Chapter 07 Transformer

Electric Submersible Pumps Mohamed Dewidar 2013
Chapter 7

1
Transformers
Table of Content
Section Content Page
1 Introduction 2
2 Principal of operation 3
3 Induced voltage (EMF equation) 4
4 Transformer construction 7
4.1 Transformer construction of the core 8
4.2 Transformer laminations 9
4.3 Transformer core types 9
4.4 Transformer winding arrangement 10
5 Transformer dot orientation 11
6 Transformer Primary tap change 12
7 Transformer core losses 13
7.1 Hysteresis losses 13
7.2 Eddy current losses 13
7.3 Copper losses 14
8 Transformer loading 15
8.1 Transformer at NO-Load 15
8.2 Transformer On-Load 16
9 Three phase ideal transformer 20
10 Three phase transformer construction 26
11 Equivalent circuit transformer 26
11.1 Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer
at No-Load 27
11.2 Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer
On-Load 30
11.3 Equivalent circuit of real transformer 31
11.4 Approximate Equivalent circuit of
Transformer 34
12 Losses and efficiency of transformer 35
12.1 Iron losses or core losses 36
12.2 Core losses 38
12.3 Short circuit test 39
12.4 Efficiency of single phase transformer 40
13 Current transformer 39
14 Autotransformer 44

Chapter 7

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Transformers
7.1. Introduction
In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists
of two windings, wound on an iron core one of the windings is
connected to an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a
current to this winding (called primary winding) which in turn
produces a flux in the iron core.
This flux is alternating in nature (Refer Figure 6.1). If the
supplied voltage has a frequency f, the flux in the core also
alternates at a frequency f. the alternating flux linking with
the second winding, induces a voltage E
2
in the second winding
(called secondary winding). [Note that this alternating flux
linking with primary winding will also induce a voltage in the
primary winding, denoted as E
1
. Applied voltage V
1
is very
nearly equal to E
1
].
If the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings
is N
1
and N
2
respectively, we shall see later in this unit that
E
1
/ E
2
= N
1
/ N
2
.
The load is connected across the secondary winding, between
the terminals a
1
, a
2
. Thus, the load can be supplied at a
voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage, depending
upon the ratio N
1
/ N
2
.

Figure (7.1) Basic arrangement of transformer
.When a load is connected across the secondary winding it
carries a current I
2
, called load current. The primary current
correspondingly increases to provide for the load current, in
addition to the small no load current. The transfer of power
from the primary side (or source) to the secondary side (or
load) is through the mutual flux and core. There is no direct
electrical connection between the primary and secondary sides.
In an actual transformer, when the iron core carries
alternating flux, there is a power loss in the core called
core loss, iron loss or no load loss. Further, the primary and
secondary windings have a resistance, and the currents in
Chapter 7

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primary and secondary windings give rise to I
2
R losses in
transformer windings, also called copper losses.
The losses lead to production of heat in the transformers, and
a consequent temperature rise. Therefore, in transformer,
cooling methods are adopted to ensure that the temperature
remains within limit so that no damage is done to windings
insulation and material.
7.2. Principal of operation
A transformer operates on the principle of mutual
inductance between two (and sometimes more) inductively
coupled coils. It consists of two windings in close proximity
as shown in fig (7.2).
The two windings are coupled by magnetic induction. (There is
no conductive connection between the windings). One of the
windings called primary, has N
1
turns is energized by a
sinusoidal voltage E
1
. The second winding, called secondary,
has N
2
turns and feeds the load. The alternating current in the
primary winding sets up an alternating flux in the core. The
secondary winding is linked by most of this flux and emfs are
induced in the two windings. The emf induced in the secondary
winding drives a current through the load connected to this
winding. Energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit through the medium of the magnetic field.
A power transformer in which the secondary voltage is higher
than the primary is called a step-up power transformer; if the
secondary voltage is less than the primary, the device is
known as a step-down power transformer. The product of current
times voltage is constant in each set of coils, so that in a
step-up power transformer, the voltage increase in the
secondary is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the
current.

Figure (7.2)
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic
properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC
voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the
voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and
vice versa.
Faraday's Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
Chapter 7

4
cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter
how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The
change could be produced by changing the magnetic field
strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving
the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil
relative to the magnet, etc.

Figure (7.3)
7.3. Induced voltage (EMF equation)
If the flux, , linking a coil of N turns and inductance,
L, varies sinusoidally at frequency f, then
t e | | sin
max
= ---------------------------(6.1)
Where |
max
is the peak value of the flux
Then the induced emf (voltage) , from Faradays law (voltage =
rate of change of flux linkage) is,
| | t N t
dt
d
N
dt
d
N e e | e e |
|
cos sin
max max
= = =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
2
sin 2 cos 2
max max
t
e | t e | t t fN t fN e ---------(6.2)
The peak value of the induced emf is | t
max
2 fN .
The rms (root mean square) value, E, of the induced emf is,
| | t
max max
44 . 4 2
2
1
fN fN E = = volt ----------(6.3)
Chapter 7

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Example 1
The primary winding of a 50 hz transformer has 480
turns and is fed from 6400 v supply, find,
(a) the peak value of the flux in the core.
(b) Secondary voltage if the secondary winding has 20 turns.
Solution:
(a) From eq
n
. 6.3
06 . 0
480 50 44 . 4
6400
max
=

= | Wb
(b) Voltage induced in secondary winding = 4.44x50x20x0.06 =
266.4 V
Transformation ratio
If N
p
and N
s
are the number of turns in the primary and
secondary winding and E
p
and E
s
are the rms values of primary
and secondary induced emf, eq
n
6.3 gives
|
max
44 . 4
N
f
E p p
= ---------------- (6.4a)
|
max
44 . 4
N
f
E s s
= ----------------- (6.4b)
Therefore,

N
N
E
E
s
p
s
p
= ------------------------ (6.5)
Thus the ratio of primary to secondary voltage is the same as
the ratio of primary winding turns to the secondary winding
turns. This ratio (N
p
/N
s
) is known as transformation ratio. By
selecting this ratio properly the transformation can be done
from any convenient input voltage to any convenient output
voltage. If N
p
is greater than N
s
, the secondary voltage will
be lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is known
as step down transformer. If N
s
is greater than N
p
, the
secondary voltage would be higher than the primary voltage and
then the device is known as step up transformer.
If the losses in a two winding transformer are neglected, the
volt amperes in the primary and secondary must be equal.
Therefore,
I E I E s s p p
=
N
N
I
I
E
E
s
p
p
s
s
p
= = ---------------------- (6.6)
Where I
p
and I
s
are the currents in the primary and secondary
windings respectively. Thus the current is transformed in the
reverse ratio of the voltage. If the transformer steps up the
voltage, it steps down the current and vise verse.

Chapter 7

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Figure (7.4)

Figure (7.5)

Examples:
1. step down transformer

2. Step up transformer

Chapter 7

7
3. Transformation ratio
Primary
Windings
Secondary
Voltage
Turns
Ratio
Primary
Voltage
Secondary
Voltage
Terns
Ratio
480 240 2/1 600 120 5/1
480 120 4/1 600 208 2.88/1
480 24 20/1 208 120 1.73/1

7.4. Transformer construction
The construction of a simple two-winding transformer
consists of each winding being wound on a separate limb or
core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary
magnetic circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the "transformer
core" is designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to
flow around, which is necessary for induction of the voltage
between the two windings.
However, this type of transformer construction were the two
windings are wound on separate limbs is not very efficient
since the primary and secondary windings are well separated
from each other.
This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two
windings as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage
from the transformer itself. But as well as this "O" shapes
construction, there are different types of "transformer
construction" and designs available which are used to overcome
these inefficiencies producing a smaller more compact
transformer.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be
improved by bringing the two windings within close contact
with each other thereby improving the magnetic coupling.
Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the
coils may improve the magnetic coupling between the two
windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the
magnetic losses of the transformer core. As well as providing
a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is
designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the
iron core itself.
Circulating currents, called "eddy currents", cause heating
and energy losses within the core decreasing the transformers
efficiency. These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in
the iron circuit, which is constantly being subjected to the
alternating magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal
supply voltage.
One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct
the transformer core from thin steel laminations. In all types
of transformer construction, the central iron core is
Chapter 7

8
constructed from of a highly permeable material made from thin
silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide the
required magnetic path with the minimum of losses.
The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high reducing the
eddy current losses by making the laminations very thin. These
steel laminations vary in thicknesses from between 0.25 mm to
0.5 mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations are
electrically insulated from each other by a very thin coating
of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the
surface.

Figure (7.6)
7.4.1. Transformer construction of the core
Generally, the name associated with the construction of
a transformer is dependant upon how the primary and secondary
windings are wound around the central laminated steel core.
The two most common and basic designs of transformer
construction are the Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-
core Transformer. In the "closed-core" type (core form)
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound
outside and surround the core ring. In the "shell type" (shell
form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings pass
inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown below.

Figure (7.7)
In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux
linking the primary and secondary windings travels entirely
within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through air.
Chapter 7

9
In the core type transformer construction, one half of each
winding is wrapped around each leg (or limb) of the
transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg
and the secondary on the other but instead half of the primary
winding and half of the secondary winding are placed one over
the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase
magnetic coupling allowing practically all of the magnetic
lines of force go through both the primary and secondary
windings at the same time.
However, with this type of transformer construction, a small
percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the
core, and this is called "leakage flux".
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as
both the primary and secondary windings are wound on the same
centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of
the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic
flux has two closed magnetic paths to flow around external to
the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning
back to the central coils. This means that the magnetic flux
circulating around the outer limbs of this type of transformer
construction is equal to /2.
As the magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this
has the advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing
overall efficiency.
7.4.2. Transformer laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and
secondary windings are wound around these laminated iron or
steel cores for this types of transformer constructions. The
coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical,
rectangular or oval type cross section to suit the
construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core
type transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil
windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched
out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin
steel resembling the letters "E's", "L's", "U's" and "I's" as
shown below.
7.4.3. Transformer core types
These lamination stampings when connected together form
the required core shape. For example, two "E" stampings plus
two end closing "I" stampings to give an E-I core forming one
element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These
individual laminations are tightly butted together during the
transformers construction to reduce the reluctance of the air
gap at the joints producing a highly saturated magnetic flux
density. Transformer core laminations are usually stacked
alternately to each other to produce an overlapping joint with
more lamination pairs being added to make up the correct core
thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also
Chapter 7

10
gives the transformer the advantage of reduced flux leakage
and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction
is mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-
down transformers as well as auto transformers.

Figure (7.8)
7.4.4. Transformer winding arrangements
Transformer windings form another important part of a
transformer construction, because they are the main current-
carrying conductors wound around the laminated sections of the
core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two windings
would be present as shown.
The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates
the magnetic flux called the primary winding, and the second
winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as
a result of mutual induction. If the secondary voltage is less
than that of the primary the transformer is called a "step-
down transformer", and if the secondary voltage is greater
then it is called a "step-up transformer".
The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor
in a transformer winding is either copper or aluminum. While
aluminum wire is lighter and generally less expensive than
copper wire, a larger cross sectional area of conductor must
be used to carry the same amount of current as with copper so
it is used mainly in larger power transformer applications.
Small kVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage
electrical and electronic circuits tend to use copper
conductors as these have a higher mechanical strength and
smaller conductor size than equivalent aluminum types. The
downside is that when complete with their core, these
transformers are much heavier.
Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to
concentric coils and sandwiched coils. In core-type
transformer construction, the windings are usually arranged
concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the
higher voltage primary winding being wound over the lower
voltage secondary winding. Sandwiched or "pancake" coils
consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are so
named due to the arrangement of conductors into discs.
Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the
centre in an interleaved arrangement with individual coils
being stacked together and separated by insulating materials
Chapter 7

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such as paper of plastic sheet. Sandwich coils and windings
are more common with shell type core construction.
Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very
common cylindrical coil arrangement used in low voltage high
current transformer applications. The windings are made up of
large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side
with the insulated strands wound in parallel continuously
along the length of the cylinder, with suitable spacers
inserted between adjacent turns or discs to minimize
circulating currents between the parallel strands.
The coil progresses outwards as a helix resembling that of a
corkscrew. The insulation used to prevent the conductors
shorting together in a transformer is usually a thin layer of
varnish or enamel in air cooled transformers. This thin
varnish or enamel paint is painted onto the wire before it is
wound around the core. In larger power and distribution
transformers the conductors are insulated from each other
using oil impregnated paper or cloth.
The whole core and windings is immersed and sealed in a
protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer
oil acts as an insulator and also as a coolant.
7.5. Transformer dot orientation
We can not just simply take a laminated core and wrap one
of the coil configurations around it. We could but we may find
that the secondary voltage and current may be out-of-phase
with that of the primary voltage and current. The two coil
windings do have a distinct orientation of one with respect to
the other. Either coil could be wound around the core
clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep track of their relative
orientations "dots" are used to identify a given end of each
winding. This method of identifying the orientation or
direction of a transformers windings is called the "dot
convention". Then a transformer windings are wound so that the
correct phase relations exist between the winding voltages
with the transformers polarity being defined as the relative
polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary
voltage as shown below.

Figure (7.9)
Chapter 7

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The first transformer shows its two "dots" side by side on the
two windings. The current leaving the secondary dot is "in-
phase" with the current entering the primary side dot. Thus
the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also in-
phase so when the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the
primary coil, the voltage across the secondary coil is also
positive at the dotted end. The second transformer shows the
two dots at opposite ends of the windings which means that the
transformers primary and secondary coil windings are wound in
opposite directions. The result of this is that the current
leaving the secondary dot is 180o "out-of-phase" with the
current entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the
voltages at the dotted ends are also out-of-phase so when the
voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the
voltage across the corresponding secondary coil will be
negative. Then the construction of a transformer can be such
that the secondary voltage may be either "in-phase" or "out-
of-phase" with respect to the primary voltage.
In transformers which have a number of different secondary
windings, each of which is electrically isolated from each
other it is important to know the dot polarity of the
secondary windings so that they can be connected together in
series-aiding (secondary voltage is summed) or series-opposing
(the secondary voltage is the difference) configurations.
The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is
often desirable to compensate for the effects of variations in
the primary supply voltage, the regulation of the transformer
or varying load conditions. Voltage control of the transformer
is generally performed by changing the turns ratio and
therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the primary
winding on the high voltage side is tapped out allowing for
easy adjustment.
The tapping is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts
per turn are lower than the low voltage secondary side.
7.6. Transformer primary tap changes

Figure (7.10)
In this simple example, the primary tap changes are calculated
for a supply voltage change of 5%, but any value can be
chosen. Some transformers may have two or more primary or two
or more secondary windings for use in different applications
providing different voltages from a single core.
Chapter 7

13
7.7. Transformer core losses
The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is
much greater than it is in air, and this ability to allow
magnetic flux to flow is called permeability. Most transformer
cores are constructed from low carbon steels which can have
permeabilities in the order of 1500 compared with just 1.0 for
air. This means that a steel laminated core can carry a
magnetic flux 1500 times better than that of air. However,
when a magnetic flux flows in a transformers steel core, two
types of losses occur in the steel. One termed "eddy current
losses" and the other termed "hysteresis losses".
7.7.1. Hysteresis losses
Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the
friction of the molecules against the flow of the magnetic
lines of force required to magnetise the core, which are
constantly changing in value and direction first in one
direction and then the other due to the influence of the
sinusoidal supply voltage. This molecular friction causes heat
to be developed which represents an energy loss to the
transformer. Excessive heat loss can overtime shorten the life
of the insulating materials used in the manufacture of the
windings and structures. Therefore, cooling of a transformer
is important. Also, transformers are designed to operate at a
particular supply frequency. Lowering the frequency of the
supply will result in increased hysteresis and higher
temperature in the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency
from 60 Hertz to 50 Hertz will raise the amount of hysteresis
present, decreased the VA capacity of the transformer.
7.7.2. Eddy current losses
Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused
by the flow of circulating currents induced into the steel
caused by the flow of the magnetic flux around the core. These
circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic
flux the core is acting like a single loop of wire.
Since the iron core is a good conductor, the eddy currents
induced by a solid iron core will be large. Eddy currents do
not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the
transformer but instead they oppose the flow of the induced
current by acting like a negative force generating resistive
heating and power loss within the core.

Figure (7.11) laminating the Iron Core
Chapter 7

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Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be
eliminated completely, but they can be greatly reduced and
controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core
material of the transformer or coil, the magnetic path is
split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called
"laminations".
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very
thin strips of insulated metal joined together to produce a
solid but laminated core as we saw above. These laminations
are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to
increase the effective resistivity of the core thereby
increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of the
eddy currents.
The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced
eddy current power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it
is for this reason why the magnetic iron circuit of every
transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all
laminated. Using laminations in a transformer construction
reduces eddy current losses. The losses of energy, which
appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in
the magnetic path, is known commonly as "transformer core
losses".
Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result
of alternating magnetic fields. Transformer core losses are
always present in a transformer whenever the primary is
energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary
winding. Also these hysteresis and the eddy current losses are
sometimes referred to as "transformer iron losses", as the
magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.
7.7.3. Copper losses
But there is also another type of energy loss associated
with transformers called "copper losses". Transformer Copper
Losses are mainly due to the electrical resistance of the
primary and secondary windings.
Most transformer coils are made from copper wire which has
resistance in Ohms, (). This resistance opposes the
magnetizing currents flowing through them. When a load is
connected to the transformers secondary winding, large
electrical currents flow in both the primary and the secondary
windings, electrical energy and power (or the I2 R) losses
occur as heat.
Generally copper losses vary with the load current, being
almost zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load when
current flow is at maximum. Transformers with high voltage and
current ratings require conductors of large cross-section to
help minimize their copper losses.
Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:
Chapter 7

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1. No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses 0
2. Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy
current losses 0
3. Zero winding resistance giving zero I2R copper losses 0
7.8. Transformer loading
In the previous transformer section, we have assumed that
the transformer is ideal, that is one in which there are no
core losses or copper losses in the windings.
However, in real transformers there will always be losses
associated with the transformer loading as the transformer is
put "on-load". But what do we mean by:
7.8.1. Transformer at No-Load
Well first let's look at when the transformer is in a
"no-load" condition that is without a secondary current
flowing.
A transformer is said to be on "no-load" when its secondary
side winding is open circuited, in other words, the
transformer loading is zero.
When an AC sinusoidal supply is connected to the primary
winding of a transformer, a small current, IOPEN will flow
through the primary coil winding due to the presence of the
primary supply voltage. With the secondary circuit open,
nothing connected a back EMF along with the primary winding
resistance acts to limit the flow of this primary current.
Obviously, this no-load primary current (Io) must be
sufficient to maintain enough magnetic field to produce the
required back emf. Consider the circuit below.

Figure (7.12) transformer "No-load"
The ammeter above will indicate a small current flowing
through the primary winding even though the secondary circuit
is open circuited. This no-load primary current is made up of
the following two components:
1. An in-phase current, IE which supplies the core losses (eddy
current and hysteresis).
2. A current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the
magnetic flux.
Chapter 7

16

Figure (7.13)
Note that this no-load primary current, Io is very small
compared to the transformers normal full-load current. Also
due to the iron losses present in the core as well as a small
amount of copper losses in the primary winding, Io does not
lag behind the supply voltage, Vp by exactly 90o, (cos = 0),
there will be some small phase angle difference.
Example
A single phase transformer has an energy component, I
E
of 2
Amps and a magnetizing component, IM of 5 Amps. Calculate the
no-load current, I
o
and resulting power factor.

7.8.2. Transformer On-Load
When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding
of a transformer and the transformer loading is therefore
greater than zero, current flows in the secondary winding due
to the induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux
created in the core from the primary current.
This secondary current, I
S
which is determined by the
characteristics of the load, creates a secondary magnetic
field,
S
in the transformer core which flows in the exact
opposite direction to the main primary field,
P
.
These two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a
combined magnetic field of less magnetic strength than the
single field produced by the primary winding alone when the
secondary circuit was open circuited. This combined magnetic
field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding causing the
primary current, I
P
to increase slightly.
The primary current continues to increase until the cores
magnetic field is back at its original strength, and for a
transformer to operate correctly, a balanced condition must
always exist between the primary and secondary magnetic
fields. This results in the power to be balanced and the same
Chapter 7

17
on both the primary and secondary sides. Consider the circuit
below.

Figure (7.14) Transformer "On-load"
We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the
total induced voltage in each winding is proportional to the
number of turns in that winding and also that the power output
and power input of a transformer is equal to the volts times
amperes, (V x I). Therefore:

But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a
transformer is equal to the turns ratio of a transformer as:
"voltage ratio = turns ratio". Then the relationship between
the voltage, current and number of turns in a transformer can
be linked together and is therefore given as:

Where:
NP/NS = VP/VS represents the voltage ratio
NP/NS = IS/IP represents the current ratio
Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the
voltage and the number of turns. This means that with a
transformer loading on the secondary winding, in order to
maintain a balanced power level across the transformers
windings, if the voltage is stepped up, the current must be
stepped down and vice versa. In other words, higher voltage
lower current or lower voltage higher current. The total
current drawn from the supply by the primary winding is the
vector sum of the no-load current, Io and the additional
supply current, I
1
as a result of the secondary transformer
Chapter 7

18
loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by an angle
of . We can show this relationship as a phasor diagram.

Figure (7.15) Transformer Loading Current
If we are given currents, I
S
and I
o
, we can calculate the
primary current, I
P
by the following methods.

Figure (7.16)
Example
A single phase transformer has 1000 turns on its primary
winding and 200 turns on its secondary winding. The
transformers "no-load" current taken from the supply is 3 Amps
at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. Calculate the primary
winding current, IP and its corresponding power factor, when
the secondary current supplying a transformer loading is 280
Amperes at 0.8 lagging.

Chapter 7

19

You may have noticed that the phase angle of the primary
current,
P
is very nearly the same as that of the secondary
current phase angle,
S
. This is due to the fact that the no-
load current of 3 amperes is very small compared to the larger
56 amperes drawn by the primary winding from the supply.
Actual real life, transformer windings have impedances of X
L

and R.
These impedances need to be taken into account when drawing
the phasor diagrams as these internal impedances cause voltage
drops to occur within the transformers windings.
The internal impedances are due to the resistance of the
windings and an inductance drop called the leakage reactance
resulting from the leakage flux.
These internal impedances are given as:

Figure (7.17)
So the primary and secondary windings of a transformer possess
both resistance and reactance. Sometimes, it can be more
convenient if all these impedances are on the same side of the
transformer to make the calculations easier.
It is possible to move the primary impedances to the secondary
side or the secondary impedances to the primary side. The
combined values of R and L impedances are called "Referred
Impedances" or "Referred Values". The object here is to group
together the impedances within the transformer and have just
one value of R and X
L
in our calculations as shown.

Figure (7.18) Combining Transformer Impedances
Chapter 7

20
In order to move a resistance from one side of the transformer
to the other, we must first multiply them by the square of the
turns ratio, (Turns Ratio
2
) in our calculations.
So for example, to move a resistance of 2 from one side to
the other in a transformer that has a turns ratio of 8:1 will
have a new resistive value of: 2 x 82 = 128 's.
Note that if you move a resistance from a higher voltage side
the new resistance value will increase and if you move the
resistance from a lower voltage side its new value will
decrease. This applies to the load resistance and reactance as
well.
7.9. Three phase ideal transformer
Since three-phase is used so often for power distribution
systems, it makes sense that we would need three-phase
transformers to be able to step voltages up or down. This is
only partially true, as regular single-phase transformers can
be ganged together to transform power between two three-phase
systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the
requirement for a special three-phase transformer. However,
special three-phase transformers are built for those tasks,
and are able to perform with less material requirement, less
size, and less weight than their modular counterparts. A
three-phase transformer is made of three sets of primary and
secondary windings, each set wound around one leg of an iron
core assembly. Essentially it looks like three single-phase
transformers sharing a joined core as in Figure below.

Figure (7.19)
Three phase transformer core has three sets of windings.
Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be connected
in either or Y configurations to form a complete unit. The
various combinations of ways that these windings can be
connected together in will be the focus of this section.
Whether the winding sets share a common core assembly or each
winding pair is a separate transformer, the winding connection
options are the same:
Primary - Secondary
Y - Y
Y
Y
-
Chapter 7

21
The reasons for choosing a Y or configuration for
transformer winding connections are the same as for any other
three-phase application: Y connections provide the opportunity
for multiple voltages, while connections enjoy a higher
level of reliability (if one winding fails open, the other two
can still maintain full line voltages to the load).
Probably the most important aspect of connecting three sets of
primary and secondary windings together to form a three-phase
transformer bank is paying attention to proper winding phasing
(the dots used to denote polarity of windings).
Remember the proper phase relationships between the phase
windings of and Y: (Figure below)

Figure (7.20)
(Y) The center point of the Y must tie either all the - or
all the + winding points together.
() The winding polarities must stack together in a
complementary manner (+ to -).
Getting this phasing correct when the windings aren't shown in
regular Y or configuration can be tricky. Let me illustrate,
starting with Figure below.

Figure (7.21)
Inputs A1, A2, A3 may be wired either or Y, as may
outputs B1, B2, B3. Three individual transformers are to be
connected together to transform power from one three-phase
system to another. First, I'll show the wiring connections for
a Y-Y configuration: Figure below
Chapter 7

22

Figure (7.22)
Phase wiring for Y-Y transformer.
Note in Figure above how all the winding ends marked with dots
are connected to their respective phases A, B, and C, while
the non-dot ends are connected together to form the centers of
each Y. Having both primary and secondary winding sets
connected in Y formations allows for the use of neutral
conductors (N
1
and N
2
) in each power system.
Now, we'll take a look at a Y- configuration: (Figure below)

Figure (7.23)
Phase wiring for Y- transformer.
Note how the secondary windings (bottom set, Figure above) are
connected in a chain, the dot side of one winding connected
to the non-dot side of the next, forming the loop. At
every connection point between pairs of windings, a connection
is made to a line of the second power system (A, B, and C).
Now, let's examine a -Y system in Figure below.

Figure (7.24)
Phase wiring for -Y transformer.
Chapter 7

23
Such a configuration (Figure above) would allow for the
provision of multiple voltages (line-to-line or line-to-
neutral) in the second power system, from a source power
system having no neutral. And finally, we turn to the -
configuration, (Figure below)

Figure (7.25)
Phase wiring for - transformer.
When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary
power system, - connection schemes (Figure above) are
preferred because of the inherent reliability of the
configuration.
Three phase transformer configurations and calculations
In a delta connected group of transformers, the line voltage,
V
L
is equal to the phase voltage, V
L
= V
PH
. But the current in
each phase winding is given as: I
L
/ 3 (or I
L
= I
PH
x 3) where
I
L
is the line current.
In a star connected group of transformers, the line voltage, V
L

is equal to 3 the phase voltage, V
L
= 3V
PH
. But the current
in each phase winding is given as: I
PH
= I
L
where I
L
is the line
current.
Example of Delta-Delta

Chapter 7

24
Example of Delta-Star

Example of Star-Star

Example of Star-Delta

Chapter 7

25
TR 1:5 1:n
Connection
Line Voltage Line Current
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
-
E
L

n*E
L

I
L

I
L
n
- 3*n*E
L
I
L
3*n
- n*E
L
I
L
n
- n*E
L
3 3*I
L
n
-
480
5*480=2400
100
1005=20
- 3*480*5=4156 1003*5=11.55
- 5*480=2400 1005=20
- 5*4803=1386 3*1005=34.64
Example 1
150 KVA Delta-Star transformer bank, 480 v primary, 208/120 v
secondary. Calculate, TR, I
LP
, I
LS

Example 2
3 Star-Delta transformer, E
LP
=6600, I
LP
=10 A, TR 12:1,
calculate E
LS
, E
phP
, and I
LS

Chapter 7

26
7.10. Three phase transformer construction

Figure (7.26)
The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most
common method of three-phase transformer construction allowing
the phases to be magnetically linked. Flux of each limb uses
the other two limbs for its return path with the three
magnetic fluxes in the core generated by the line voltages
differing in time-phase by 120 degrees. Thus the flux in the
core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal
secondary supply voltage.
The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer
construction is heavier and more expensive to build than the
core-type. Five-limb cores are generally used for very large
power transformers as they can be made with reduced height.
Shell-type transformers core materials, electrical windings,
steel enclosure and cooling are much the same as for the
larger single-phase types.
7.11. Equivalent circuit of transformer
The performance of a transformer at no load and at load is
influenced by mutual flux, the leakage fluxes, the winding
resistances and the iron losses. For the purpose of
performance evaluation, the effect of these is represented on
an electrical circuit, in the form of resistances and
reactances. Such an electrical circuit is called equivalent
circuit.
In this section, we will develop the equivalent circuit of a
single-phase transformer in the following steps:
(a) Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer at no load
(b) Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer on load
(c) Equivalent circuit at load
(d) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side
(e) Approximate equivalent circuit.
Chapter 7

27
7.11.1. Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer at No
Load
Under certain conditions, the transformer can be treated as an
ideal transformer. The assumptions necessary to treat it as an
ideal transformer are :
(a) Primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This
means that ohmic loss (I
2
R loss), and resistive voltage drops
in windings are zero.
(b) There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux is mutual
flux that links both the primary and secondary windings.
(c) Permeability of the core is infinite this means that the
magnetizing current needed for establishing the flux is zero.
(d) Core loss (hysteresis as well as eddy current losses) are
zero.
We have earlier learnt that:

(n is a constant, known as voltage transformation ratio or
turns ratio).
For an ideal transformer, V
1
= E
1
and E
2
= V
2
.

Even at no load, a transformer draws some active power from
the source to provide the following losses in the core:
(a) Eddy-current loss, and
(b) Hysteresis loss.
The current responsible for the active power is nearly in
phase with V
1
(applied voltage) and is known as core-loss
current. A transformer when connected to supply, draws a
current to produce the flux in the core. At no-load, this flux
lags nearly by 90
o
behind the applied voltage V
1
. The
magnetizing current, denoted by I
m
is in phase with the flux
and thus, lags behind the applied voltage by nearly 90
o
.
The phasor sum of the core loss component of current I
c
and the
magnetizing current I
m
is equal to the no-load current I
0
.
I
c
= I
0
cos
0
and I
m
= I
0
sin
0

Core loss = P
0
= V
1
I
0
(cos
0
)
Where
0
is the phase angle between V
1
and I
0
, and, (cos
0
) is
the no load power factor.
The phase relationship between applied voltage V
1
, no-load
current I
0
, and its components I
c
, I
m
is shown in Fig 7.27(a).
Chapter 7

28

Figure (7.27)
In the form of equivalent circuit, this can be represented as
Fig 7.27(b), in which R
c
is a resistance representing core loss
and X
m
is an inductive reactance (called magnetizing
reactance).
Note that the current in the resistance is in phase with V
1
and
X
m
being an inductive reactance, the current I
m
in this branch
lags V
1
by 90
o
as shown in the phasor diagram of Fig 7.27(a).
(The representation in Fig 7.27, assumes that V
1
= E
1
(equal to
and in opposition to V
1
).
This implies that the primary winding resistance and leakage
reactance are neglected.
Similarly, in the secondary winding of transformer mutually
induced emf is antiphase with V
1
and its magnitude is
proportional to the rate of change of flux and the number of
secondary turns. (You will learn about the concept of leakage
reactance when you study about the equivalent circuit at
load).
The equivalent circuit parameters R
c
and X
m
can also be
expressed as conductance and susceptance G
c
, B
m
such that

Chapter 7

29
Example
At no-load a transformer has a no-load loss of 50 W, draws a
current of 2A (RMS) and has an applied voltage of 230V (RMS).
Determine:
(i) no-load power factor,
(ii) core loss current, and
(iii) magnetizing current. Also, calculate the no-load circuit
parameter (Rc, Xm) of the transformer.
Solution
P
c
= 40 W, I
o
= 2 A, E
1
= 230 V
P
c
= V
1
I
o
cos
o

Magnetizing current,
I
m
= I
0
sin
o

= 2 sin(83.76
o
)
= 1.988 A
Core-loss current,
I
c
= I
o
cos
o

= 2 0.108
= 0.216 A

This equivalent circuit is shown below.

Chapter 7

30
7.11.2. Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer On Load
Under certain conditions the transformer can be
treated as an ideal transformer. The idealizing assumptions
are listed below
(a) Both primary and secondary windings have zero resistance.
This means, no ohmic power loss and no resistive voltage
drop.
(b) No leakage flux, i.e. all the flux produced is confined to
the core and links both the windings
(c) Infinite permeability of the core. This means no zero
magnetizing current is needed to establish the requisite
amount of flux in the core, i.e. I
m
= 0.
(d) Core-loss (hysteresis as well as eddy-current loss) is
zero, i.e. I
c
= 0.
Assumptions (a), (b) and (d) mean that copper losses, and
iron losses being zero, the efficiency of the transformer
is 100%. Since I
m
= I
c
= 0, I
o
= 0.

Figure (7.28)
As per earlier derived equation

where, V1 is supply voltage and V2 is voltage across load
terminals.
When load is applied, let the impedance of load be Z
L
, as shown
in Fig (7.28) Sinusoidal current i
2
flows through the
secondary.
Therefore, secondary winding creates an mmf F
2
= N
2
i
2
which
opposes the flux .
But mutual flux is invariant with respect to load (otherwise
V
1
= e
1
balance is disturbed).
As a result, the primary winding starts drawing a current i
1

from the source so as to create mmf F
1
= N
1
i
1
which at all
times cancels out the load-caused mmf N
2
i
2
so that is
maintained constant independent of the magnitude of the load
Chapter 7

31
current which flows in the secondary winding. This implies
that for higher load, more power will be drawn from the supply

(Instantaneous power into primary) = (Instantaneous power out
of secondary)
In terms of rms values,
i.e. VA output = VA input, i.e. V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2

The circuit representation of Fig (7.28), can be simplified by
referring the load impedance and secondary current to the
primary side. From Fig (7.28), we see that
V
2
= I
2
Z
L

Where

is said to be the load impedance referred to the primary side.
From V
2
= I
2
Z
L
we can also easily obtain V
2
= I
2
Z
L

Where

is secondary terminal voltage referred to primary side, and

is secondary current referred to primary side.
In the ideal transformer, I
1
= I
2
and V
1
= V
2
.
7.11.3. Equivalent circuit of a real transformer
In real conditions, in addition to the mutual flux which links
both the primary and secondary windings transformer, has a
component of flux, which links either the primary winding or
the secondary, but not both.
This component is called leakage flux. The flux which links
only with primary is called primary leakage flux, and the flux
which links only with secondary is called secondary leakage
flux. Fig 7.28 shows schematically the mutual and the leakage
flux.
Chapter 7

32
From our knowledge of magnetic circuits, we know that a flux
lining with a winding is the cause of inductance of the
winding (Inductance = Flux linkage per ampere).
Since in a transformer the flux is alternating, its flux
linkage gives rise to an induced voltage in the winding. Thus,
primary leakage flux (which is proportional to I
1
) causes an
induced voltage, which acts as a voltage drop.
Similarly for the secondary leakage flux. The effect of these
induced EMFs are, therefore, represented as inductive leakage
reactances X
l1
, X
l2
.
X
l1
and X
l2
are called leakage reactances of the primary and
secondary respectively. These are also denoted as X
1
, X
2
.
The windings of the transformer have resistance R
1
, R
2
. These
resistances cause a voltage drop I
1
R
1
and I
2
R
2
, as also ohmic
loss I
1
2
R
1
and I
2
2
R
2
.
To sum up, in a Real Transformer,
(a) Both the primary and secondary windings possesses
resistance. As a result, the value of actual impressed
voltage across the transformer is the voltage V
1
less the
drop across the resistance R
1
. Moreover, the copper loss in
the primary winding is I
2
1
R
1
and in the secondary winding
I
2
2
R
1
.
(b) A Real Transformer has some leakage flux, as shown in the
Fig 7.28 These fluxes, as discussed earlier, lead to self-
reactances X
l1
and X
l2
for the two windings respectively.
(c) The magnetizing current cannot be zero. Its value is
determined by the mutual flux
m
. The mutual flux also
determines core-loss taking place in the iron parts of the
transformer. The value of I
o
does not depend on load and
hence the iron-loss or core-loss is constant which is not
zero.
Considering the effects of resistances and leakage reactances,
a transformer can be visualized as shown in Fig 7.29.

Figure (7.29) Representation of transformer showing leakage
reactances
In the form of equivalent circuit, this can be represented as
in Fig 7.30.
Chapter 7

33

Figure (7.30) Exact equivalent circuit of real transformer
The use of this equivalent circuit is difficult and
calculations involved are laborious. For most practical
purposes (like calculations of voltage regulation and
efficiency) we need only a simplified form of equivalent
circuit. We will now proceed to first obtain a simplified
equivalent circuit and then to obtain an approximate
equivalent circuit.
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side
We will now refer the impedance R
2
+ jX
l2
to the primary side
i.e. to the left hand side of the ideal transformer. We have
seen earlier that a load impedance Z
L
can be referred to
primary side as Z'
L
, where

Similarly Z
2
= R
2
+ jX
l2
can be referred to the primary side as

where Z'
2
is said to be the secondary winding impedance
referred to the primary side.
Eq. (4) can be re-written as

Equating real and imaginary parts

R'
2
is the secondary winding resistance referred to primary,
and X'
l2
is the secondary winding leakage reactance referred to
primary side.
Fig (7.30) can now be modified (i.e. referring the secondary
resistance and reactance to the primary side) to get the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig (7.31)
Chapter 7

34

Figure (7.31) Exact Circuit with secondary parameters referred
to primary side
The secondary terminal voltage V
2
and secondary current I
2
can
also be referred to the primary side using the relations.

These referred quantities V'
2
and I'
2
are also marked in Fig
(7.31)
7.11.4. Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
Transformers which are used at a constant power frequency (say
50 Hz), can have very simplified approximate equivalent
circuits, without having a substantial effect on the
performance evaluation (efficiency and voltage regulation).
It should be borne in mind that higher the VA or KVA rating
of the transformers, better are the approximation-based
evaluation results.
It is assumed that V
1
~ E
1
(V
1
is approximately equal to E
1
)
even under conditions of load.
This assumption is justified because the values of winding
resistance and leakage reactances are very small. Therefore,
the exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of
conductance G
c
and susceptance B
m
would not be affected
significantly by shifting it to the input terminals. With this
change, the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig (7.32).

Figure (7.32) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side
Chapter 7

35
Denoting
R
1
+ R'
2
= R'
eq

and
X
l2
+ X'
l2
= X'
eq

The equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig (7.33) R'
eq
, X'
eq

are called the equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance
referred to primary side.

Figure (7.33) Approximate Equivalent Circuit
If only voltage regulation is to be calculated even the
excitation branch can be neglected and the equivalent circuit
becomes as shown in Fig (7.34).

Figure (7.34) Most simplified form of approximate equivalent
circuit
7.12. Losses and efficiency of transformer
A transformer doesn't contain any rotating part so it is
free from friction and windage losses. In transformer the
losses occur in iron parts as well as in copper coils. In iron
core the losses are sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The hysteresis losses are P
h
fB
x
max
and eddy current loss is
equal to P
e
a f
2
B
max
.
Where f is frequency B
max
is maximum flux density.
We know that the maximum flux density is directly proportional
to applied voltage so, if the applied voltage is constant then
Chapter 7

36
the flux density is constant and the hysterises losses are
proportional to f and eddy current losses are proportional to
f
2
.
7.12.1 Iron losses or core losses
To minimize hysteresis loss in transformer, we use Cold Rolled
Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon steel to build up the iron core.
Eddy current loss
When the primary winding variable flux links with iron core
then it induces some EMF on the surface of core. The
magnitude of EMF is different at various points in core. So,
there is current between different points in Iron Core having
unequal potential.
These currents are known at eddy currents. I
2
R loss in iron
core is known as eddy current loss.
These losses depend on thickness of core. To minimize the
eddy current losses we use the Iron Core which is made of
laminated sheet stampings. The thickness of stamping is
around 0.5 mm.
Determination of iron or core losses
Practically we can determine the iron losses by performing
the open circuit test.
Open circuit test
We perform open circuit test in low voltage winding in
transformer keeping the high voltage winding open.
The circuit is connected as shown in Fig (7.35). The
instruments are connected on the LV side. The advantage of
performing the test from LV side is that the test can be
performed at rated voltage.
When we apply rated voltage then watt meter shows iron losses
[There is some copper loss but this is negligible when
compared to iron loss]. The ammeter shows no load current I0
which is very small [2-5 % of rated current]. Thus, the drops
in R
1
and X
l1
can be neglected.

Figure (7.35) Open Circuit Test
We have
W
o
= iron loss
Chapter 7

37
I
o
= no load current

Under no load conditions the PF is very low (near to 0) in
lagging region.
By using the above data we can draw the equivalent parameter
shown in Fig (7.36).

Figure (7.36) No Load equivalent circuit from Open Circuit
test

Example
At no load test, a transformer draws a current of 0.2 Ampere
lagging behind the applied voltage by 80o, when the low
voltage winding of the transformer is connected to a 500 V
source. Calculate:
(a) iron loss and
(b) components of the no load current.
Solution
We have V
1
= 500 V, Io = 0.2 A and
o
= 80
o

cos80
o
= 0.1736
PF = cosf ~ 0.174 lagging
(a) Iron loss = V
1
I
o
cos = 500 0.2 0.174 = 17.4 watts
(b) Components of no load current
I
c
= I
o
cos = 0.0348 A
I
m
= I
o
sin = 0.197 A or I
m
= I
2
o
I
2
c
= 0.197

Chapter 7

38
7.12.2. Copper losses
In a transformer the primary and secondary winding
currents increase with increases in load. Due to these
currents there is some I
2
R losses. These are known as copper
losses or ohmic losses. The total I
2
R loss in both windings at
rated or full load current is equal to I
1
2
R
1
+I
2
2
R
2

[assuming I'
1
= I
1
, i.e. shunt branch neglected].
= I
1
2
R
o1

Similarly, it can be shown that
Copper loss = I
2
2
R
o2

Here I
1
and I
2
are primary and secondary current. R
1
is primary
winding resistance and R
2
is secondary winding resistance.
R
01
is total resistance of winding referred to primary
R
o2
is total resistance of windings referred to secondary.
By performing short circuit test we find out copper loss
experimentally.
7.12.3. Short circuit test
Its an indirect method to find out the copper losses. To
perform this test, we apply a reduced voltage to the primary
winding through instruments keeping LV winding short
circuited. The connections are shown in Figure (7.37a).
We need to apply only 5-10% of rated voltage to primary to
circulated rated current in the primary and secondary winding.
The applied voltage is adjusted so that the ammeter shows
rated current of the winding.
Under this condition, the watt-meter reading shows the copper
losses of the transformer. Because of low value of applied
voltage, iron losses, are very small and can be neglected.
As applied voltage is very small, small voltage across the
excitation branch produces very small percentage of exciting
current in comparison to its full load current and can
therefore, be safely ignored. As a result, equivalent circuit
with secondary short circuited can be represented as Fig
(7.37b).
Chapter 7

39

Figure (7.37)
At a rated current watt meter shows full load copper loss. We
have:
V
s
= applied voltage
I
s
= rated current
W
s
= copper loss

So we calculate equivalent reactance:

These R
eq
and X
eq
are equivalent resistance and reactance of
both windings referred in HV side. These are known as
equivalent circuit resistance and reactance.
7.12.4. Efficiency of single phase transformer
Generally we define the efficiency of any machine as a
ratio of output power to the input power, i.e.

7.13. Current transformer
The Current Transformer (C.T.), is a type of "instrument
transformer" that is designed to produce an alternating
Chapter 7

40
current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the
current being measured in its primary. Current transformers
reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide
a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical
current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard
ammeter. The principal of operation of a current transformer
is no different from that of an ordinary transformer.

Figure (7.38)
Typical Current Transformer Unlike the voltage or power
transformer looked at previously, the current transformer
consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding.
This primary winding can be of either a single flat turn, a
coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a
conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.
Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is
often referred too as a "series transformer" as the primary
winding, which never has more than a very few turns, is in
series with the current carrying conductor.
The secondary winding may have a large number of coil turns
wound on a laminated core of low-loss magnetic material which
has a large cross-sectional area so that the magnetic flux
density is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire,
depending upon how much the current must be stepped down. This
secondary winding is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5
Amperes.
There are three basic types of current transformers: "wound",
"toroidal" and "bar".
Wound current transformers
The transformers primary winding is physically connected in
series with the conductor that carries the measured current
flowing in the circuit. The magnitude of the secondary
current is dependent on the turns ratio of the transformer.
Toroidal current transformers
These do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the line
that carries the current flowing in the network is threaded
through a window or hole in the toroidal transformer. Some
current transformers have a "split core" which allows it to
Chapter 7

41
be opened, installed, and closed, without disconnecting the
circuit to which they are attached.
Bar-type current transformers
This type of current transformer uses the actual cable or
bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is
equivalent to a single turn. They are fully insulated from
the high operating voltage of the system and are usually
bolted to the current carrying device.
Current transformers can reduce or "step-down" current levels
from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a
known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation.
Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can
be used with CT's because they are insulated away from any
high-voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering
applications and uses for current transformers such as with
wattmeter's, power factor meters, watt-hour meters,
protective relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit
breakers, or MCB's.

Figure (7.38) Current transformer
Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together
as a matched pair in which the design of the current
transformer is such as to provide a maximum secondary current
corresponding to a full-scale deflection on the ammeter.
In most current transformers an approximate inverse turns
ratio exists between the two currents in the primary and
secondary windings. This is why calibration of the CT is
generally for a specific type of ammeter. For most current
transformers the primary and secondary currents are expressed
as a ratio such as 100/5.
This means that when 100 Amps is flowing in the primary
winding it will result in 5 Amps flowing in the secondary
winding. By increasing the number of secondary windings, N
2
,
the secondary current can be made much smaller than the
Chapter 7

42
current in the primary circuit being measured. In other
words, as N
2
increases, I
2
goes down by a proportional
amount. We know from our tutorial on double wound
transformers that its turns ratio is equal to:

As the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst
the secondary can have several hundred turns, the ratio
between the primary and secondary can be quite large. For
example, assume that the current rating of the primary
winding is 100A. The secondary winding has the standard
rating of 5A. Then the ratio between the primary and the
secondary currents is 100A-to-5A, or 20:1.
In other words, the primary current is 20 times greater than
the secondary current.
It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated
as 100/5 is not the same as one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions
of 100/5. This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses the
"input/output current rating" and not the actual ratio of the
primary to the secondary currents.
Also note that the number of turns and the current in the
primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse
proportion. But relatively large changes in current
transformers turns ratio can be achieved by modifying the
primary turns through the CT's window where one primary turn
is equal to one pass and more than one pass through the
window results in the electrical ratio being modified.
So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of
say, 300/5 A can be converted to another of 150/5 A or even
100/5 A by passing the main primary conductor through its
interior window two or three times as shown.
This allows a higher value current transformer to provide the
maximum output current for the ammeter when used on smaller
primary current lines.

Figure (7.39) Current transformer primary Turns Ratio

Chapter 7

43
Example
A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary
and 160 turns on its secondary is to be used with a standard
range of ammeters that have an internal resistance of 0.2 .
The ammeter is required to give a full scale deflection when
the primary current is 800 Amps. Calculate the maximum
secondary current and secondary voltage across the ammeter.

We can see above that since the secondary of the current
transformer is connected across the ammeter, which has a very
small resistance, the voltage drop across the secondary
winding is only 1.0 volts at full primary current.
If the ammeter is removed, the secondary winding becomes open-
circuited and the transformer acts as a step-up transformer
resulting in a very high voltage equal to the ratio of:
V
p
(N
s
/N
p
) being developed across the secondary winding.
So for example, assume our current transformer from above is
connected to a 480 volt three-phase power line.
Therefore:

This is why a current transformer should never be open
circuited or operated with no-load attached when the main
primary current is flowing.
If the ammeter is to be removed, a short-circuit should be
placed across the secondary terminals first. This is because
when the secondary is open-circuited the iron core of the
transformer operates at a high degree of saturation, which
produces an abnormally large secondary voltage, and in our
simple example above, this was calculated at 76.8 kV!. This
high secondary voltage could damage the insulation or cause
electric shock if the CT's terminals are accidentally touched.
Handheld Current Transformers
There are many specialized types of current transformers now
available. A popular and portable type which can be used to
measure circuit loading are called "clamp meters" as shown
below.
Clamp meters open and close around a current carrying
conductor and measure its current by determining the magnetic
field around it, providing a quick measurement reading usually
on a digital display without disconnecting or opening the
circuit.
As well as the handheld clamp type CT, split core current
transformers are available which has one end removable so that
Chapter 7

44
the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected
to install it.

These are available for measuring currents from 100 up to 5000
amps, with square window sizes from 1" to over 12" (25 to 300
mm).
Then to summarize, the Current Transformer, (CT) is a type of
instrument transformer used to convert a primary current into
a secondary current through a magnetic medium. Its secondary
winding then provides a much reduced current which can be used
for detecting overcurrent, undercurrent, peak current, or
average current conditions.
A current transformers primary coil is always connected in
series with the main conductor giving rise to it also being
referred to as a series transformer. The nominal secondary
current is rated at 1 A or 5 A for ease of measurement.
Construction can be one single primary turn as in Toroidal,
Donut, or Bar types, or a few wound primary turns, usually for
low current ratios.
Current transformers are intended to be used as proportional
current devices. Therefore a current transformers secondary
winding should never be operated into an open circuit, just as
a voltage transformer should never be operated into a short
circuit. Very high voltages will result from open circuiting
the secondary circuit of an energized CT so their terminals
must be short-circuited if the ammeter is to be removed or
when a CT is not in use before powering up the system.
7.14. Autotransformer
Autotransformer Basics
Unlike the previous voltage transformer which has two
electrically isolated windings, the primary and the secondary.
An Autotransformer has only one single voltage winding which
is usually "tapped" at various points along it to provide a
percentage of the primary voltage supply across its secondary
load.
The autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only one
winding, which is common to both the primary and secondary
circuits.
Chapter 7

45
Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary
windings are both linked together electrically and
magnetically. This type of transformer design is a lot cheaper
but the main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it
does not have the primary/secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
The section of winding designated as the primary part of the
winding is connected to the AC power source with the secondary
being part of this primary winding.
An autotransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage
up or down by reversing the connections. If the primary is the
total winding and is connected to a supply, and the secondary
circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding,
then the secondary voltage is "stepped-down" as shown.

Figure (7.40) Autotransformer design
When the primary current I
P
is flowing through the single
winding in the direction of the arrow as shown, the secondary
current, I
S
, flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in the
portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, V
S

the current flowing out of the winding is the difference of I
P

and I
S
.
The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one
single tapping point. Autotransformers can be used to provide
different voltage points along its winding or increase its
supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage V
P
as shown.

Figure (7.41) Autotransformer with multiple tapping points
Chapter 7

46
The standard method for marking an auto-transformer windings
is to label it with capital (upper case) letters. So for
example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the
common neutral connection is marked as N or n.
For the secondary tapings, suffix numbers are used for all
tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding.
These numbers generally start at number 1 and continue in
ascending order for all tapping points as shown.

Figure (7.41) Autotransformer terminal markings
An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line
voltages to either change its value or to keep it constant. If
the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up or
down, then the transformer ratio is small as VP and VS are
nearly equal.
Currents I
P
and I
S
are also nearly equal. Therefore, the
portion of the winding which carries the difference between
the two currents can be made from a much smaller conductor
size, since the currents are much smaller saving on the cost
of an equivalent double wound transformer.
However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size
(since there is no second winding) of an autotransformer for a
given VA or KVA rating are less than for a double wound
transformer. Autotransformers are clearly much cheaper than
conventional double wound transformers of the same VA rating.
When deciding upon using an autotransformer it is usual to
compare its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.
This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the
winding. If the ratio "n" is defined as the ratio of the lower
voltage to the higher voltage, then it can be shown that the
saving in copper is: n.100%. For example, the saving in copper
for the two autotransformers would be:

Chapter 7

47
Example
An autotransformer is required to step-up a voltage from 220
volts to 250 volts. The total number of coil turns on the
transformer main winding is 2000. Determine the position of
the primary tapping point, the primary and secondary currents
when the output is rated at 10KVA and the economy of copper
saved.

Then the primary current is 45.4 amperes, the secondary
current drawn by the load is 40 amperes and 5.4 amperes flows
through the common winding. The economy of copper is 88%.
Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
1. The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does
not have the primary to secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
Then autotransformer's can not safely be used for stepping
down higher voltages to much lower voltages suitable for
smaller loads.
2. If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited,
current stops flowing through the primary winding stopping
the transformer action resulting in the full primary voltage
being applied to the secondary circuit.
3. If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition,
the resulting primary current would be much larger than an
equivalent double wound transformer due to the increased
flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.
4. Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary
and secondary windings, earthing of the secondary winding
automatically earths the primary as there is no isolation
Chapter 7

48
between the two windings. Double wound transformers are
sometimes used to isolate equipment from earth.
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including
the starting of induction motors, used to regulate the voltage
of transmission lines, and can be used to transform voltages
when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity. An
autotransformer can also be made from conventional two-winding
transformers by connecting the primary and secondary windings
together in series and depending upon how the connection is
made, the secondary voltage may add to, or subtract from, the
primary voltage

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