What is computer network?

Two or more than two computer systems connected through a communication medium like
cables are termed (define) as a Network.

Computer Network is a communication system, which links computers and their resources.
(deceives)

Computer Resources are storage devices e.g. Hard disk, tape drive, CDROM, MODEM, printer,
etc and any other computing system (Mainframe, Minicomputer etc.).

BENEFITS (advantages) OF A computer NETWORK?

Following are the benefits of a networking which help to increase the productivity:

Information Sharing

Printer Sharing ( one printer can be used bye the all the department of the company)

Hard Disk Sharing ( one storage devices can be used by the all the company)

Modem Sharing ( internet can be used by one modem by all the labs in the school)

Hardware Sharing (

Software Sharing

Service Access

Easy Back-Up Management

Security

Centralized Administration and Support

TYPES OF NETWORK?
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) :
à LAN connects computers that are located near each other or at the same location.
 à A corporate network ( any company or organization) consisting of several building in a
campus an example of a LAN

 Physical Distance Between the computers will be around 100 meters

 It covers a relatively small area, such as a building, home or an office
 Used to share printers, files and other resources over the LAN.
 Example: School Lab

WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN—LONG HAUL

NETWORKS) :
àWAN connects a numbers of computers which are located at a greater distance from one
other or at different location.

àInternet is an example of WAN

Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Physical Distance Between the computers will range from 10 Kilometers and Above
•It covers a relatively large area, such as a offices from country to another country
•Used to share printers, files and other resources over the Network.
•Example: Banks in India, Internet, Sutherland,USA, CANADA, INDIA offices

MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks

Networks that share some of the characteristics of both LANs and WANs are sometimes referred to as
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN). The MANs usually cover a wider geographic area than LANs. The
main objective of MANs is to interconnect LANs located in a entire city or metropolitan area.

Physical Distance Between the computers will range from 100 meters to 10 Kilometers.
•It covers a relatively large area ,such as a offices from one place to other place in the same
city or to connect near by building
•Used to share printers ,files and other resources over the Network.
•Example : University Labs,

Characteristics or Difference between the types of

network?
Or Difference between the LAN, WAN, MAN?

The key characteristics, which are often used to differentiate between these two types of networks,
are as follows:

Geographic Distribution ( where the computer are?)

Data Rate (speed)

Error Rate

Communication Link ( how many lines are there ? speed of tem?

Ownership

Communication Cost
Classification of Networks
(Based on Grouping

Peer to Peer Network

 Each computer is attached to the network in a ring or bus fashion and is equal to the
other units on the network.
•This network is useful if we have a small network and there is no need for managing or
security.
•It can also be defined as Collection of computers interconnected together to share
information and resources without any administration.
Client / Server Network

In this dependent workstations, referred to as clients, operate in conjunction with a

dedicated master computer called a server.
•Client request the server
and sever serves the client
if the client has permission to access what it requested.
•This type of network is need in case we need management and security ,
Example :Office computers in different departments.
•There are two types of administration:
•Centralized Administration : One system controls all the other systems.
•Distributed or Decentralized
Administration:Administration is done from multiple
EXPAIN NETWORK TOPOLOGY ?
It refers to the physical layout of the network, especially the location of the computers and
how the cable is run between them.

The choice of the networks topology for installing a computer network depends upon a
combination of factors, such as:

à The desired performance of the system. ( decides )

àThe desired reliability of the system.

à it will decides Size of the system..

à (how many number of the devices can be connected ) Expandability of the system.

à Availability of communication lines. (more line more speed)

à Delays involved in routing information from one node to another.( effects decrease in
speed)

Types of network TOPOLOGY?

Classification of network topology?
Explain network topology ?
1. Bus type network
2. Ring type network
3. Star type network
BUS TOPOLOGY

The bus topology refers to a linear arrangement of computers

In Bus topology the computers are connected serially.
that are connected together by a single cable referred to as the trunk or backbone.
It is often used small, simple or temporary.

 when a network installation is small,

 when a network installation is simple
 When a network installation is temporary.
Advantages:
it is Simple,
it is Reliable,
it is Easy to use
And it is easy understood.
Easy to install
Data travels to all the system before it reaches
destination node
Least (small) amount of cable to connect computers.
Less number of lines will be connected to computer.
Easy to extend a bus with the help of a repeater. Easy to join more computer.

STAR TOPOLOGY
 A star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer which acts as a router
to transmit messages.

In star topology all the computers are connected to a central place called HUB/Switch.

Advantages:
It has Good Performance
Easy to install
Time taken for data transfer between systems are same.
It is Easy to set up and to expand. More computers can be joined easily.
Any non-centralized failure will have very little effect on the network,
Whereas on a ring network it would all fail with one fault.
One failure will effect to whole network.

Disadvantages:
Expensive to install
cost will be more
Extra hardware required
to connect more computer more numbered devices will be required
If the host computer fails the entire system is affected.

RING TOPOLOGY
A ring network is a topology of computer networks where each connected to node is
two other nodes, so as to create a ring.

All computers are connected in ring type.

Advantages:
Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle neck’. ( data rate will be same for all
computers)
it is very fast,
all data traffic is in the same direction
The transmission of data is simple as packets travel in one direction only.
Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth.
More number of the computer can be joined without change in data rate.
It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture
required. ( two or more computer will fight for the same number of data)

Disadvantages:
 Data packets must pass through every computer between the senders and recipient
therefore this makes it slower.
Slower speed.
If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted
successfully. ( failing of any node or line will effect the whole network)
It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring. ( difficult to find fault)
Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you must shut down the
network temporarily.
In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all computers must be
turned on. ( all computer must be connected for successful running of the all network)

Mesh Topology
In Mesh topology all the computers are connected to each others using separate cables

Characteristics advantage disadvantage of the mesh topology

All system can communicate with each other

It is more Costly
Large number of the cables are required
 If particular cable fails the systems connected by those cable alone will not able to
communicate between themselves but they can communicate with all other systems.
What is Computer? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
computer?

Computer is an electronic device. It accepts raw data as well as instructions

from the user, process it and gives meaningful information as required by user as per
given instruction.

Advantages: -

(a) Computer works very fast.

(b) Computer gives accurate result.

(c) It can process millions of instructions per second.

(d) Computer is very versatile.

(e) Computer works at constant efficiency.

(f) Perform repetitive tasks very well without error.

(g) Computer can store information for future retrieval or use.

(h) Computer can communicate with other computer systems.

Disadvantages: -

(a) If wrong programmed then it produces wrong answers.

(b) If it gets down then so many working hours wasted.

(c) It brings unemployment because one computer can handle work of many people.

(d) Stealing of information through computer is become too much easy.

(e) Computer on Internet is not safe due to Virus or other attacks.

1. What is a Computer?

Computer system is defined as information processing machine use to do arithmetic and

logical operation with capacity to store data temporarily and or permanently. A computer can
store, process, and retrieve data as and when desired.

Block diagram of computer system

Definition: - a computer is an electronic device which takes data and instructions from the
user and after processing producing gives result in useful form. During processing it has to
perform:-
Taking data and instruction from user.
Conversion data into information.
Give/display the result.

Component of computer
A computer system of four units-
(1) Input unit
(2) Output unit
(3) Control processing unit
(4) Secondary storage unit.
(1) Input unit
Data and instruction must enter in to the the computer system before any
computation can be performed. This task is performed by the input unit.
 It needs the instruction and data.
Its convert these data and instruction in computer expectable.
Its supplied the converted instruction and data to the computer system for processing.

(2) Output unit-

The job of an output unit is just refers to input.

It sands the information from the processing to the user.
Computer works with binary number. Out put devices will convert it in to the see able
form.

(3) Control processing unit- the memory unit, control unit, arithmetic and logical unit to a
computer are jointly known as control processing unit.

The C.P.U is the brain of computer.

In a human body are function directed by the brain.
Similarly in a computer system in a computer system all major calculation is made
inside the C.P.U.

(4) Memory unit (primary memory or secondary) – memory unit of C.P.U is also known as
primary memory unit. Primary memory unit is used to store data and instruction
result. This information is stored temporary. This storage can how information only
which the computer is an as such as the computer switch off the data get erased.

(5) Control unit- the control unit manage and co-ordinate the entire computer to system.
It takes the instruction from the programs stored in the main memory needs the instruction
and sends the information to outer units to execute (run) them.

(5) A.L.U (arithmetic and logic unit) – In an ALU are designing performed the from basic.
Arithmetic calculation addition, subtraction, multiplication and division such as less
then greater than.

(6) Secondary storage unit – to store data and final results permanently secondary
storage devices are used. Just commonly used of secondary storage devices are hard
disks, floppy disk, and C.D etc.
Characteristics of a Computer

(a) Computer is very fast.

(b) Computer is accurate.

(c) They can process millions of instructions per second.

(d) Computer is very versatile. (Unique)

(e) Computer works at constant efficiency. (Very high performance)

(f) Perform repetitive tasks very well without error.

(g) Computer can store information for future retrieval or use.

Computer can store information for long time.

(h) Computer can communicate with other computer systems.

Generation of computers

First Generation -:

(1946 - 1954)
Use Vacuum Tubes (they were using vacuum tubes)
Use Assemble language for programming
large in size
slow processing speed
Memory capacity ----------10 thousand to 20 thousand character
Execution speed ------------few thousand instruction per second.
Example : IBM 704, IBM 709, EDVAC, UNIVAC etc.

Second Generation -:

(1955-1964)
they are Using transistors instead of vacuum tube
Increased Operating speeds & improved Storage devices
High speed card readers are used in them
Memory capacity --------40,000 to 64,000 characters.
Execution speed ---------Up to 1 million instruction/sec.
Used high-level languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL
Line printers and magnetic tape transport units were used in there.
 Reduction in size, improved reliability, reduction in operating cost.
Example : IBM 1400, IBM 7040, CDC 3600, GE635, B300

Third Generation -:

(1965-1974)
Use of IC (Integrated Circuit)
Memory capacity --------32,000 to 4 million characters.
Execution speed ---------up to 10 million instructions per second.
Starting use of Semiconductor Memory (RAM or ROM)
More miniaturization Reliability and Accuracy
Example : IBM 370, Honeywell 200, B2000

Fourth Generation -:

(1975-up till now)

Use of VLSIC (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit) and
Magnetic Oxide Semiconductor
Execution speed ---- 100 million instructions per second.
Language --------------all high level language and forth level Languages and artificial intelligence.
Operating system speed in nano & pico sec.
Refinement of I/O units.
Reduction in size.
Refinement of HLL and software packages for DBMS
Reduced operating cost, recording of errors.

Fifth Generation -:

(Development continued...)
Will be use ULSIC (Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuit)
Use Artificial Intelligence
Super Computer.
This type of computer will understand natural languages like English, Hindi etc. and
programmer have to instruct only what to do, not how to do. These computers will have
full ability to understand sounds and visions & it will reduce the burden of programming.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
(1) Analog computers.
(2) Digital computers.
(3) Hybrid computers.

Analog computers-

Analog computers are specific type of computers

They are used for some particular types of work only
And not for all type of work.
It communicate with continuous data and document
not communicate with numbers directly
i.e.- It uses continues signals as input.
These computers are mostly used in engineering and scientific application.
Temperature, air pressure, speed, current, weight etc
Analog computer calculates the result by measuring the continuous change in these
quantities
Analog computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
compare quantities in a single operation
These Systems are more speedy than digital
Examples: Speed meter, air pressure measurement devices, rain gauge etc.
Speedometer of a car measure speed in terms of km/h or m/h, the change in
temperature is measured by a thermometer in degree’s.

Digital computers-
Digital computers used the binary number systems which has two digits 0, 1.
It performs several different tasks. It performs several different generally on counting
and not measuring used for business and scientific application.
Ex- Pentium III and IV.
Digital Computers work on discrete data.
Discrete data refers to discrete values such as 0, 1.
Digital computers works on 0,1(Binary Numbers)
These computers based on the presence or absence of an electrical charge or binary 0
& 1.
The native language of this class is therefore called binary language (Machine
Language)
These Systems are more accurate and precise than others
Examples: - calculators, digital watches etc…
(3) Hybrid computers-
It is a combination of analog computers and also features of digital computers.
These computers are mostly used with process control machine like oil refineries and
used at places where signals as well as data are to be entered into computer.
Combine the best feature of both digital and analog systems
Works on both analog and digital data
Speedy like analog
Accuracy like digital
They are used mainly in specialized applications where both analog and digital
information needs processing
Weather forecasting, Air Defense, Radar Controlling systems, digital petrol pumps etc.
In petrol pumps, fuel flow converts into quantity and then quantity is converted into
values.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Classification Of Computers With Respect To Size

 With respect to size, speed, and cost, we can classify computers in the following
types:

 MICRO COMPTUERS
 MINI COMPUTERS
 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
 SUPER COMPUTERS
 MICRO COMPUTERS
 These computers are small in size.
 A micro computer use to have Primary memory range from a few Kilobytes to
Gigabytes.
 They are usually designed for personal use therefore they are also called as Personal
Computers (i.e. PC).
 These computers can easily be accommodated (put or keep) on the top of a desk due
to their small size and hence are also called as DESKTOP computers.
 There is another kind of Micro Computer which can easily be placed on the lap and
such computer is called as Laptops. These Laptops can be easily carried in a small
briefcase.
 Micro Computers are highly flexible. These are also called CHIP Computers
because its entire circuitry is fabricated on a single chip.
 Examples:-IBM, APPLE, COMPAC, RADIO SHACK, IBM
 compatibles:- 286,386,486,Pentium-I,Pentium-II,Pantium-III,Pentium-IV etc…
 Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a desktop or notebook PC, but
offer features for users who need limited functions and small size.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
 These computers are very powerful.
 Large in size, large in memory and powerful.
 Mainframe computers are also capable of connecting terminals with it.
 These computers are used in networked environment and mainly as network
servers.
 Mainframe computers are very expensive.
 They are usually designed for the computerization of huge business organizations,
universities, banks, scientific laboratories, national and international markets.
 Multiple Input/output devices are normally attached with a Mainframe computer.
 The secondary storage use to be in the form disks in a Mainframe computer.
Mainframes are measured in integer operations per second or MIPS
 These computers also allow different users to work on it at the same time like Mini
computers but the number of users can be much more than that of the Mini
computers (up to thousand’s users can work at a time on a single Mainframe
computer).
 Examples:- IBM-4381, IBM-360, ICL-2900,NEC-610 etc…

SUPER COMPUTERS

 Supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current

processing,
 They have very high capacity,
 There speed of calculation is very high .
 Supercomputers are the most powerful computers.
 They are used for problems requiring complex calculations.
 It is not possible to consider one computer system as the most powerful,
because the power of a computer is not linear and depends on one cpu.
 Super Computers are very difficult to design,
 It requires lot of research and development and at the same time they
are very much expansive to manufacture.
 Presently approximately 30-50 Super Computers are sold per annum.
 The speed of a super computer is enormous as it was calculated at a rate
of 64 billions instructions per second, But now,
 In terms of computational ability, Supercomputers are more powerful.
 They have very larger computational power.
 This will be equivalent to 2 million (1,000,000) laptops.
 Application in web services and search engines, online banking
(Transaction processing), weather forecasting, Climate Prediction,
Nuclear weapons (test by simulations), Earthquake and structural
modeling and petroleum exploration.
Explain the difference between assembly language and
machine language.
Ans.

A computer understands information composed of only zeros and ones.

A program written in terms of "0s" and "1s" is called a machine language program.
Computer instructions are written binary codes.
A machine language uses only binary codes.
To write a program in a machine language is a very difficult, tiresome and very boring
job. Moreover, it is error prone.


To overcome this difficulty a program can be written in alphanumeric symbols instead of
"0s" and "1s".
Meaningful symbols called mnemonics are used for this purpose.
For example ADD is used for addition, SUB for subtraction, CMP for comparison etc.
A language, which uses mnemonics, is called an assembly language program.
When a program is written in a language other than machine language, the computer
will not understand this.
Therefore, a program written in other languages must be translated into machine
language before it is executed.
The task of translation is done by software.
A program, which translates an assembly language program into a machine language
program, is called an Assembler.

Q. Differentiate a high-level language from an assembly

language.
Ans.

A language in which each statement or an instruction is directly translated into a single

machine code is known as a low-level language.
Each mnemonic of an assembly language has a unique machine code.
An assembly language is a low-level language.
An assembly language depends on the internal architecture of a processor.
Each processor has its own assembly language.
Assembly language of one processor cannot be used for another processor.
In other words it is not portable.
 To write an assembly language program, a programmer must have the detailed
knowledge of the instruction set of the particular processor, it's internal architecture,
registers, and connection of peripherals to ports etc.
It is not very fast and easy programming language.


To overcome the difficulties associated with assembly language, high level or
procedure-oriented languages have been developed.
In a high-level language an instruction is called statement rather than mnemonic.
Statements more closely resemble English and Mathematics than mnemonics.
High-level languages permit programmers to describe tasks in the forms, which are
problem oriented rather than computer oriented.
Programming in a high-level language does not require precise knowledge of the
architecture of a processor, which is to be used.
A program written in a high-level language will run on any computer, which has a
compiler for that language.
In other words a high-level language is portable.

Q. Give the difference between compilers and

interpreters.
Ans.

An Interpreter is a program, which translates statements of a high-level language

program into machine codes i.e. in the form of 1 and 0.
It translates one statement of the program at a time.
It reads one statement of a high-level language program translates it into machine code
and executes it.
Then it reads the next statement of the program, again translates and executes it.
In this way it proceeds further till all the statements of the program are translated and
executed.

On the other hand, a compiler goes through the entire high-level language program
once or twice and then translates the entire program into machine codes.
A compiler is 5 to 25 times faster than an interpreter is.
An interpreter is a small program as compared to a compiler.
It occupies less memory space, so it can be used in a smaller system, which has limited
memory space.
The object program produced by the compiler is permanently saved for future
reference.
 On the other hand, the object code of the statement produced by an interpreter is not
saved.
If an instruction is used the next time, it must be interpreted once again and translated
into machine code.
For example, during the repetitive processing of the steps in a loop, each instruction in
the loop must be reinterpreted as the loop is executed.

(1)ASSEMBLERS-
An assembly language program can not be directly executed by the computer.
It has to be converted into its machine language equivalent code before execute it.
An assembler is a program that translates a program, written in assembler language into
a machine executable code.
The input to assembler program is an assembly language program known as source
program and output of assembler is a machine language program known as object
program.

(2)COMPILER-
Compiler is the translators, which translate high level language program into machine
code and this machine code and this machine code is executed after words.
The translated machine code is known as object code.
Function performed by compiler are-
o A locate address for all variables and statements.
o Generate the object program on tape or disk as required.
o Produce listing of source and object program.
o Tabulates a list of programming errors found during compilation.
Some of the important compiler based languages are PASCOL, FORTRON and TURBO C.

INTERPRETER-
Interpreters are used for translating high level language program into machine level
language program line by line and executing each of the instruction alternately.
When a program is to be executed, the interpreter accesses the first instruction,
translate it into one or more, machine language instructions, and then execute those
instructions.
The interpreter then accesses the next instruction and repeats these tasks.
 The process continuous until all source language instructions have been translated and
excited.
Features of interpreters-
(i)Interpreters are slow as compared to compiler because of line by line translation and
execution.
(ii) Debugging is easier in interpreter based languages because interpretation process
stops as soon as error is encountered.
(iii) Most well known interpreter based language is basic.

OPERATING SYSTEM
Definition- Usage of operating system-

The usage of operating systems can be define as-

Easy interaction between users and computer.
Computer starts operation automatically, when power is turned on.
Loading and scheduling user programs.
Controlling input and output.
Controlling program execution.
Managing use of main memory.
Providing security to user‘s job and files.

An OS is an intermediary between the user of the computer & the computer hardware.
It provides a basis for application program & acts as an intermediary between user of
computer & computer hardware.
The purpose of an OS is to provide an environment(place) in which the user can execute
the program in a convenient & efficient manner.
OS is an important part of almost every computer systems.
A computer system can be roughly divided into four components
o The Hardware
o The OS
o The application Program
o The user
The Hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, I/O devices, peripherals devices & storage
devices.
The application program mainly consisted of word processors, spread sheets, compilers
& web browsers defines the ways in which the resources are used to solve the problems
of the users.
The OS controls & co-ordinates the use of hardware among various application program
for various users.
 Batch Systems:-
 Early computers where physically large machines.
 The common I/P devices are card readers & tape drives.
 The common O/P devices are line printers, tape drives & card punches.
 The user does not interact directly with computers but we use to prepare a job with the
program, data & some control information & submit it to the computer operator.
 The job was mainly in the form punched cards.
 At later time the O/P appeared and it consisted of result along with dump of memory
and register content for debugging.

The OS of these computers was very simple.

Its major task was to transfer control from one job to the next.
The OS was always resident in the memory.( it is the part of memory)
The processing of job was very slow.
To improve the processing speed operators batched together the jobs with similar
needs and processed it through the computers.
This is called Batch Systems.
In batch systems the CPU may be idle for some time because the speed of the
mechanical devices slower compared to the electronic devices.
Later improvement in technology and introduction of disks resulted in faster I/O
devices.

The introduction of disks allowed the OS to store all the jobs on the disk. The OS could perform
the scheduling to use the resources and perform the task efficiently.

Disadvantages of Batch Systems:-

1. Turn around time can be large from user.

2. Difficult to debug the program.

3. A job can enter into infinite loop.

4. A job could corrupt the monitor.

5. Due to lack of protection scheme, one job may affect the pending jobs.
Multi programmed System:-

If there are two or more programs in the memory at the same time sharing the
processor, this is referred as multi programmed OS.
It increases the CPU utilization by organizing the jobs so that the CPU will always have
one job to execute.
( more then one program will run on same time)
Jobs entering the systems are kept in memory.
( able to store and take jobs as and when required )
OS picks the job from memory & it executes it.
Having several jobs in the memory at the same time requires some form of memory
management.
Multi programmed systems monitors the state of all active program and system
resources and ensures that CPU is never idle until there are no jobs.
While executing a particular job, if the job has to wait for any task like I/O operation to
be complete then the CPU will switch to some other jobs and starts executing it and
when the first job finishes waiting the CPU will switch back to that.
This will keep the CPU & I/O utilization busy.

The following figure shows the memory layout of multi programmed OS

 Time sharing Systems:-
Time sharing system or multi tasking is logical extension of multi programming systems.
The CPU executes multiple jobs by switching between them but the switching occurs so
frequently that user can interact with each program while it is running.
An interactive & hands on system provides direct communication between the user
and the system.
The user can give the instruction to the OS or program directly through key board or
mouse and waits for immediate results.
It gives immediate results.
A time shared system allows multiple users to use the computer simultaneously.
Since each action or commands are short in time shared systems only a small CPU time
will be available for each of the user.
A time shared systems uses CPU scheduling and multi programming to provide each
user a small portion of time shared computers. When a process executes it will be
executing for a short time before it finishes or need to perform I/O. I/O is interactive i.e.
O/P is to a display for the user and the I/O is from a keyboard, mouse etc.
Since it has to maintain several jobs at a time, system should have memory
management & protection.
Time sharing systems are complex than the multi programmed systems. Since several
jobs are kept in memory they need memory management and protection. To obtain less
response time jobs are swapped in and out of main memory to disk. So disk will serve as
backing store for main memory. This can be achieved by using a technique called virtual
memory that allows for the execution of job i.e. not completes in memory.
It keeps switching so that memory and the memory management will required.
Time sharing system should also provide a file system & file system resides on
collection of disks so this need disk management. It supports concurrent execution, job
synchronization & communication.

Real- Time Systems:-

Real time system is one which was originally used to control autonomous systems like
satellites, robots, hydroelectric dams etc.
Real time system is one that must react to I/p & responds to them quickly.
A real time system should not be late in response to one event.
A real time should have well defined time constraints.
Real time systems are of two types
o Hard Real Time Systems
o Soft Real Time Systems
A hard real time system guarantees that the critical tasks to be completed on time. This
goal requires that all delays in the system be bounded from the retrieval of stored data
to time that it takes the OS to finish the request.
In soft real time system is a less restrictive one where a critical real time task gets
priority over other tasks & retains the property until it completes. Soft real time system
is achievable goal that can be mixed with other type of systems. They have limited utility
than hard real time systems.
Soft real time systems are used in area of multimedia, virtual reality & advanced
scientific projects. It cannot be used in robotics or industrial controls due to lack of
deadline support.
Real time OS uses priority scheduling algorithm to meet the response requirement of a
real time application.
Soft real time requires two conditions to implement, CPU scheduling must be priority
based & dispatch latency should be small.
The primary objective of file management in real time systems is usually speeding of
access, rather than efficient utilization of secondary storage.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center.
A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a metal shield (See
fig. 3).
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference.
No any other signal can disturb the data flow with the help of the coaxial cable.
In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted
pair cable.
The two types of coaxial
o Thin coaxial
o Thick coaxial
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters.
In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters.
Thin coaxial cable has been popular in
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet.
10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters.
Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor.
This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear
bus network.
 One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult
to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the BNC connector.

Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-

connector, barrel connector, and terminator.

Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. Data will lose from
here more.

To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that
crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials (See fig. 5).

It transmits light rather than electronic signals.

Eliminating the problem of electrical interference.

This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of
electrical interference.

It is generally used where there is large amount of interference.

It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to
its immunity (reduces) to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair.

It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds.

 These capacity broadband communication possibilities to include services such as
video conferencing and interactive services.

The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more
difficult to install and modify.

10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig.5. Fiber optic cable

Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector.

It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC connector.

A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular.

It has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded.

There are two types of twisted pair cable: shielded and unshielded.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best
option for school networks (See fig. 1).
Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed
cable.

The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket.

Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.

The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate

And the greater the cost per foot.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or
Category 5.
 If you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are considering the cost
savings of buying Category 3 wire instead of Category 5, remember that the
Category 5 cable will provide more "room to grow" as transmission technologies
increase.

Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of 100
meters.

In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the
specifications for unshielded twisted pair cable (Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying
Ethernet signals.

Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45

connector.

This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See
fig. 2).

A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way.

RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard
borrowed from the telephone industry.

This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be affected by radio and electrical

frequency interference.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical

interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky.

It is used where there is large amount of electrical interference.

Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

TYPES OF CABLE
DESCRIPTION USE BENEFITS/
DOWNFALLS

Coaxial cable A center wire -Cable television -Carries a lot of data

surrounded by -Computer networks -Less susceptible to
insulation and then a interference than
grounded shield of standard wire
braided wire -Expensive
Fiber Optics Bundles of glass (or -Telephone lines -Greater bandwidth
plastic) threads -LANs -Less susceptible to
(fibers) to transmit interference than
data metal wire
-Lighter and thinner
-Digital data
transmission
-Very expensive
-Fragile
Twisted-pair cable Two independently -Older telephone -Least expensive
insulated wires networks
twisted around one -Inexpensive LANs
another
UTP (unshielded Two unshielded wires -Telephone -Easy to work with
twisted pair) twisted around each connections -Inexpensive
other -LANs -Little bandwidth
-Poor protection from
interference