12.196cm fE = -12.602cm
thus e =+0.406cm
The +ve value indicates that the first principal point is located
0.406cm to the right of the front vertex
University
Ray 1 H H'
fv e e’ f ‘v
F P P' F'
Ray 2
G G'
fE f ’E
Principal planes for thick lens

University
Equi-convex or equi-concave and moderately thick

H H’ HH
’
Plano-convex or plano-concave lens with R2 = ∞

H H’ H H’
Principal planes for thick lens

University
For meniscus lenses, the principal planes move outside

the lens
R2 = 3R1 (H’ reaches the first surface)
H H’ H H’ H H’ H H’
Comparison between Thin lens

University
and Thick lens
• The significance (meaning) of

principal plane 1 & 2
University
The significance of principal plane 1

The significance of principal plane 2 University

University
Usage of vergence
• Determining the Position of the Cardinal Points
(Thin lens):
• f `E
• fE
• fV
• f `V
• P
• P`
Thin Lens Systems & Cardinal Points University
Aims & Objectives

-learn about the concept of equivalent power
- learn how to determine image location with a thin lens

system
- discover the properties of principal planes of thin lens

systems
-find the cardinal points of a thin lens system

Cardinal planes of simple systems University
1. Thin lens n −1 1− n
D1 = D2 =
r1 r2
D = D1 + D2
n −1 1− n
= +
r1 r2
1 1  H, H’
= ( n − 1)  −  Lens maker’s equation
is obeyed.
 r1 r2 
1 Principal planes, nodal planes,
=
f coincide at center
University
Cardinal Points of a Thin Lens System
•Two or more thin lenses form a “thin lens system”
•The principles & equations which described the thick lens also
describe thin lens systems
•The equation for the equivalent power of a thin lens pair is:
DE = D1 + D2 – t D1D2
D1 and D2 are the powers of the thin lenses and t is the distance
between them; d must be measured in metres.
•The positions of the principal points are found in the same way as
for the thick lens, i.e. by using the vertex powers to locate the focal
points: Front vertex Back vertex
power: power:
Dv = DE Dv’ = DE
1- t D2 1- t D1
University
Sample Calculation:
A lens system consists of a +5D lens and a +2D lens separated by
8cm. Find the equivalent focal length and the positions of the
principal points. An object 3cm tall is situated 50cm in front of the
first lens. What will be the position and size of the image produced
by the combination?
Equivalent power: D E = D1 + D2 – t D 1 D 2
Given:
D1 = +5D D2 = +2D t = +0.08m (always +ve)
⇒ DE = +5 +2 - (0.08 . 5 . 2) = +6.2D
Second equivalent focal length (fE’):
f ’ = 1/D ⇒ f ’ = 1/+6.2 = +0.1613m

first equivalent focal length (fE): University
fE = -1/DE ⇒ fE = -1/+6.2 = -0.1613m
In the case of thin lens systems A1 and A2 represent the locations of

the first and second thin lenses
Front vertex power of combination:

Dv = DE = +6.2
1- t D2 1 - (0.8. 2)
= +7.3810D
fv (front vertex focal length) = -1/ Dv

Back vertex power of combination: University
Dv ’ = DE = +6.2
1- t D1 1 - (0.08 . 5)
= +10.3333D
fv’ (back vertex focal length) = 1/ Dv’
⇒ fv’ = 1/+10.3333 = +0.0968m
Location of first principal point (A1P):
e = fv - fE= -0.1355m - (-0.1613m)

= +2.58cm (i.e. to the right of the first thin lens)
Location of second principal point (A2P’): University
e’ = fv’-fE’= +0.0968m - (+0.1613m)

= -6.45cm (i.e. to the left of the second thin lens)
What will be the position and size of the image produced by the
combination?
Given:
D1 = +5D D2 = +2D t = +0.08m
l1 = -0.50m h1 = 0.03m
l1 = -0.50m, thus L1 = -2D
L 1 ’ = L 1 + D1 ⇒ L1’ = -2 + 5 = +3D
What will be the position and size of the image produced by theUniversity
combination?
Given:
D1 = +5D D2 = +2D t = +0.08m
l1 = -0.50m h1 = 0.03m
l1 = -0.50m, thus L1 = -2D
L1 ’ = L 1 + F1 ⇒ L1’ = -2 + 5 = +3D
(Step-along equation): L2 = L1’

1-d L1’
L2 = +3 = +3.9474D
⇒ L2’ = +3.9474 + 2 = +5.9474D
L 2 ’ = L 2 + D2 University
l2’ = 1/L2’ ⇒ l2’ = 1/+5.9474
l2’ = +0.1681m = +16.81cm (+ve:to the right of the second lens)
Magnification:
h2 ‘ = h 1 . L1 . L2
L1’ L2’
h2 ‘ = 0.03 . -2 . +3.9474
+3 +5.9474
= -0.013274
= -1.3274cm (-ve sign means image is inverted)
University
A compound lens
Two thin lens in contact DE = D1 + D2
Two thin lens separated by

DE = D1 + D2 – t D1 D2
a distance t
University
Lens system : compound lens

formed by two thin lenses
Lens 1: f1 = -30 cm
Lens 2: f2 = 20 cm
t = 10 cm
D1=1/f1 = -3.33D
DE 3.33
Dv = = = 6.66 D
D2=1/f2 = +5.0D 1 − tD2 1 − 0.5
t
1
DE = D1 + D2 – t D1D2 fv = − = −15 cm (Front focal length)
A1 A2 Dv
= 1.67 +1.67 A DE 3.33
Dv′ = = = 2.5 D
1 − tD1 1 + 0.333
= 3.33D
f v′ = +40 cm (Back focal length)
Therefore fE’ = 1/DE = 30 cm For A1 P1 : e = f v − f E = −15 cm + 30 cm = + 15 cm
fE = -1/DE = -30cm For A 2 P2 : e = f v′ − f E′ = 40 cm - 30 cm = +10 cm
Lens system: numberical anaylsis

University
fE = 30 cm
15 cm
F A1 P2 F’
A2 P1
f.f.l. = 15 cm 10 cm fE’ = 30 cm
t
b.f.l. = 40 cm
The two lenses can be considered as combined to form a single thick lens whose
principal points and focal length are calculated. It, in turn, is combined with the third
lens, and so on with each successive element.
The same procedures can be extended to systems with 3, 4, 5, …. or more lenses.
More on Diopters University
Location of Image
To locate an image, we need to track a minimum of two rays coming from the
same point.
It will be convenient to take one ray
i) along the optic axis for mirrors and
ii) going through the center of the lens.
Use simple geometry to

The two angles show that
are the same
θ i +θ 0 = constant
The sum θ i+θ o is a constant. What does this constant represent? Geometrically,
we interpret it as double the angle made by the dashed radius line. Optically, it is a
measure of the strength of the mirror, i.e., how strongly the mirror focuses light,
and so we call it the focal angle, θ f,
θ i+θ o = θ f
University
θ
c
ϕ + θ i = 900................................(1)
[ϕ + θ ] + θ c = 900.......................(2)
[ϕ + 2θ ] + θ 0 = 900.....................(3)
(1)and (2) ⇒ θ i = θ + θ c ..............( 4)
(2)and (3) ⇒ θ 0 = −θ + θ c ...........(5)
(4) + (5) ⇒ θ i + θ 0 = 2θ c = θ f = constant
University
1
= tan θ i ≈ θ i
v
1
1
= tan θ 0 ≈ θ 0
u
v 1 1
u = tan θ c ≈ θ c = 2θ f =
c 2f
c = 2f
1 1 1
θi + θ0 = θ f ⇒ + =
v u f
Example: A searchlight
Suppose we need to create a parallel beam of light, as in a searchlight. Where should we place the
lightbulb? A parallel beam has zero angle between its rays, so θ i = 0. To place the lightbulb
correctly, however, we need to know a distance, not an angle: the distance u between the bulb and
the mirror. Since 1/v = θ i = 0, it implies θ 0=θ f, i.e. u = f. The bulb has to be placed at a distance
from the mirror equal to its focal point.
Example: Diopters
An equation like v =1/θ i really doesn’t make sense in terms of units. Angles are unitless, since
radians aren’t really units, so the right-hand side is unitless. We can’t have a left-hand side with
units of distance if the right-hand side of the same equation is unitless. In real life, optometrists
define the thing θ i=1/v as the “dioptric strength” of a lens or mirror, and measure it in units of
inverse meters (m –1 ), also known as diopters (1 D = 1 m –1 ).

Aoptics2 Lens

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Dr.G.Mirjalili Physics Dept.

Spherical single , thin lens,

D = n’ – n r must be measured in metres

⇒ unit for D is the reciprocal metre , i.e. 1/metres or m-1

The reciprocal metre is better known as the dioptre

Higher values for D result from

Rays aimed at the centre of curvature of a spherical refracting

The arc shown is called a wavefront, & the curvature of the

so inverse relationship exists

(i) distance from point of interest to source

(ii) refractive index of medium in which rays are travelling

Unit for Vergence?

Reciprocal metre.... ⇒ Dioptre

-ve vergence: ⇒ rays diverging

+ve vergence: ⇒ rays converging

Converging 50cm behind lens

Diverging 100cm behind lens

On leaving the lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = +1.33D

(“Image Vergence”) l’ +0.75

50cm from lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = +4D

100cm from lens: Vergence = 1 = 1 = -4D

V= 1/(-0.08) = -12.5 m-1 V=1/(+0.08) = 12.5m-1

Refraction at spherical interfaces

1. Light travels left to right

Using the same sign convention as

Guss`s Formula and surface power

Other sign convention

Vergence & surface power

n1/o = inter vergence

1/(5x10-3 )+(1.5-1)/(1.43x10-3 )=1000/1.5

Gaussian lens equatioin vergence notation

FOCAL LENGTH AND LENS CURVATURE

Longer R ⇒ less curved lens

Optical system & Vergence

V int er , vergence + βoptics, systempower = Vexit , vergence *

More Spherical Surface Focusing

n1 n2 (n2 −n1) is written as

• If we want to calculate the image of the system, we can

Example : A glass ball has a radius of 10cm and

This is the first step. I1 is the virtual image for the

Substituting the above data to the paraxial

Some special rays for converging and diverging University

(2). Light rays parallel to the axis of a diverging lens are

(3) Definition of converging and

A lens is converging if the glass is thinner around

(4). Graphical method

The lens equation n

For the first surface, n1= n0, n2 = n

The above two equations can be added

first focal distance for thin lens

Therefore we have f1 = f2 . we can suppose

Finally we obtain the lens equation,

7.3.3 Systems of two lenses University

Many optical instruments include combinations of two or

However, same as before, sometimes the second lens is placed

The case of two connected thin lenses:

For the first lens, u1 = u

For the second lens,

Suppose that the focal distance for the

Example 7.3: A converging lens of focal

f1=12cm 52cm f2=8cm

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