Matrices

2.1 Operations with Matrices

2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations
2.3 Matrices and systems of Linear Equation
2.4 Gaussian Elimination

2.1
 2.1 Operations with Matrices
 Matrix:
 a11 a12 a13  a1n 
a a a  a 
 21 22 23 2n 

A  [aij ]   a31 a32 a33  a3n   M mn

 
    
am1 am 2 am3  amn 
mn

(i, j)-th entry (or element): aij

number of rows: m
number of columns: n
size: m×n

 Square matrix: m = n
2.2
Equal matrices: two matrices are equal if they have the same size
(m × n) and entries corresponding to the same position are equal

For A  [aij ]m n and B  [bij ]m n ,

A  B if and only if aij  bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n

 Ex: Equality of matrices

1 2 a b 
A  B 
3 4   c d 

If A  B, then a  1, b  2, c  3, and d  4

2.3
 Matrix addition:
If A  [aij ]m n , B  [bij ]m n ,

then A  B  [aij ]mn  [bij ]mn  [aij  bij ]mn  [cij ]mn  C

 Ex 2: Matrix addition

 1 2  1 3  1  1 2  3  0 5
 0 1   1 2   0  1 1  2   1 3
       

 1  1  1  1  0 
  3   3    3  3   0 
       
 2  2  2  2 0

2.4
 Scalar multiplication:
If A  [aij ]m n and c is a constant scalar,
then cA  [caij ]m n

 Matrix subtraction:
A  B  A  (1) B

 Ex 3: Scalar multiplication and matrix subtraction

 1 2 4  2 0 0
A   3 0  1 B   1  4 3
   
 2 1 2  1 3 2

Find (a) 3A, (b) –B, (c) 3A – B

2.5
Sol:
 1 2 4  31 32 34  3 6 12
(a)
3A  3 3 0  1  3 3 30 3 1   9 0  3
     
 2 1 2  32 31 32  6 3 6
(b)
 2 0 0   2 0 0
 B   1 1  4 3    1 4  3

 
 1 3 2  1  3  2
(c)
 3 6 12  2 0 0  1 6 12
3 A  B   9 0  3   1  4 3   10 4  6
     
 6 3 6  1 3 2  7 0 4

2.6
 Matrix multiplication:
If A  [aij ]m n and B  [bij ]n p ,
then AB  [aij ]m n [bij ]n p  [cij ]m p  C ,
If equal, A and B are multipliable
size of C=AB is m × p
n
where cij   aik bkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j    ainbnj
k 1

 a11 a12 a1n  c c c1 j c1n 

   b11 b1 j b1n   11 12 
  b b2 j b2 n   
 ai1 ai 2 ain   21   ci1 ci 2 cij cin 
     
 
 
bn1 bnj bnn   
 an1 an 2 ann  cn1 cn 2 cnj cnn 

※ The entry cij is obtained by calculating the sum of the entry-by-entry
product between the i-th row of A and the j-th column of B
2.7
 Ex 4: Find AB
 1 3
   3 2 
A   4 2 B 
  4 1  2 2
 5 0 3 2
Sol:
 (1)(3)  (3)(4) (1)(2)  (3)(1) 
AB  (4)(3)  (2)(4) (4)(2)  (2)(1) 
 (5)(3)  (0)(4) (5)(2)  (0)(1)  3 2
 9 1 
  4 6 
 15 10  3 2
 Note: (1) BA is not multipliable
(2) Even BA is multipliable, it could be that AB ≠ BA 2.8
Keywords in Section 2.1:
 equality of matrice
 matrix addition
 scalar multiplication
 matrix multiplication
 partitioned matrix
 row vector
 column vector
 trace
 diagonal matrix

2.9
 2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations
 Three basic matrix operators, introduced in Sec. 2.1:
(1) matrix addition
(2) scalar multiplication
(3) matrix multiplication
0 0 0
0 0 0 
 Zero matrix: 0mn 
 
 
0 0 0  mn
1 0 0
0 1 0 
 Identity matrix of order n: In  
 
 
0 0 1  n n
2.10
 Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication:
If A, B, C  M mn , and c, d are scalars,
then (1) A+B = B+A (Commutative property of matrix addition)

(2) A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C (Associative property of matrix addition)

(3) (cd) A = c (dA) (Associative property of scalar multiplication)

(Multiplicative identity property and 1 is the multiplicative

(4) 1A = A identity (乘法單位元素) for all matrices)
(5) c(A+B) = cA + cB (Distributive property of scalar
multiplication over matrix addition)
(6) (c+d) A = cA + dA (Distributive property of scalar
multiplication over real-number addition)

 Notes:
All above properties are very similar to the counterpart
properties for real numbers
2.11
 Properties of zero matrices:
If A  M mn , and c is a scalar,
then (1) A  0mn  A
※ So, 0m×n is also called the additive identity for the set of all m×n matrices

(2) A  ( A)  0mn
※ Thus , –A is called the additive inverse of A

(3) cA  0mn  c  0 or A  0mn

 Notes:
All above properties are very similar to the counterpart
properties for the real number 0

2.12
 Properties of matrix multiplication:
(1) A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative property of matrix multiplication)
(Distributive property of LHS matrix multiplication
(2) A(B+C) = AB + AC over matrix addition)
(3) (A+B)C = AC + BC (Distributive property of RHS matrix multiplication
over matrix addition)
(4) c(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB) (Associative property of scalar and matrix
multiplication)
※ For real numbers, the properties (2) and (3) are the same since the order for the
multiplication of real numbers is irrelevant
※ The real-number multiplication can satisfy above properties and there is a
commutative property for the real-number multiplication, i.e., cd = dc
 Properties of the identity matrix:
If A  M mn , then (1) AI n  A
(2) I m A  A
※ The role of the real number 1 is similar to the identity matrix. However, 1 is unique
in real numbers and there could be many identity matrices with different sizes 2.13
 Ex 3: Matrix Multiplication is Associative
Calculate (AB)C and A(BC) for
 1 0 
1 2 1 0 2
A  , B  , and C  3 1  .
 2 1 3 2 1   2 4
Sol:
 1 0
 1 2  1 0 2   
( AB)C        3 1 
 2 1 3 2 1  
 2 4 
 1 0 
 5 4 0   17 4
  3 1  
 1 2 3 
 13 14 
 2 4 

2.14
   1 0  
1 2   1 0 2  
A( BC )  
1  3 2 1  
3 1 
2  2 4  

1 2   3 8  17 4 
 
2 1  7 2  13 14 


2.15
 Equipped with the four properties of matrix multiplication,
we can prove a statement on Slide 1.35: if a homogeneous
system has any nontrivial solution, this system must have
infinitely many nontrivial solutions

Suppose there is a nonzero solution x1 for this homegeneous system such

that Ax1  0. Then it is straightforward to show that tx1 must be another
solution, i.e.,
A(tx1 )  t ( Ax1 )  t (0)  0

The fourth property of matrix multiplication on Slide 2.17

Finally, since t can be any real number, it can be concluded that there are
infinitely many solutions for this homogeneous system

2.16
 Definition of Ak : repeated multiplication of a square matrix:
A1  A, A2  AA, , Ak  AA A
k matrices of A

 Properties for Ak:

(1) AjAk = Aj+k
(2) (Aj)k = Ajk
where j and k are nonegative integers and A0 is assumed
to be I

 For diagonal matrices:

 d1 0 0  d1k 0 0
0 d  
0   0 d 2k 0
D 2
D 
k
   
   
0 0 dn   0 0 d nk 
2.17
 Transpose of a matrix:

 a11 a12 a1n 

a a22 a2 n 
If A   21
 M mn ,
 
 
 am1 am 2 amn 

 a11 a21 am1 

a a22 am 2 
then AT   12  M n m
 
 
 a1n a2 n amn 
※ The transpose operation is to move the entry aij (original at the position (i, j)) to
the position (j, i)
※ Note that after performing the transpose operation, AT is with the size n×m
2.18
 Ex 8: Find the transpose of the following matrix
 1 2 3 0 1
 2
(a) A    (b) A   4 5 6 
(c) A  2 4

8   
7 8 9  1  1
Sol: (a)  2
A   AT  2 8
8 
(b) 1 2 3 1 4 7
A  4 5 6  AT  2 5 8
   
7 8 9 3 6 9
(c) 0 1
0 1
A  2 4  AT  
2
   1 4  1
 1  1
2.19
 Properties of transposes:
(1) ( AT )T  A
(2) ( A  B)T  AT  BT
(3) (cA)T  c( AT )
(4) ( AB)T  BT AT
※ Properties (2) and (4) can be generalized to the sum or product of
multiple matrices. For example, (A+B+C)T = AT+BT+CT and (ABC)T =
CTBTAT
※ Since a real number also can be viewed as a 1 × 1 matrix, the transpose
of a real number is itself, that is, for a  R , aT = a. In other words,
transpose operation has actually no effect on real numbers

2.20
 Ex 9: Verify that (AB)T and BTAT are equal

 2 1 2  3 1
A   1 0 3 B   2 1
 0 2 1  3 0

Sol:
T
 2 1 2   3 1 
T
 2 1
        2 6 1
( AB)    1 0
T
3  2 1    6 1   
  0 2  1 1 2 
 1 
 3 0 
 
 1 2 

 2 1 0
3 2 3     2 6 1
B A 
T T
  1 0 2   
1 1 0   2 3 1 1 2 
 1

2.21
 Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A is symmetric if A = AT
 Skew-symmetric matrix (反對稱矩陣):
A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = –A

 Ex:
 1 2 3
If A  a 4 5 is symmetric, find a, b, c?
 
b c 6
Sol:
 1 2 3 1 a b 
 T
A  a 4 5 AT  2 4 c 
A A
     a  2, b  3, c  5
b c 6 3 5 6

2.22
 Ex:
 0 1 2
If A  a 0 3 is a skew-symmetric, find a, b, c?
 
b c 0
Sol:
 0 1 2  0  a  b
A   a 0 3  AT    1 0  c 
b c 0  
 2  3 0 

A   AT  a  1, b  2, c  3

 Note: AAT must be symmetric
Pf: ( AAT )T  ( AT )T AT  AAT
 AA is symmetric
T
※ The matrix A could be with any size,
i.e., it is not necessary for A to be a
square matrix.
※ In fact, AAT must be a square matrix.

2.23
 Before finishing this section, two properties will be discussed,
which are held for real numbers, but not for matrices: the first is
the commutative property of matrix multiplication and the second
is the cancellation law
 Real number:
ab = ba (Commutative property of real-number multiplication)

 Matrix:
AB  BA
m n n p n  p m  n

Three results for BA:

(1) If m  p , then AB is defined, but BA is undefined
(2) If m  p, m  n, then AB  M mm , BA  M nn (Sizes are not the same)
(3) If m  p  n, then AB  M mm , BA  M mm
(Sizes are the same, but resulting matrices may not be equal)
2.24
 Ex 4:
Show that AB and BA are not equal for the following matrices.
 1 3 2  1
A  and B 
 2  1   0 2 
Sol:
 1 3 2  1 2 5
AB       
 2  1 0 2   4  4 

2  1  1 3 0 7
BA       
 0 2  2  1  4  2 

AB  BA (noncommutativity of matrix multiplication)

2.25
 Notes:

(1) A+B = B+A (the commutative law of matrix addition)

(2) AB  BA (the matrix multiplication is not with the

commutative law) (so the order of matrix multiplication is very
important)

※ This property is different from the property for the

multiplication operations of real numbers, for which the
order of multiplication makes no difference

2.26
 Real number:
ac  bc and c  0
 a b (Cancellation law for real numbers)

 Matrix:
AC  BC and C  0 (C is not a zero matrix)
(1) If C is invertible, then A = B
(2) If C is not invertible, then A  B (Cancellation law is not
necessary to be valid)

※ Here I skip to introduce the definition of “invertible” because it

will be studied soon in the next section

2.27
 Ex 5: An example in which cancellation is not valid
Show that AC=BC
 1 3  2 4  1  2
A  , B  , C 
 0 1  2 3   1 2 
Sol:
1 3  1  2  2 4
AC     
0 1  1 
2   1 2
2 4  1  2   2 4
BC   
2
  
3  1 2    1 2

So, although AC  BC , A  B

2.28
Keywords in Section 2.2:
 zero matrix
 identity matrix
 commutative property
 associative property
 distributive property
 cancellation law
 transpose matrix
 symmetric matrix
 skew-symmetric matrix

2.29