Garis-garis Besar Perkuliahan

1. Sistem Persamaan Linier

2. Matriks dan Operasinya
3. Determinan dan Sifat-sifatnya
UTS
4. Ruang Vektor
5. Basis dan Dimensi
6. Ruang Hasil Kali Dalam
7. Transformasi Linier
UTS
8. Matriks Transformasi Linier
9. Keserupaan
10. Nilai Eigen dan Vektor Eigen
11. Diagonalisasi
MATRICES
 Introductory
• aij: the element of matrix A in row i and column j.
• For a square nn matrix A, the main diagonal is:
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
A   21
    
 
 an1 an 2  ann 

Two matrices are equal if they are of the same size and if their
corresponding elements are equal.

Thus A = B if aij = bij.

 Addition
Let A and B be matrices of the same size.
Their sum A + B is the matrix obtained by adding together the
corresponding elements of A and B.
The matrix A + B will be of the same size as A and B.
If A and B are not of the same size, they cannot be added, and we
say that the sum does not exist.

Thus if C  A  B , then cij  aij  bij

 Examples 1 and 2
 1 4 7  2 5 6   5 4 
Let A   , B    , and C   .
0 2 3  3 1 8  2 7
Determine A + B and A + C, if the sum exist.
Solution
 1 4 7   2 5 6 
(1) A  B    
 0 2 3   3 1 8 
1  2 4  5 7  6 
 
 0  3 2  1 3  8 
 3 9 1
 .
 3 1 11
(2) Because A is 2  3 matrix and C is a 2  2 matrix, they are
not of the same size, A + C does not exist.
 Scalar Multiplication
Let A be a matrix and c be a scalar. The scalar multiple of A by c,
denoted cA, is the matrix obtained by multiplying every element
of A by c. The matrix cA will be the same size as A.

Thus if B  cA, then bij  caij

Example 3
 1 2 4 
Let A   .
 7 2 0 
 3  1 3  (2) 3  4   3 6 12 
3A    .
3  7 3  (3) 3  0   21 9 0 
Observe that A and 3A are both 2  3 matrices.
 Negation and Subtraction
We now define subtraction of matrices in such a way that makes it
compatible with addition, scalar multiplication, and negative. Let
A – B = A + (–1)B

Example 4

Suppose A  5 0  2 and  2 8  1 .
3 6  5  0 4 6

5  2 0  8  2  (  1)  3  8  1
A B   .
3  0 6  4  5  6  3 2  1 1
 Multiplication
Let the number of columns in a matrix A be the same as the
number of rows in a matrix B. The product AB then exists.

Let A: mn matrix, B: nk matrix,

The product matrix C = AB has elements  b1 j 
 
b2 j 
cij  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j    ainbnj  ai1 ai 2  ain   

 
 bnj 
C is a mk matrix.

If the number of columns in A does not equal the number of rows

in B, we say that the product does not exist.
 Example 5
1 3 5 0 1
Let A   , B    , an d C   6  2 5 .
2 0 3  2 6
D et ermin e AB, BA, an d AC , if t h e p ro d uct s exist .
Solution  1 3 5 0 1
AB    
 2 0  3  2 6 
 5   0 1  
  1 3    1 3    1 3   
3
    2  6 
 
 2 0     2 0  
5 0  1  
  2 0  
 3
    2   6  
 (1 5)  (3  3) (1  0)  (3  ( 2)) (1  1)  (3  6) 
 
(2  5)  (0  3) (2  0)  (0  (  2)) (2 1)  (0  6) 
14  6 1 9
 .
10 0 2 
BA and AC do not exist. Note: In general, AB  BA.
 Example 6
 2 1
Let A   7 0 and B   1 0. Determine AB.
 3 5
 3  2
  2 1  1  2 1 0 
  3 5 
 2 1
   
AB   7 0  1 0     7 0  1  0
 7 0 5  
 3 5   3
 3  2  

   

  3  2   1   3  2   0 
  3 5 
  2  3 0  5  1 5
   7  0 0  0    7 0
 3  6 0  10   3  10
Example 7
7 3 2
Let C = AB, A   3 4 and B   5 0 1 Determine c23.
2 1
   
c23    3 4   2  (3  2)  (4  1)  2
 1
 Size of a Product
If A is an m  r matrix and B is an r  n matrix, then AB will be an
m  n matrix.

A B = AB
mr rn mn

Example 8
If A is a 5  6 matrix and B is an 6  7 matrix.
Because A has six columns and B has six rows. Thus AB exists.
And AB will be a 5  7 matrix.
 Special Matrices
A zero matrix is a matrix in which all the elements are zeros.
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all the elements
not on the main diagonal are zeros.
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix in which every diagonal
element is 1.

0 0  0  a11 0  0 1 0  0
0 0  0
0  a22  0  0 1  0
0mn  A  In   
             
     
0 0  0 0 0  ann  0 0  1
zero matrix diagonal matrix A identity matrix
 Some Properties
Let A be m  n matrix and 0mn be the zero m  n matrix. Let B be
an n  n square matrix. 0n and In be the zero and identity n  n
matrices. Then
A + 0mn = 0mn + A = A
B0n = 0nB = 0n
BIn = InB = B
Example 9
Let A  2 1  3 and B   2 1.
4 5 8  3 4
 2 1  3 0 0 0   2 1  3
A  023     A
 4 5 8  0 0 0   4 5 8
 2 1 0 0   0 0
B02       02
  3 3 0 0  0 0
 2 1 1 0   2 1
BI 2     B
  3 4 0 1    3 4
 Algebraic Properties
Let A, B, and C be matrices and a, b, and c be scalars.
Assume that the sizes of the matrices are such that the
operations can be performed.
Properties of Matrix Addition and scalar Multiplication
1. A + B = B + A Commutative property of
addition
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative property of
addition
3. A + 0 = 0 + A = A (where 0 is the appropriate zero
matrix)
4. c(A + B) = cA + cB Distributive property of
 Algebraic Properties
Let A, B, and C be matrices and a, b, and c be scalars.
Assume that the sizes of the matrices are such that the
operations can be performed.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
1. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property of
multiplication
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC Distributive property of
multiplication
3. (A + B)C = AC + BC Distributive property of
multiplication
4. AIn = InA = A (where In is the appropriate identity
 Proof
A+B=B+A
Consider the (i,j)th elements of matrices A+B and B+A:
( A  B ) ij  aij  bij  bij  aij  ( B  A) ij .
 A+B=B+A

Example 10
Let A   1 3, B  3  7 , and C  0  2.
 4 5 8 1 5  1
A  B  C   1 3  3  7  0  2
 4 5 8 1 5  1

  1  3  0 3  7  2  4  6.
 4  8  5 5  1  1 9 5
 Example 11
 4
Let A   1 2, B   0 1 3, and C   1 .
  Compute ABC.
3  1  1 0  2
 0
Solution Which method is better?
(1) (AB)C Count the number of
multiplications.
AB   1 2   0 1 3   2 1  1.
3  1  1 0  2  1 3 11
26+32
   4  9 =12+6=18
( AB )C   2 1 1  1   .
 1 3 11 0  1
 
(2) A(BC)
 4
BC   0 1 3   1    1  32+22
 1 0 2 0  4 =6+4=10
 
A( BC )   1 2   1   9.  A(BC) is better.
3  1  4  1
 Arithmetic Operations
If A is an m  r matrix and B is r  n matrix, the number of scalar
multiplications involved in computing the product AB is mrn.

Proof
Consider the (i,j)th element of matrix AB:

( AB )ij  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j    air brj

A B C = D
22 23 31 21
(1) (AB)C: 223+ 231=18
(2) A(BC): 231+ 221=10  better
 Caution
In algebra we know that the following cancellation laws apply.
If ab = ac and a  0 then b = c.
If pq = 0 then p = 0 or q = 0.
However the corresponding results are not true for matrices.
AB = AC does not imply that B = C.
PQ = O does not imply that P = O or Q = O.

Example 12
 1 2   1 2  3 8 
(1) Consider the matrices A   , B   2 1, and C   3  2.
 2 4     
 3 4
Observe that AB  AC    , but B  C.
6 8 
 1  2  2  6
(2) Consider the matrices P    , and Q   .
 2 4 1  3
Observe that PQ  O, but P  O and Q  O.
 Powers
Definition
If A is a square matrix, then

A k  AA  A
 
k times

If A is an n  n square matrix and r and s are nonnegative

integers, then
1. ArAs = Ar+s.
2. (Ar)s = Ars.
3. A0 = In (by definition)
 Example 13
 1  2 4
If A    , compute A .
  1 0
Solution  1  2  1  2  3  2
A 
2
    
  1 0   1 0    1 2 
 3  2  3  2  11  10
A 
4
    .
 1 2  1 2   5 6

Example 14 Simplify the following matrix expression.

A( A  2B)  3B(2 A  B)  A 2  7 B2  5 AB
Solution
A( A  2B)  3B(2 A  B)  A2  7B2  5 AB
 A 2  2 AB  6BA  3B2  A2  7B2  5 AB
 3AB  6BA  4B2
 Systems of Linear Equations
A system of m linear equations in n variables is as follows.
a11 x1    a1n xn  b1
   
am1 x1    amn xn  bm
Let

 a11  a1n   x1   b1 
     
A       , X     , and B    
 am1  amn   xn   bm 
We can write the system of equations in the matrix form
AX = B
 Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix A, denoted At, is the matrix whose
columns are the rows of the given matrix A.

i.e., A : m  n  At : n  m, (At )ij  Aji

Example 15
A   2 7 , B   1 2  7 , and C    1 3 4.
 8 0 4 5 6

 1 4   1
At   2  8  C   3.
t

7 0 B t
  2 5 
 7 6  4
 Properties of Transpose

Let A and B be matrices and c be a scalar. Assume that

the sizes of the matrices are such that the operations can
be performed.
1. (A + B)t = At + Bt Transpose of a sum
2. (cA)t = cAt Transpose of a scalar
multiple
3. (AB)t = BtAt Transpose of a product
4. (At)t = A
 Proof
(AB)t = BtAt  b1i 
b 

( AB) t ij  ( AB) ji  a j1 a j 2  a jn   2i 
 
 
bni 
 a j1b1i  a j 2b2i    a jn bni

( B t At )ij  [row i of B t ] [column j of At ]  [column i of B ]t [row j of A]t

 a j1 
a 
  b1i  bni     a j1b1i  a j 2b2i    a jnbni
j2
b2i
 
 
 a jn 
 Symmetric Matrix
A symmetric matrix is a matrix that is equal to its transpose.

A  At , i.e., aij  a ji i, j

Example 16 match
0 1  4  1 0 2 4
   0 9
2 5
 1 7 8 7 3
 5  4    2 3 2  3
 4 8 3   4 9 3 6
 match
 Trace of a Matrix
Let A be a square matrix. The trace of A, denoted tr(A) is the
sum of the diagonal elements of A. Thus if A is an n  n matrix,
tr(A) = a11 + a22 + … + ann

Example 17
4 1  2
Determine the trace of the matrix A  2  5 6.
7 3 0

Solution
We get
tr ( A)  4  (5)  0  1.
 Properties of Trace
Let A and B be matrices and c be a scalar. Assume that the sizes
of the matrices are such that the operations can be performed.
1. tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B)
2. tr(AB) = tr(BA)
3. tr(cA) = c tr (A)
4. tr(At) = tr(A)

Proof of (1)
Since the diagonal element of A + B are (a11+b11), (a22+b22), …,
(ann+bnn), we get
tr(A + B) = (a11 + b11) + (a22 + b22) + …+ (ann + bnn)
= (a11 + a22 + … + ann) + (b11 + b22 + … + bnn)
= tr(A) + tr(B).
Example of (2) tr(AB)=tr(BA)
1 3
   3 2  1
A 2 0 , B   
  1 0 1 
 1  2

0 2 2
   8 11 
AB   6 4  2, BA   
  2  5 
 1  2  1

tr ( AB)  3  tr ( BA)
 The Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be an n  n matrix. If a matrix B can be found such that AB
= BA = In, then A is said to be invertible and B is called the
inverse of A. If such a matrix B does not exist, then A has no
inverse. (denote B = A-1, and A-k=(A-1)k )

Example 18  2 1 
Prove that the matrix A  3 4 has inverse B   3  1 .
1 2
   2 2 
Proof
 2 1
AB   1 2  3  1    1 0  I 2
3 4  2 2 0 1
 2 1  1 2  1 0
BA   3  1    I2
 2 2 3 4 
   0 1

Thus AB = BA = I2, proving that the matrix A has inverse B.
 The Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse of an invertible matrix is unique.

Proof
Let B and C be inverse of A.
Thus AB = BA = In, and AC = CA = In.
Multiply both sides of the equation AB = In by C.
C(AB) = CIn
(CA)B = C
InB = C
B=C
Thus an invertible matrix has only one inverse.
 How to find A ? -1

Let A1   X1 X 2  X n , I n  C1 C 2  C n .

We shall find A-1 by finding X1, X2, …, Xn.

Since AA-1 =In, then A X1 X 2  X n    C1 C 2  C n .

i.e., AX1  C1 , AX 2  C 2 ,, AXn  C n .
Solve these systems by using Gauss-Jordan elimination:
augmented matrix :  A : C1 C 2  C n 
    I n : X1 X 2  X n .


 A : I n     I n : A 1 . 
 Gauss-Jordan Elimination for
finding the Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be an n  n matrix.
1. Adjoin the identity n  n matrix In to A to form the matrix
[A : In].
2. Compute the reduced echelon form of [A : In].
If the reduced echelon form is of the type [In : B], then B is
the inverse of A.
If the reduced echelon form is not of the type [In : B], in that
the first n  n submatrix is not In, then A has no inverse.

An n  n matrix A is invertible if and only if its reduced echelon

form is In.
 Example 19
 1  1  2
Determine the inverse of the matrix A   2  3  5
 1 3 5
Solution
 1  1  2 1 0 0   1 1  2 1 0 0
[ A : I 3 ]   2  3  5 0 1 0 R2  (2) R10  1  1  2 1 0
 1 3 5 0 0 1 R3  R1 0 2 3 1 0 1

  1  1  2 1 0 0   1 0 1 3  1 0
(1)R2 0 1 1 2  1 0 R1  R2 0 1 1 2  1 0
0 2 3 1 0 1 R3  (2)R2 0 0 1  3 2 1

 1 0 0 0 1 0  0 1 1
R1  R3 0 1 0 5  3  1 1
Thus, A   5  3  1.
R2  (1)R3 0 0 1  3 2 1  3 2 1
 Example 20
Determine the inverse of the following matrix, if it exists.
 1 1 5
A   1 2 7
2  1 4
Solution
 1 1 5 1 0 0  1 1 5 1 0 0
[ A : I 3 ]   1 2 7 0 1 0 R2  (1)R1 0 1 2  1 1 0
2  1 4 0 0 1 R3  (2)R1 0  3  6  2 0 1
 1 0 3 2  1 0
R1  (1)R2 0 1 2  1 1 0
R3  3R2 0 0 0  5 3 1
There is no need to proceed further.
The reduced echelon form cannot have a one in the (3, 3) location.
The reduced echelon form cannot be of the form [In : B].
Thus, A–1 does not exist.
 Properties of Matrix Inverse
Let A and B be invertible matrices and c a nonzero scalar, Then
1. ( A1 ) 1  A 4. ( An ) 1  ( A1 ) n
1 1 1
2. (cA)  A 5. ( At ) 1  ( A1 )t
c
3. ( AB ) 1  B 1 A1
Proof
1. By definition, AA-1=A-1A=I.
2. (cA)( 1c A1 )  I  ( 1c A1 )(cA)
3. ( AB )( B 1 A1 )  A( BB 1 ) A1  AA1  I  ( B 1 A1 )( AB )
4. An ( A1 ) n  A A  A1 
A1  I  ( A1 ) n An
k times k times

5. AA1  I , ( AA1 ) t  ( A1 )t At  I ,

A1 A  I , ( A1 A) t  At ( A1 ) t  I ,
 Example 21

4 1 1  1  1
If A   , then it can be shown that A   . Use this
 3 1   3 4
information to compute ( At ) 1.

Solution
t
t 1 
(A )  (A )  
1 1
1 t 

1 3
.

3 4 1 4 
 Systems of Linear Equations
Let AX = Y be a system of n linear equations in n variables.
If A–1 exists, the solution is unique and is given by X = A–1Y.

Proof
(X = A–1Y is a solution.)
Substitute X = A–1Y into the matrix equation.
AX = A(A–1Y) = (AA–1)Y = InY = Y.

(The solution is unique.)

Let X1 be any solution, thus AX1 = Y. Multiplying both sides of
this equation by A–1 gives
A–1AX1= A–1Y
InX1 = A–1Y
X = A–1Y.
 Example 22
x1  x2  2 x3  1
Solve the system
2 x1  3 x2  5 x3  3

Solution  x1  3x2  5 x3  2

This system can be written in the following matrix form:

 1  1  2  x1   1
 2  3  5  x2    3
 1 3 5  x3   2
The coeficient matrix is invertible and its inverse has already
been found in Example 19. We get
1
 x1   1 1 2   1  0 1 1  1  1
     3   5 3 1  3   2
x
 2   2  3  5        
 x3   1 3 5  2   3 2 1  2   1

The uniquesolution is x1  1, x 2  2, x3  1.

 Elementary Matrices
An elementary matrix is one that can be obtained from the
identity matrix In through a single elementary row
operation.

Example 23 1 0 0
R2  R3 E1   0 0 1 
 0 1 0 
1 0 0
5R2 1 0 0
I 3  0 1 0 E2   0 5 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0
R2+ 2R1
E3   2 1 0 
 0 0 1 
 Elementary Matrices
a b c  1 0 0
R2  R3
g h i    0 0 1   A  E1 A

 d e f   0 1 0 
a b c
a b c  1 0 0
A  d e f 
5R2
5d 5e 5 f    0 5 0   A  E2 A

 g h i   g h i   0 0 1 

 a b c  1 0 0
 d  2a e  2b f  2c    2 1 0   A  E3 A
R2+ 2R1 
 g h i   0 0 1 
 Elementary Matrices
• Every elementary matrix is invertible.
Example 24
I  E1  E1  I , i.e., E2 E1  I
R1 2 R 2 R1 2 R 2

1 0 0 1 2 0  1 2 0 
I   0 1 0  E1   0 1 0  E2   0 1 0 
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

• If A and B are row equivalent matrices and A is invertible,

then B is invertible.
Proof
If A  …  B, then
B=En … E2 E1 A for some elementary matrices En, … , E2 and E1.
So B-1 = (En … E2 E1A)-1 =A-1E1-1 E2-1 … En-1.