Professional Documents
Culture Documents
To properly recognize all of the people responsible for bringing me to this point in
my life would take a considerable amount of space. Nevertheless, here is an attempt,
mediocre at best, to recognize those individuals responsible for this thesis and
master's degree. Only by the grace of God have I come this far. God's never ending
grace and mercy and his ultimate plan for my life have molded me for his desired
purpose. My parents have given me moral foundations, financial assistance, and
spiritual guidance beyond what any daughter could ask for. My perfect sisters, they
are truly gifts from God. Afe has been my best friend throughout this period.
Mr Calum Cossar was very kind and helpful in serving on my thesis Supervisor
amidst his very busy schedule. Ian Young is a very talented Technician. I have
gained a greater respect for the work he does and the environment in which he
works. The construction of my project could not have been done without him.
Graham Morton took his time in putting me through the basics of Visual Basics
programming.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. 4
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................. 8
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Thesis Structure ......................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Power Converter System ......................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 AC/DC Rectifier ............................................................................................... 11
2.1.2 DC-DC Converter ............................................................................................. 12
2.1.2 Buck Converter ................................................................................................. 14
2.1.3 Power Inverter ................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Portunus Simulation ............................................................................................. 21
2.3 Graphic User Interface ............................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Buck Converter Design............................................................................................ 23
3.2 Sizing Components .................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2 Switch Rating .................................................................................................... 26
3.2.3 Diode Rating ..................................................................................................... 28
3.2.4 Output Capacitor Selection ............................................................................... 29
3.3 Open Loop Buck Converter Design ........................................................................ 31
3.3.1 Inductance ......................................................................................................... 31
3.3.2 Capacitance ....................................................................................................... 34
3.3.3 Diode rating....................................................................................................... 35
3.3.4 Switch................................................................................................................ 35
3.4 Closed Loop Buck Converter .................................................................................. 36
3.4.1 Control Topology .............................................................................................. 37
3.5 Graphic User Interface ............................................................................................. 40
3.5.1 Input Parameters ............................................................................................... 41
3.5.2 Output Parameters ............................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 43
2
4.1 Simulation Results And Measured Experimental Results ....................................... 43
4.1.3 Buck Converter Testing and Simulation ........................................................... 47
4.1.4 Inverter Simulation ........................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 55
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 55
REFERENCE .................................................................................................................... 57
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................... 59
APPENDIX B.................................................................................................................... 60
APPENDIX C.................................................................................................................... 61
APPENDIX D ................................................................................................................... 72
3
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1 Variation of generator output with wind energy 7
Fig 2.8 (a) Circuit with switch ON (b) Circuit with switch OFF 14
Fig 2.12 a) Triangular and control waveforms b) PMW signal for S1 and S4 c) PMW
signal for S2 and S3 19
Fig 3.4 Current Waveform (a) Inductor Current (b) Switch Current (c) Diode Current 26
4
Fig 3.9 Inductor Current At L= 0.7mh 31
Fig 3.10 Output voltage and inductor current at L= 0.7mH and C= 362µF 33
Fig 3.11 Output voltage and inductor current at L= 0.7mH and C= 1000µF 34
Fig 3.17 Closed Loop Buck Converter and Open Loop Buck Converter 37
Fig 3.18 Error voltage and PWM input signal of the closed loop buck converter 38
Fig 3.19 Input voltage (VMI.1) and output voltage (R1.V) of the closed loop buck
converter 38
Fig 3.20 Input Voltage (VMI.1) and output voltage (R1.V) of the open loop buck
converter 38
Fig 3.21 Closed Loop Converter Output (R1.V) and Open Loop Output (R9.V) with
Voltage input of 32V 38
Fig 4.4 Three Phase Voltage Output from Portunus Generator Model 45
Fig 4.5: Rectifier output without a Capacitor (a) using Portunus simulation (b)
experimental result (c) Simulation and experimental results 45
5
Fig 4.7 Rectifier output with 1000uF Capacitor 46
Fig4.9 Buck Output at voltage input of 30V and power output of 50W 47
Fig4.10 Buck Output at voltage input of 60V and power output of 50W 48
Fig4.11 Buck Output at voltage input of 30V and power output of 10W 49
Fig4.12 Buck Output at voltage input of 60V and power output of 10W 50
6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.3: Variation of Buck Output Voltage with input voltage of 30V 48
Table 4.4: Variation of Buck Output Voltage with input voltage of 60V 49
Table 4.5: Variation of Buck Output Voltage with input voltage of 30V 50
Table 4.6: Variation of Buck Output Voltage with input voltage of 60V 51
Table 4.7 Buck Output at varying Power Output (10W- 50W) with generator speed 500 rpm 52
Table 4.8 Buck Output at varying Power Output (10W- 50W) with generator speed 750 rpm 52
Table 4.9 Buck Output at varying Power Output (10W- 50W) with generator speed 1000 rpm 52
7
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Wind power is the most fast growing energy source in the world and is competitive
against conventional energy sources. Since wind energy is a technology of variable
output as shown in Fig 1.1, it needs to be considered as one aspect of a variable,
dynamic electricity system. Integration of larger wind farms to the utility grid is
increasingly problematic because Distribution and Transmission System Operators
require a wind power station to behave similarly to a conventional power station. A
widely used solution is a synchronous generator combined with a full-scale
converter21.
courtesy of http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org
8
An inexpensive and efficient power converter for grid connection is required for these
energy systems. The power converter system converts the synchronous generator output
of variable voltage magnitude with variable frequency to a constant sinusoidal voltage
with constant frequency.
The scope of the project centers on the modeling of an electronic power converter
System which is used with a SPEED controller for generator voltage control. In general
the power conversion system consists of a rectifier that forms the dc link that is
regulated to a constant output with the use of a buck converter. The constant dc output is
fed to the externally controlled inverter that performs a D.C to A.C conversion shown in
Fig 1.2. The inverter also determines load frequency.
This thesis examines the construction of a buck converter and its incorporation in a
power conversion system. The buck converter is built using the circuit simulator and
design tool Portunus to model the circuit. An additional requirement would be to create
9
a Graphic User Interface panel using Visual Basic Language which would allow the user
to input generator control parameters and also display the generator output in a user
friendly style.
The operation of the power converter with a description of its major components is
detailed in Chapter two. Chapter three derives the Equations required in the modeling of
the buck converter, and its design. The closed loop buck converter, experiments and
corresponding Portunus simulations are described in detail in Chapter four. Chapter five
will discuss the conclusions reached during the construction of this converter, with
recommendations on how it can be improved.
10
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Power Converter System
This project has been broken down into three major circuit topologies. The three circuit
topologies are the AC/DC rectifier, DC/DC converter and the DC/AC inverter. These
three components work together to convert a varying AC input voltage to a constant
controlled AC voltage and frequency. A block diagram of the power converter is shown
in Fig 2.1 below
Single phase
3- Phase Rectifier DC – DC Converter
UNREGULATED AC CONSTANT DC Inverter
INPUT UNREGULATED DC REGULATED AC
OUTPUT
A Three Phase Rectifier consists of six diodes and converts the unregulated AC voltage
to unregulated DC voltage. Fig 2.2 highlights a Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier.
Courtesy Of http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~venkat/pe_html/ch05s1/ch05s1p1.htm
11
be RYB, the Diodes are triggered in the sequence D1 and D2 , D3 , D4, D5 , D6 and D1
and so on. As a result, all current that flows out of the rectifier will be positive 13. The
output waveform is now the absolute value of the input waveform. Fig 2.2 shows both the
input waveforms and the output waveform of the Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier. The three-
phase bridge rectifier circuit has three-legs, each phase connected to one of the three
phase voltages.
Voltage E2.V
E3.V
Vout.V
40 E1.V
20
0
5 m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m 85 m 90 m 95 m Time(s)
t/s
-20
Fig 2.3 Rectifier input voltage waveforms (E1,E2,E3) and output voltage waveform (Vout)
Switching
INPUT DC VOLTAGE Element OUTPUT DC VOLTAGE
i) Pulse width Modulation (PWM): this is achieved by varying the on period (Ton) of
the switch while keeping the switching period T is kept constant as shown in Fig 2.5.
Here Duty cycle (D) refers to the ratio of the period for which the switch is kept ON
12
to the cycle period. Usually control by pulse width modulation is the preferred
method since constant frequency operation leads to optimization of LC filter and the
ripple content in output voltage can be controlled.
ii) Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM): Here the on period (Ton) is kept constant and
the switching period T is varied as shown in Fig 2.6. The design of the LC filter is
difficult in this case.
Switch position
Time (s)
1
0
Time (s)
0
Time (s)
Fig 2.5 Pulse-Width Modulation
Switch position
1 Medium D
0
Time (s)
1 Small D
0
Time(s)
13
There are three basic types of dc–dc converters: Step-down converter (buck converter)
Step-up converter (Boost Converter) and Step-up-down converter (buck-boost converter)
A buck converter or step-down switch mode power supply can also be called a switch
mode regulator. Popularity of a switch mode regulator is due to its fairly high efficiency
and compact size and a switch mode regulator is used in place of a linear voltage
regulator at relatively high output, because linear voltage regulators are inefficient21.
Since the power devices used in linear regulators have to dissipate a fairly large amount
of power, they have to be adequately cooled, by mounting them on heat sinks which
makes the regulator bulky and large. In applications where size and efficiency are critical,
linear voltage regulators cannot be used 16. Generally any basic switched power supply
consists of five standard components as shown in Fig 2.7.
Control by pulse-width modulation is necessary for regulating the output as Duty Cycle is
thus adjusted to obtain the desired Voltage Output. The switch is the heart of the switched
supply and it controls the power supplied to the load11.
14
An inductor is used in a filter to reduce the ripple in current. This reduction occurs
because inductors are resistance to changes in current. When the current through an
inductor tends to fall, the inductor tends to maintain the current by acting as a source.
Fig 2.8 (a) Circuit with switch CLOSED (b) Circuit with switch OPEN
Figure 2.9 shows the voltage and current waveforms through the inductor when the
switch is open and closed.
15
Courtesy of the practical design of a buck converter by Johor Bahru
Fig 2.9 Voltage and Current Waveforms through the inductor
2.1.2.1 Circuit Description And Operation
This circuit can operate in any of the two states as explained below.
Switch Closed: In the circuit, when the switch is closed, the switch conducts the inductor
current (I L) as shown in Fig 2.8a. This results in a positive voltage across the inductor as
the source voltage would be greater than the output voltage. This voltage causes a linear
increase in the inductor current. When the inductor current rises, the energy stored in it
increases. During this state, the inductor acquires energy3.
TON = DT (2.2)
The capacitor smoothens out the inductor’s current changes into a constant output
voltage. Also, the capacitor is large enough so that the output voltage doesn't change
significantly during one switching cycle. At this State the capacitor is getting charged.
When the switch is closed, the elements carrying current are shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). Since
the diode is reversed biased it is not in the picture.
16
Switch Open: When the switch is open, the Inductor maintains current to the load as
shown in Fig 2.8b. As the inductor’s magnetic field collapses, current falls linearly
through the inductor, its fall is determined by the voltage across the inductor and its
inductance.
Since the average voltage across the inductor is zero at steady state, using the volt second
balance equation
Vg D – Vo D – Vo + Vo D = 0
The inductor maintains current flow by reversing its voltage when the applied voltage is
removed. The diode acts as a voltage controlled switch. It provides a path for the inductor
current once the switch is opened thus the inductor current flows through the diode12.
17
Current (A)
(a)
Time (s)
Current (A)
(b)
Time (s)
i. In the Continuous conduction mode, the inductor current flows continuously that is the
inductor current is always above zero during the OFF period as shown in Fig 2.10b.
Here the voltage output varies linearly with the duty ratio of the switch for a given dc
voltage input. It doesn’t depend on other circuit parameters (inductor and capacitor
value)14.
Vo/Vg = Ton/T =Duty Ratio.
Therefore in the continuous current conduction mode, the output voltage can be
controlled by controlling the duty cycle in a range of 0-1.
ii. In the Discontinuous conduction mode, the inductor current is discontinuous that is it
remains zero for some time as shown in Fig 2.10a. This is because the load current is
reduced to a value that causes the average inductor current to be reduced to a value
that causes the average inductor voltage to be less than half the inductor ripple
current(1). In the OFF period, the power to the load resistance is supplied by the
capacitance alone. Thus in the Discontinuous Conduction mode, the output voltage is
dependent on the circuit component values and the duty ratio of the switch 14.
18
2.1.3 Power Inverter
a) Pulse width modulated inverters: here the voltage magnitude and frequency is
controlled by pulse width modulation of the inverter switches
b) Square wave inverters: here only the frequency of the output voltage can be
controlled. The output voltage wave
The conventional single phase inverter (full bridge) utilizes four switches and four diodes
as shown in Fig 2.11. The switches can be any switching power electronic device. Fig 2.2
shows the single phase inverter topology with outputs Vr and a bus voltage of Vo. The
ideal switches facilitate the explanation of the generation of the control signals. The
diodes across each switch are necessary when driving inductive loads. The diodes carry
regenerative currents at times when the current direction in an inductive load and the
applied voltage have opposite polarity. The output Vr switches between –Vo and Vo.
19
2.1.3.2 Generation Of Pulse Width Modulation Signals
A block diagram for the generation of PWM signals is shown in Fig 2.12. The control
input is the desired waveform characteristic to be seen at the output (SINE.OUT).
Usually, this is a sine wave of fixed frequency with a normalized amplitude. The
repetitive waveform input is a triangle wave (TRIANG1.OUT) with a frequency
considerably higher than the frequency of the control signal. The triangle wave thus
becomes a carrier frequency for the control signal.
Fig 2.12 a) Triangular and control waveforms b) PMW signal for S1 and S4
c) PMW signal for S2 and S3
20
2.2 Portunus Simulation
To ensure stability, power quality, and reliability, each new system should be simulated
before it is implemented in the field. The simulation is intended to confirm that a
particular control the results in the desired system or to reveal necessary design
modifications, or both. Using the Portunus simulation environment, an electronic power
converter system consisting of the rectifier, buck converter, inverter and their
corresponding control units was designed. With a library of the power electronic modules
available, it is easy to set up a particular system configuration.
The Portunus software is a vital circuit simulation environment that allows rapid testing
of parameters and calculation jobs within a broad range of applications. It is a coupled
system simulator which allows both analogue and digital components within a most user
friendly interface. Portunus has the flexibility to incorporate user-defined components
into the system. These components can be created using C++ programs, sub-sheets, non-
linear look-up tables, or direct imports of SPICE or VHDL-AMS models8.
Portunus only generates theoretical circuit output values which would only be observed
under ideal conditions therefore Portunus will be used as a guide for the buck converter
design and the comparison of laboratory experiments with simulated results.
In this project, the tools that Protunus Simulation Software offers for simulating and
designing energy systems that include power converters that can also comprise of a
rectifier, a DC bus, a Buck converter, and an inverter is emphasized. However the
microcontrollers for the buck converter and the DC-AC inverter will be simulated with
the use of ideal sources that will duplicate each controller’s desired output waveform.
The Graphical User Interface is developed as the front end application to the FCIV
microcontroller using Visual Basic. The user can specify the kind of control and the
21
values of components functions. In the program the parameters of the equivalent circuit
can be entered on the circuit diagram.
The programming environment for the FCIV controller utilizes a R232 link to
communicate between the FCIV controller and GUI (on the developer’s computer). The
GUI interface displays all output parameters and the kind of control is specified by the
user. Buttons are provided to start and download control parameters into the FCIV
Controller.
Visual Basic is based on one of the world’s most widely known languages, Basic, and is
endowed with the ability to build applications for Microsoft Windows. In addition, the
language is appropriate for implementing Internet-based and World-Wide-Web based
applications, and it contains built-in features such as graphical user interface components,
file processing, linking to other Microsoft products such as Microsoft Word and
Microsoft Access, and database processing. The language is extensible so that
independent software vendors can provide component for a vast array of application
arenas15.
22
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Buck Converter Design
Typically, it is commended that the buck converter should be run in continuous mode for
expected loads.
First of all, the gain is stable. In continuous mode, the output Voltage (Vo) is
approximately set by input voltage (Vg) and the duty cycle only, regardless of load or
other component values. In discontinuous mode, Vo depends on Vg, Duty cycle, inductor
value, load and Frequency.
Secondly, for continuous and discontinuous modes, the frequency responses are
different. The transient response in continuous mode can change in discontinuous mode.
Thirdly the continuous mode operation tends to produce smaller ripple in output Voltage
Vo and interference (3).
23
Courtesy of practical design of Buck Converter by Johor Bahru
3.2.1 Inductor
Since the size of the inductor determines the operating mode of the buck converter,
inductor design plays an important role in buck converter design. The inductor functions
by taking energy from the electrical circuit storing it in a magnetic field and subsequently
returning this energy to the circuit4.
24
Voltage (V)
Vs- Vo
Time
Time
Fig 3.2 Inductor Voltage and Inductor current
Fig 3.2 shows the current and voltage waveform through the inductor.
25
CURRENT
iL AT L = LC
In order to obtain the critical inductance the maximum inductor current ripple ∆i L or
minimum percentage load requirement is specified.
ILMIN = 0 = IL – [|∆iL|/2 ] = Vo [1/R - (1-D)/ 2LF]
LC = (1-DMAX)RMAX / 2F (3.7)
RMAX = Vo/IMIN (3.8)
DMAX = duty cycle calculated at minimum input voltage
F= Frequency
Peak current through the inductor determines the inductor's required saturation-current
rating, which in turn dictates the approximate size of the inductor. Saturating the inductor
core decreases the converter efficiency, while increasing the temperatures of the inductor,
the MOSFET and the diode3. The peak current rating of the inductor is determined with
the maximum inductor current. The worse case minimum inductor current occurs at
maximum load.
Transistors chosen for use in switching power supplies must have fast switching times
and should be able to withstand the voltage spikes produced by the inductor.
Voltage rating: With an ideal switch, the maximum switch voltage (V switchmax) is the
maximum voltage input3. But for a non ideal switch, V switchmax = Vinmax + VF where VF is
the maximum forward drop across the switch at maximum load current.
26
Current Rating: The switch current rating is calculated based on the average value of
switch current. During Ton , the inductor current is equal to switch current. During Toff
switch current is equal to zero.
ON OFF ON OFF t
(a)
iswitch
(b)
iDiode
T 2T
Fig 3.4 Current Waveform (a) Inductor Current (b) Switch Current (c) Diode
Current
Fig 3.4 shows the current wave forms through the diode, switch and diode.
27
3.2.3 Diode Rating
It is necessary that the diode should be able to turn off relatively fast. Diodes known as
the fast recovery diodes are used in these applications. The diodes average current ID is
equal to the load current times the portion of the time the diode is conducting Toff as
shown in Fig 3.5. The diode's forward-current specification must meet or exceed the
maximum output current3.
Current (A)
iDiode
OFF OFF
Time (s)
Fig 3.5 Diode current wave form
The maximum reverse voltage on the diode is the maximum input voltage. The current
voltage ratings are low enough that a small Schottky diode or a fast recovery diode could
be used for this application.
Power dissipation is the limiting factor when choosing a diode. The worst-case average
power can be calculated as follows:
where VD is the voltage drop across the diode at the given output current IOMAX.
28
3.2.4 Output Capacitor Selection
The capacitor voltage should withstand the maximum output voltage. Ideally
Output capacitance is required to minimize the voltage overshoot and ripple present at the
output of a buck converter. Since switched power regulators are usually used in high
current, high-performance power supplies, the capacitor should be chosen for minimum
loss. Loss in a capacitor occurs because of its internal series resistance and inductance.
Capacitors for switched circuits are chosen on the basis of effective series resistance
(ESR). For very high performance power supplies, sometimes it is necessary to parallel
capacitors to get a low enough effective series resistance. The maximum allowed output-
voltage overshoot and ripple are sometimes specified at the time of design. Thus, to meet
the ripple specification for a buck converter circuit, an output capacitor with ample
capacitance and low ESR is included.
Reducing the ESR by paralleling capacitors or using capacitors with lower ESR
The current ripple is reduced by increasing the circuit inductance or increasing the
switching Frequency
The current ripple in the inductor current flows through the capacitor leaving the
average flowing through the load1.
29
ic
ON OFF ON OFF
t
Ic +Q
-Q t
T/2
T
Fig 3.6 Capacitor Current Waveform
Q= C*∆Vo
Vo/∆Vo = (3.15)
30
3.3 Open Loop Buck Converter Design
In the buck converter been designed, the circuit has the following specification:
Specification Value
Input Voltage (Vin) 32 – 64 V
Power Output (Po) 10 – 50 W
Switching Frequency (F) 20 kHz
Loading (R) 3 – 14 (Ω)
Output Voltage (Vout) 12 V
3.3.1 Inductance
The minimum required inductance is
LC = (1-DMAX) RMAX / 2F
LC = (1-0.375)*14 / 2* 20000
LC = 2.1875 x 10-4 Henry
The Basic Buck circuit is simulated using the Portunus software using a period T = 50us
and pulse-width Duty Cycle of 0.19 (Fig 3.7). During Ton, the switch S1 drops to 0.01 Ω
connecting 64V (VIN) to L2. During T off , the switch S1 pops open to 1 MΩ effectively
disconnecting voltage input from the inductor L2. R represents the load powered by the
Buck Converter.
With an inductance L equal to 0.3mH, the resulting inductor wave form is as shown in
Fig 3.8.
31
Fig 3.7 buck converter
L2.I
2
1.5
500 m
0
50 u 100 u 150 u 200 u 250 u 300 u 350 u 400 u 450 u 500 u 550 u 600 u 650 u 700 u 750 u 800 u 850 u 900 u 950 u
t/s
L2.I
500 m
0
50 u 100 u 150 u 200 u 250 u 300 u 350 u 400 u 450 u 500 u 550 u 600 u 650 u 700 u 750 u 800 u 850 u 900 u 950 u
t/s
The resulting critical inductance is 0.3mH. For the actual Buck Converter, an inductor of
size 0.7mH was selected, easily guaranteeing enough inductance to sustain continuous
current operation as shown in Fig 3.9. With the inductor size taken into consideration,
the 0.7mH inductor was designed with the following parameters:
32
Winding fill factor Kµ 0.3
Core maximum flux density Bmax(T) 0.5
L = AL N2 10-9 (Henries)
(3.18)
N = √( L/ AL 10-9)
(3.19)
CORE AC MLT WA AL N Lg
ETD 29 0.76 5.33 0.903 82.51 93 1.16
ETD 34 0.97 6.00 1.23 134.41 73 0.91
ETD 39 1.25 6.86 1.74 223.21 56 0.7
ETD 44 1.73 7.62 2.14 427.56 41 0.51
Table 3.1 inductor cores and Corresponding Parameters
Where
33
Aw= Kµ WA / N (3.20)
A wire with bare copper area AW less than or equal to this value is selected using the
metric Wire Gauge table is included in Appendix D.
R= ρN(MLT)/ Aww
3.3.2 Capacitance
The key factor in determining the size of the capacitor is the amount of ripple voltage
desired. Specifically, it is preferable to minimize ripple voltage. A larger capacitor leads
to smaller ripple voltage. It was decided for this thesis that the ripple voltage, defined as
ΔVo /Vo is about 0.1%
Solving for the capacitor size using equation 3.14 yields
C= = = 362 microfarad
34
L2.I
R1.V
20
10
0
10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 60 m 70 m 80 m 90 m 100 m 110 m 120 m 130 m 140 m 150 m 160 m 170 m 180 m 190 m
t/s
Fig 3.10 Output voltage and inductor current at L= 0.7mH and C= 362µF
L2.I
R1.V
20
10
0
10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 60 m 70 m 80 m 90 m 100 m 110 m 120 m 130 m 140 m 150 m 160 m 170 m 180 m 190 m
t/s
Fig 3.11 Output voltage (R1.V) and inductor current (L2.I)at L= 0.7mH and C=
1000µF
The actual capacitor chosen for this thesis was 1000uF as shown in Fig 3.11. When
substituted into equation 3.15 this value yields a peak-to-peak ripple voltage of 0.036 %.
3.3.4 Switch
For the current rating, from equation 3.8, the current rating of the switch should be
greater than 4*0.375= 1.5A. The maximum voltage rating is the maximum input voltage
that is 64V.
35
A 600V, SMPS Series N-Channel IGBT with Anti-Parallel Hyper-fast Diode was chosen
as the switch. The complete description of this component is found in Appendix B.
Fig 3.12 – 14 below show the waveforms obtained with the switching model simulation
when using the actual buck component parameters.
R1.V
25
20
15
10
0
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m 85 m 90 m 95 m
t/s
L2.I
15
10
0
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m 85 m 90 m 95 m
t/s
R1.I
1.5
500 m
0
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m 85 m 90 m 95 m
t/s
36
This control is necessary because input voltage variations and load variations can cause
the output voltage to change. This control is carried out by the FCIV (flexible controller
integrated test platform) controller as shown in Fig 3.15.
PWM OUT
BUCK CONVERTER
A
SAW TOOTH VOLTAGE SOURCE
REFERENCE VOLTAGE
37
Verror= Vref - Vo
If Verror is positive , the duty cycle is increased and if Verror is negative then the duty cycle
is decreased and if Verror is zero then the current duty cycle is maintained.
3.4.1.2 Pulse width Modulation
In order to obtain the PWM signal, the saw tooth waveform V saw is compared with the
Verror signal. When Verror is greater than Vsaw then the output from the comparator is zero
and when Verror is less than Vsaw then the output from the comparator is zero. Thus the
duty cycle of the PWM output signal is proportional to the Error Voltage.
Fig 3.17 Closed Loop Buck Converter and Open Loop Buck Converter
The closed loop buck converter and the open loop buck converter are simulated using
Portunus as shown in Fig 3.17.
38
R7.V
5 PWMD2
0
500 u 1m 1.5 m 2m 2.5 m 3m 3.5 m 4m 4.5 m 5m 5.5 m 6m 6.5 m 7m 7.5 m 8m 8.5 m 9m 9.5 m
t/s
-5
Fig 3.18 Error voltage and PWM input signal of the closed loop buck converter
VM1.V
R1.V
30
20
10
0
2m 4m 6m 8m 10 m 12 m 14 m 16 m 18 m 20 m 22 m 24 m 26 m 28 m 30 m 32 m 34 m 36 m 38 m 40 m 42 m 44 m 46 m 48 m
t/s
Fig 3.19 Input voltage (VMI.1) and output voltage (R1.V) of the closed loop buck
converter
VM1.V
R1.V
30
20
10
0
2m 4m 6m 8m 10 m 12 m 14 m 16 m 18 m 20 m 22 m 24 m 26 m 28 m 30 m 32 m 34 m 36 m 38 m 40 m 42 m 44 m 46 m 48 m
t/s
Fig 3.20 Input Voltage (VMI.1) and output voltage (R1.V) of the open loop buck
converter
R1.V
25 R9.V
20
15
10
0
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m 85 m 90 m 95 m
Fig 3.21 Closed Loop Converter Output (R1.V) and Open Loop Output (R9.V) with
Voltage input of 32V
From comparing the wave forms in Fig 3.19 and 3.20, it can be seen that the output of
open loop buck converter varies with variation of the input voltage.
39
3.5 Graphic User Interface
The user interface to the FCIV controller is developed using Visual Basic 2008. The goal
of the user interface is to make the user interaction with the FCIV controller as easy as
possible.
Here panels are provided in order to drive the buck converter in either the open loop or
closed loop operation. Circuit parameters are downloaded into the FCIV control with the
use of text boxes shown in Fig 3.18 and Fig 3.19.
40
Fig 3.23 Closed-loop Simulation Panel
Ki and Kp: these are buck gain parameters which are used in the closed loop buck
control carried out by the flexible controller integrated platform.
Duty Cycle: This is an open loop input parameter which is used to control the ON/OFF
position of the Buck converter switch.
Frequency: this controls the output frequency of the inverter output voltage.
41
Modulation Index : this controls the output waveform of the inverter output waveform.
The buck output and the generator output are output parameters obtained from the FCIV.
The specific steps taken during the interaction between the user interface and the FCIV
controller when data is been inputted by the user as shown Fig3.24.
USER
BUCK OUTPUT
FLEXIBLE
Set mode
INPUT PARAMETERS CONTROLLER
INTEGRATED
CONFIG
PLATFORM
Send parameters
STOP
Stop controller
Some back calculations are performed in order to recalculate design parameters after
standardization. The source code for the software developed using visual basic is
included in appendix C.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Simulation Results And Measured Experimental Results
In order to verify the theoretical models, experiments using the designed Buck Converter
and the FCIV controller as the switch controller was using on the output of the generator
rig as shown in Fig 4.1. The results presented in tables and graphs are obtained from;
43
4.1.1 Generator No Load Testing
The generator voltage output and frequency increases with speed as shown in Fig 4.2.
The generator output voltage waveform is not perfectly sinusoidal as shown in Fig 4.3.
The voltage waveform was fed into the Portunus rectifier model resulting in results
shown in Fig 4.4.
44
Fig. 4.3 Generator Voltage Output at 500rpm
LOOKUP1.OUT
LOOKUP2.OUT
20 LOOKUP3.OUT
10
0
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m
-10 t/s
-20
Fig 4.4 Three Phase Voltage Output from Portunus Generator Model
When the generator output is rectified with a three phase rectifier and the generator
torque and output DC voltage is measure for a generator speed range of 500 – 1000 rpm.
45
Fig 4.5: Rectifier output without a Capacitor (a) using Portunus simulation (b)
experimental result (c) Simulation and experimental results
Using a capacitance of 1000uF as a filter, the Potunus model as shown in Fig 4.6 outputs
the waveform shown in Fig 4.7
46
Fig 4.6 Portunus Rectifier Model
R1.V
30
20
10
5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 55 m 60 m 65 m 70 m 75 m 80 m
t/s
The designed Buck Converter is connected to a DC power supply and the FCIV
controller where the output voltages are obtained at different duty Cycles. The Open
Loop Buck converter is modeled using Portunus simulation (Fig 4.7) and measurements
were obtained. The measurements are tabled and plotted below (Fig. 4.8- 4.11).
47
Load =50W Input Voltage = 30V
Experimental results Simulation results
PWM (%) Buck Voltage O/P Buck Voltage O/P
10 1.8 2.18
20 4.4 5.6
25 5.7 7.06
30 7.0 8.5
35 8.3 9.96
40 9.6 11.4
45 10.8 12.86
50 12.1 13.7
Table 4.3 : Variation of Buck Output Voltage with input voltage of 30V
Fig.4.9 Buck Output at voltage input of 30V and power output of 50W
48
Loading =50W Input Voltage = 60V
Fig.4.10 Buck Output at voltage input of 60V and power output of 50W
49
Load =10W Input Voltage = 30V
Fig.4.11 Buck Output at voltage input of 30V and power output of 10W
50
Load =10W Voltage = 60V
Fig.4.12 Buck Output at voltage input of 60V and power output of 10W
From Fig 4.5 - 4.8 the simulated vary from the experimental results due to the fact that
the simulation makes use of ideal components. Voltage drop across each component need
to be taken into consideration.
The buck converter was then tested with the actual PM Generator and Rectifier as an
input and the above measurements are repeated.
51
SPEED(rpm) TORQUE(Nm) Bin (V) Bout(V) B(out I) DC
500 0.29 27.2 12 0.87 50
500 0.34 26.5 11.5 1.07 50
500 0.41 25.6 11 1.3 50
500 0.5 24.3 10.1 1.69 50
Table 4.7 Buck Output at varying Power Output (10W- 50W) with generator speed
500 rpm
52
At maximum loading, efficiency = 10.5/17.8 = 59%
From the tables above the efficiency of the power converter rig i.e. Buck Converter +
Rectifier shows that the efficiency drops with increase in speed.
The inverter was tested with the Buck converter and the FCIV controller. The resulting
current wave form was distorted due to current drop in the switches. The Portunus
inverter model is as shown below.
R1.V
2.5
0
50 m 100 m 150 m 200 m 250 m 300 m 350 m 400 m 450 m 500 m 550 m 600 m 650 m
-2.5 t/s
53
Fig 4.15 Experimental Setup
54
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
This thesis has presented the design of the Buck Converter and its implementation in the
power converter Unit. The buck converter was designed to operate with the input range
of 32-64V DC. A load range of 3-14 was selected that would result in a power output
range of 10-50W. The control of the buck converter is carried out by the by the flexible
controller integrated platform developed in the SPEED laboratory. A user end interface to
the FCIV controller using visual basic programming was designed. A complete model
comprising of a rectifier, buck converter and inverter was created using the Portunus
simulation software.
Due to equipment limitation and the prototype nature of the buck converter the efficiency
67% was obtained.
Fig 5.1 illustrates the efficiencies obtained at different speeds. This is due to the losses
due to Resistance of the switch, Diode forward voltage drop, Inductor winding resistance,
Capacitor equivalent resistance.
55
When the Buck Converter is operated in closed loop, the losses are not considered as it
does not affect the buck converter output as the control loop compensates for the voltage
drop by increasing the duty cycle.
56
REFERENCE
[1] Donald Schelle and Jorge Castorena. Maxim Integrated Products. Retrieved from
Maxim Integrated Products website:
http://powerelectronics.com/power_systems/dc_dc_converters/power_buckconverter_
design_demystif
[2] AWG to Metric Conversion table . Retrieved from Engineering ToolBox website:
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/awg-wire-gauge-d_731.html
[3] The practical design of a buck converter by Johor Bahru. Retrieved from IEEE
Website: http://ewh.ieee.org/r10/malaysia/ie_ia_pel/pecon2008/akhtar_tutorial.pdf
[4] Bennett, J. C. (2006). Practical computer analysis of switch mode power supplies.
CRC Press.
[10] Lee, Yim. (1993). Computer-aided analysis and design of switch mode power
supplies. CRC Press.
[14] Step down: SMPS Buck Converter Ideal Circuit. Retrieved from university of Sydney
website: http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~venkat/pe_html/ch07s1/ch07s1p1.htm#intro
57
[15] Robert Warren Erickson, D. M. (2001). Fundamentals of Power Electronics.
Springer.
[21] Understanding variable output characteristics of wind Power. Retrieved from wind
energy the facts.org website: http://www.wind-energy-the-
facts.org/_includes/print.php?lg=en&cmp_id=48&safe_mode= 8/13/2009
58
APPENDIX A
59
APPENDIX B
60
APPENDIX C
intKp = txtKP.Text
intKi = txtKI.Text
intMI = txtModulationIndex.Text
End Sub
'Sequence to carry out Serial Communications via RS232 Port
'------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Public Sub Comunication(ByVal bytLength As Byte, ByRef bytPackage()
As Byte)
intError = 0
61
intCount = 11
Try
MSComm1.Open()
Catch ex As Exception
'SetButtonForStop()
varWarning = MsgBox("Unable to open Comm port ",
MsgBoxStyle.Critical, "Communications Error")
Return
End Try
Try
MSComm1.Write(bytPackage, 0, intCount)
' Write bytPackage to the output buffer of the serial port
Do Until intVerify = intCount
If intVerify = intCount Then
' wait until 11 bytes are recieved
Exit Do
End If
intVerify = MSComm1.BytesToRead
intError += 1
If intError = 500 Then
Throw New ApplicationException("Timeout")
' if recieve operation times out then throw an exception
End If
Threading.Thread.Sleep(1)
' delay a millisecond per loop (500ms delay total)
Loop
Try
' MSComm1.Read(bytRecieve, 0, intCount)
' Read the serial port input buffer and store in bytReceive
62
MsgBoxStyle.Critical, "Communications Error")
MSComm1.Close()
' Close the Serial Port
End Sub
Private Sub btn_configure_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles btn_configure.Click
If ValidateForm() Then
If intMIF = 1 Then
'Package to send Mod Index Command
bytLength = 11
intMI = txtModulationIndex.Text
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 102, 0, _
CByte(intMI), 0)
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
intMIF = 0
End If
If intDCF = 1 Then
63
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 104, 0, CByte(Fix(intDC /
256)), CByte(intDC Mod 256))
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
intDCF = 0
End If
If intVF = 1 Then
'Package to send Vref Command
intVref = txtRefVoltage.Text
bytLength = 11
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 105, 0, _
CByte(Fix(intVref / 256)), CByte(intVref
Mod 256))
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
intVF = 0
End If
If intKpF = 1 Then
'Package to send Kp Command
bytLength = 11
intKp = txtKP.Text
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 106, 0, _
CByte(Fix(intKp / 256)), CByte(intKp Mod
256))
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
intKpF = 0
End If
If intKiF = 1 Then
'Package to send Ki Command
intKi = txtKI.Text
bytLength = 11
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 107, 0, _
CByte(Fix(intKi / 256)), CByte(intKi Mod
256))
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
intKiF = 0
End If
End Sub
End Sub
End Sub
End Sub
64
Private Sub txt_gen_voltage_TextChanged(ByVal sender As
System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles
txt_gen_voltage.TextChanged
End Sub
End Sub
End Sub
End Sub
End Sub
If intRun = 1 Then
btn_run.BackColor = Color.FromArgb(0, 192, 0) 'green
intRun = 0
btn_run.Text = "RUN"
btn_run.Enabled = False
btn_configure.Enabled = True
bytLength = 11
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 103, intRun, intRun,
intRun)
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
65
Else
btn_run.BackColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0) 'red
intRun = 1
btn_run.Text = "STOP"
bytLength = 11
End Sub
intRun = 0
intFrequency = 50
intMI = 100
intDC = 375
intVref = 1000
intKp = 20
intKi = 15
intFF = 0
intMIF = 0
intDCF = 0
intVF = 0
intKpF = 0
intKiF = 0
66
'Package to send Vref Command
bytLength = 11
Call BuildPackage(bytLength, 18, 105, 0, _
CByte(Fix(intVref / 256)), CByte(intVref Mod
256))
Call Comunication(bytLength, bytPackage11)
End Sub
Case 11
bytPackage11(0) = 11 'No. bytes lsb
bytPackage11(1) = 0 'No. bytes msb
bytPackage11(2) = 1 'Destination
bytPackage11(3) = 64 'Source
bytPackage11(4) = bytCmd 'Command
bytPackage11(5) = bytFunc1 'data 1, Parameter
Identifier (PI)
bytPackage11(6) = bytMsb 'data 2, msb
bytPackage11(7) = bytLsb 'data 3, lsb
bytPackage11(8) = 0 'data 4
bytPackage11(9) = 0 'data 5
67
bytPackage11(10) = bytPackage11(0) Xor bytPackage11(1)
'checksum
For intCount = 2 To 9 ' XOR of all bytes
excluding the checksum
bytPackage11(10) = bytPackage11(10) Xor
bytPackage11(intCount)
Next intCount
End Select
Timer1.Enabled = True
End Sub
Private Sub optCL_Click()
txtDutyCycle.Enabled = False
txtKP.Enabled = True
txtKI.Enabled = True
txtRefVoltage.Enabled = True
intBM = 2
End Sub
txtDutyCycle.Enabled = True
txtKP.Enabled = False
txtKI.Enabled = False
txtRefVoltage.Enabled = False
intBM = 1
End Sub
intDCF = 1
txtDutyCycle.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
68
Private Sub txtFreq_Change()
intFF = 1
txtFrequency.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
intKiF = 1
txtKI.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
intKpF = 1
txtKP.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
intMIF = 1
txtModulationIndex.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
intVF = 1
txtRefVoltage.ForeColor = Color.FromArgb(192, 0, 0)
End Sub
'KP validation
If (txtKP.Text.Trim() = "" Or intKp > 100) Then
MsgBox("kp cannot be blank or zero",
MsgBoxStyle.Exclamation, "kp")
txtKP.Focus()
Return False
End If
'KI validation
If (txtKI.Text.Trim() = "" Or intKi > 100 Or intKi > intKp)
Then
MsgBox("ki cannot be blank ", MsgBoxStyle.Exclamation,
"ki")
txtKI.Focus()
69
Return False
End If
End If
End If
'frequecy validation
If (txtFrequency.Text.Trim() = "" Or txtFrequency.Text = "0")
Then
MsgBox("Frequency cannot be blank or zero",
MsgBoxStyle.Exclamation, "Frequency")
txtFrequency.Focus()
Return False
End If
Return True
End Function
End Sub
70
End Sub
71
APPENDIX D
72