..;<1-".

-:'

.-'
--. SEC.6-8 SETILEMENT OF FOOTINGS 129
128 SPREAD FOOTINGS' CHAP. 6 "'"
S = s, + Sc + S$ (6-6)
per cent of the applied contact pressure. These lines of equal pressure are
bulb shaped and consequently are called pressure bulbs. The most commonly where S = total settlement,
used pressure bulb is the one for 0.2q because in practical cases any stress
S, = immediateelastic settlement,
less than 0.2q is often of little consequence. For circular and square footings
the pressure bulb is about 1.5B wide and 1.5B deep, B being the width of Sc = settlementdue to consolidationof clay,
the footing.
S$= settlementdue to secondaryconsolidationof clay.
The computation of vertical pressure by tl:J.eBoussinesq's equation is a
laborious procedure and suitable only for research works. In practice a 1. lmmediate settlement. Immediately upon application of load on the
graphical solution by the Newmark influence chart, Fig. 6-11, is used. The footing, elastic compression of the underlying soil takes place causing a
solution is simple, expeditious and can be best illustrated by an example. In settlement of the footing. This amount can be computed by elastic theory.
this example it is desired to determine the vert- However, it is usually very small and can be neglected for all practical
ical pressure at a depth of 10 ft below point x purposes.
due to a uniform contact pressure q = 4500 psf
from a footing shown in Fig. 6-12. The first
B' x 6' footino 1.21
step is to draw a plan of the footing and the.
location of point x on a transparent paper in 1.0'
such a scale that the distance AB shown on
the influence chart is equal to the depth 10 ft. Z =thickness of clay layer
Then place the plan on top of the influence ~ 0.81 i3 = width of continuousfooting

chart, so that point x lies at the origin of the

chart, and count the number of influence areas
/Point K
of occupied by the footing. An influence area is
Fig.6-12 Example illustrating the
an individual area bounded by two adjacent ""
use of the Newmark influence straight lines and two adjacent arcs. The vert-
chart. ical pressure at a depth of 10ft below point x -
0.2tL- -' - - ~ Continuous'footing
Circular footing

is equal to the number of influence areas (78) (,2

o
times the intensity of footing pressure (4500) times the influence valve (0.001) Pore pressurecoefficient
which equals 350 psf.
Both the Boussinesq's equation and the Newmark influence chart are
intended for the case of surface loading. If they are used for computing
~ oJ!'"
Fig. 6-13 Coefficient f3 ~;g.g ~~ .~..
stresses in the soil due to a deep foundation, the computed stress would be ~~~ a~ ~;g~ ~9
for computing consolid- ~~~ §~ ~~~ ~u
greater than the actual value. ation settlement. From Jo ~ 8
Skempton and Bjerrum. o!!

6.8 Settlement of Footings
Footings on granular soils will not suffer detrimental settlement if tpe
smaller value of the two allowable pressures given by Eqs. (6-1) and (6-2) is
used. Footings on stiff clay, hard clay, and other firm soils generally require
no settlement analysis if the design provides a minimum factor of safety of 3.
Soft clay, compressible silt, and other weak soils will settle even under
moderate pressure, and therefore settlement analysis is necessary.
The total settlement of a footing on clay may be considered to consist of
three parts (Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957):
2. Settlement due to consolidation. The settlement caused by consolidation
is due to the slow extrusion of water from the pores of the fine particles of
clay. The amount of final consoli~ation settlement Sc can be calculated by
the following equation:
Sc = SofJ (6-7)
wherep = the coefficient depending on the geometry of the footing and the
loading history of the clay. Values of fJ are shown in Fig. 6-13.
-
 - ..

130 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 6-9

SEC. ECCENTRIC LOADING 131
So = settlement calculated by Terzaghi theory of consolidation;
where q = contact pressure at a given point (x, y);
= m. iJpH (6-8) , Q = vertical load ;

=- Cc H IOg10 Po + iJp' (3-4) A = area of footing;

1 + eo Po x and y = coordinates of the point at which the contact pressure is
calculated;
where m. = coefficient of volume compressibility of the clay. This value is
determinedby consolidation test. . Mx, My = load Q multiplied by eccentricity parallel to x and y axes,
respectively;
Jp = vertical stress
due to load on footing.
H = thickness of the compressible clay. The clay thickness should be Ix, Iy = moment of inertia of the footing area about the x and y axes,
respectively.
divided into several layers to obtain reasonably accurate
settlement of a thick layer. Equation (6-9) is valid when one of the following conditions exists:
Cc = compression index, also determined by consolidation test. (a) The footing is symmetrical about x and y axes.
Po = vertical effective pressure due to soil overburden. (b) The footing is symmetrical about x axis and ey = O.
The computation of settlement due to consolidation is illustrated in the (c) The footing is symmetrical about y axis and ex = O.
design example, sheet 2 DE 6. For rectangular footings, Eq. (6-9) may be written in a simpler form:
3. Settlement due to secondary consolidation. When an undisturbed soil
q = Q 1 :f: 6~ :I::~
sample is tested in the consolidometer (Oi' oedometer) the rate of volume
decrease checks very closely with the theory. However, when the sample is
A ( L B ) (6-9a)

one hundred per cent consolidated (according to the theory of consolidation)
the volume decrease does not stop according to the theory, but instead the
sample continues to compress at a reduced and rather constant rate. The
amount of consolidation that can be computed by the theory is called
primary consolidation; whereas the slow consolidation that takes place
afterwards is called secondary consolidation, Sec. 3-5.
6-9 Eccentric Loading
Eccentric loading may result from a load applied off the center of the
footing or from a concentric load plus a bending moment. For the purpose of
determining the pressure under the footing the moment may be removed by
shifting the vertical load to a fictitious location with an eccentricity
e = momentJverticalload. In the analysis of an eccentrically loaded footing
two separate problems are confronted: . axis from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the most remote point and
1. For the purpose of structural design, the pressure against the bottom of
the footing, commonly called contact pressure, is assumed to have a planar
distribution. When the load is applied within the kern of the footing area,
common flexural formulae ar?"applicable. . .
q=- Q :I:: Mx
-x+-y My
(6-9)
A Iy Ix
When ex, ey or eb' el exceed a certain limit, Eq. (6-9) or (6-9a) gives a
negative value of q which indicates tension between the soil and bottom of
footing. Unless the footing is weighted down by surcharge loads, the soil
cannot be relied upon for bonding to the footing and offering tensile resis-
tance. Therefore, the flexural formulae Eq. (6-9) and (6-9a) are applicable
only when the load is applied within a limited area which is known as the
kern and is shown shaded in Fig. 6-14(a). The proc;:~g,urefor determination
of soil pressure when the load is applied outside the kern is simple in principle
but laborious. Cases for rectangular and Circillar footings have been worked
out andlni'kerns are shown by shaded areas in Fig. 6-14 [(a) and (c)]. For
footings of other shapes, the graphical method of successivetrials is probably
the simplest for practical 'solutions (Roark, 1954).
The graphical method, similar to any other method, is based on the
assumption that the pressure varies linearly with the distance to the neutral
on the requirement of statical equilibrium that the resultant of the soil
pressure should lie on the line of action of the applied load Q. The procedure
is as follows. Draw a trial neutral axis N-N, Fig. 6-14(b) and a line ab
perpendicular to N-N, starting from point b which is most remote. The area
between point band N-N is under compression while the area on the other
side of N-N is unstressed. The intensity of stress at a given point varies in simple
proportion with its perpendicular distance from N-N. The compression area
is divided into several narrow strips of uniform width dy, running parallel to

'"' .
 -'- .

132 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC. 6-9 ECCENTRIC LOADING 133

0.5
B ---,

r
L
For II:!; %

For II> %
q=i(1:!:61J

q"",,=H3:~6,J
q i .. 0 at a
distance of
mn 3(f-e} from
edge of footing '0
...

?;'
:Q

Nt--JC '1 I 1..

1/
'i-e
I
"
g

....
'0'
..
.. ..
.2
(a) Rectangular footing, load on
one of the center lines of footing. N
qb

(b) General procedure.

w
V
~
0.1
Valuesof etlL
I 10.2 0.3
=longitudinal eccentricity/length
Solid curves give values of K
Ma~imum pressure Pma." K~Q/ BL
Q = concentrated load on footing
.p.4
of footing
0.5

Casem P
~qmo'
~
~
, . ca: I D 1m";. D",LU+2R+3R2)
Fore:$i~4 q =~[1:!:4fJ tl,:(
Fore>14 qmo,=k% }
A =1T,2

k values are tabulated below /

[f$f
B
I
~L~'
eb
e
mo,
p" Q
""" 8L(1+6ez/L+6~
)

B
~
1-
t eb
I
I--L--J
-e
t
~1 4(t+R+R2)
=-..!f. A= MU+R+R2+R3)

P" R=N/M60
4U+R+R2)

'I, = 0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0045 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.6~ 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.90
G

~
k =2.00 2.20 2.43 2.70 3.10 3.55 4.22 4.92 5.90 7.20 9.20 13.0 80.0 Case D P""" """ LM(1+R+R2)

~~~ r-
"""
G H Case IV
(c) Circul~r footing. ~B eb PII\CII- KQ/BL B eb
';'et L "e ~ ..~
~ '.J I x and y fromchart
L L
IP
I . mo, 8GH

Fig. 6-14 Pressure distribution used for stcuctural design of eccentrically loaded footings.
(d) Rectangular footing, double eccentricity.
 --
~ -~-

134 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC. 6-10 INCLINED LOAD 135

N-N. The unit pressure acting on this strip is equal to (Y/ X)qb, where qbis the
unit pressure at point b, and the total pressure is equal to (Y/ X)qbldy. The
total pressure may be represented by the shaded strip with a length of (Y/ X)l.
This shaded strip, if under a uniform pressure qb, carries the same load as
the whole strip under the actual pressure (Y/ X)qb' Therefore, it may be
called a transformed strip. All the transformed strips form a transformed
area. If the location of the trial neutral axis N-N is correct, the centroid of
the transformed area will coincide with the point of action of the load Q.
For practical purposes, the centroid or center of gravity of the transformed
area may be determined by cutting out a cardboard of the same shape and
balancing the board on a pencil point. The cardboard will balance only when
it is supported on the center of gravity. Severa.! such trials will enable the
engineer to approach the'correct location of the neutral axis.
2. For determination of ultimate or allowable bearing capacity of an
eccentrically loaded footing, the concept of useful width has been introduced.
By this concept, the portion of the footing which is symmetrical about the
load is considered useful and the other portion is simply assumed superfluous
for the convenience of computation. If the eccentricities are e, and eb, as
shown in Fig. 6-15, the useful widths are B - 2eb and L - 2e/, the equiv-
alent area (B - -
2eb)(L 2e,) is considered as subjected to a central load
Therefore, the reduction factor shown in Fig. 6-16 should be used for design
purposes: First the bearing capacity of the footing is determined on the basis
-1 that the load is applied at the centroid of the footing. Then, this bearing
capacity is corrected by multiplying with the factor shown in Fig. 6-16.
6-10 Inclined Load
The conventional method of stability analysis of footings subjected to
inclined loads is as follows: the inclinedload Q is resolvedinto a vertical
component Qv and a horizontal component QH' The stability of the footing
against ultimate failure under.the vertical load is treated by the same principles
for footings subjected to vertical Joad only, and the effect of the horizontal
component is ignored. Then, the stability of the footing against the horizontal
force is analysed by calculating the factor of safety against sliding which is
defined as the ratio between the total horizontal resistance and the horizontal
force. The total horizontal resistance in general consists of a passive resis-
tance of soil, Pp,and a frictional resistance R, Fig. 6-17. The value of Ppcan be
.., 2cr-
H

for determination of bearing capacity.

eb f-lb
.

l '
pp~"",D;"'-"."'~

I-ppH
:~:::~::'.~
j R=?~..~)-
::. ~ lP-!
___ _
2c T yH I+- f?;:c ~ footing area

N = total vertical force acting on the

base of footing

2u Foetor of safety against sliding = Pp -;: + R

.2 Granular soils Cohesive soils
c:
~u Pp psf Coel. of Cohesive Unit
"

L
LL ... Type of Soil Friction, Type of Soil Strength Weight, (
.. submerged dry or
moist f c=psf pcf
II:
Sand and/or grovel 210 350 0.55 Very soft 200 110
with less than 5% silt cloy
Sand and/or grovel Soft cloy 400 120

~:~
:80 250 0.45
with 5% or more silt
Medium,
Sill or soils containing stiff, and 600 125
120 150 0.35
Eccentricity ratio e/B more than 30% silt hard cloy

fig. 6-'5 Useful widths for deter-
mination of bearing capacity of
eccentrically loaded footing on
cohesivesoils. .
fig. 6-16 Bearing capacity of
. eccentrically loaded footing. After
AREA.
The values above may be used in small jobs. Backfill must be well compacted to insure the design
passive pressure
fig. 6-'7 Conventional method of analysis of footings subjected to
inclined loads.

The concept above simply means that the bearing capacity of a footing
oel..cc;lseslinearly with the eccentricity of load, as is shown by a straight line
in Fig. 6-16. In cohesive soils, this linear relationship prevails, but in granular
soils,however,the reductionis parabolicra~herthan linear,(Meyerhof,1953).
r
....
determined by the principles discussed in Chapter 4. However, for smaller
projects, conservative values such as those shown in the figure may be used.
It should be emphasized that high values of passive earth pressure Ppmay not
be realized in granular soils unless it is backfilled and well compacted in layers.
 - - ._,~.
1
134 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC.6-10 INCLINEDLOAD 135

N-N. The unit pressure acting on this strip is equal to (Y/ X)qb, where qbis the .,\,
Therefore, the reduction factor shown in Fig. 6-16 should be used for design
unit pressure at point b, and the total pressure is equal to (Y/ X)qbldy. The purposes: First the bearing capacity of the footing is determined on the basis
total pressure may be represented by the shaded strip with a length of (Y/ X)l. -1 that the load is applied at the centroid of the footing. Then, this bearing
This shaded strip, if under a uniform pressure qb' carries the same load as capacity is corrected by multiplying with the factor shown in Fig. 6-16.
the whole strip under the actual pressure (Y/ X)qb' Therefore, it may be
called a transformed strip. All the transformed strips form a transformed
area. If the location of the trial neutral axis N-N is correct, the centroid of 6-10 Inclined Load
the transformed area will coincide with the point of action of the load Q. The conventional method of stability analysis of footings subjected to
For practical purposes, the centroid or center of gravity of the transformed inclined loads is as folIows: the inclined load Q is resolved into a vertical
area may be determined by cutting out a cardboard of the same shape and component Q. and a horizontal component QH' The stability of the footing
balancing the board on a pencil point. The cardboard will balance only when against ultimate failure under the vertical load is treated by the same principles
it is supported on the center of gravity. Several such trials will enable the for footings subjected to vertical :oad only, and the effect of the horizontal
engineer to approach the .correct location of the' neutral axis. component is ignored. Then, the stability of the footing against the horizontal
2. For determination of ultimate or allowable bearing capacity of an force is analysed by calculating the factor of safety against sliding which is
eccentricalIy loaded footing, the concept of useful width has been introduced. defined as the ratio between the total horizontal resistance and the horizontal
By this concept, the portion of the footing which is symmetrical about the force. The total horizontal resistance in general consists of a passive resis-
load is considered useful and the other portion is simply assumed superfluous tance of soil, Pp,and a frictional resistance R, Fig. 6-17. The value of Ppcan be
for the convenience of computation. If the eccentricities are e/ and eb' as 2cr-
shown in Fig. 6-15, the useful widths are B -
2eband L - 2e" the equiv-
-
alent area (B - 2eb)(L 2e/) is considered as subjected to a central load H
for determination of bearing capacity.
1 Pp
, ~:..:.:: :..":~p
:o':.~'~.:':..." ~ . lP--I 2~ i:' I-- fi';: C
I-ppH-j R=.,~. '-1,oh'- 1" x looting area

N = total vertical force acting on the

base of footing

Factor of safety against sliding = Pp-:;+R

Granular soils Cohesive soils
c:
~u Pp psi Coel. of Cohesive Unit
'" Type of Soil Friction, Type of Soil Strength Weight, r
..,
.. submerged dry or
moist t c=psf pcf
0::
Sand and/or gravel 210 350 0.55 Very soft 200 110
with less than 5% silt clay
Sand and/or gravel Soft clay 400 120
!80 250 0.45
with 5% or mare silt
Medium,
Silt or soils containing stiff, and 600 125
120 150 0.35
Eccentricity ratio e/B more than 30% silt hard clay

Fig.6-15 Useful widths for deter-
mination of bearing capacity of
eccentrically loaded footing on
cohesivesoils.
Fig. 6-16 Bearing capacity of
. eccentrically loaded footing. After
AREA.
The values above may be used in small jobs. Backfill must be well compacted to insure the design
passive pressure
Fig. 6-17 Conventional method of analysis of footings subjected to
inclined loads.

The concept above simply means that the bearing capacity of a footing
oel.reJses linearly with the eccentricity of load, as is shown by a straight line
in Fig. 6-16. In cohesive soils, this linear relationship prevails, but in granular
soils,however,the reductionis parabolicra~herthan linear,(Meyerhof,1953).
r
determined by the principles discussed in Chapter 4. However, for smalIer
projects, conservative values such as those shown in the figure may be used.
It should be emphasized that high values of passive earth pressure Ppmay not
be realized in granular soils unless it is backfilIed and welIcompacted in layers.
 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC. 6-12 UPUFT OF FOOTINGS 137

0,

300
200

~.c 50
'0
c
o
1001
0° 5° 10° 15° 20°
tf

25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

~ I-B:
(Area =A)
J
Research in soil mechanics has extended the bearing capacity theory into
the case of inclined loading (Meyerhof, 1953; Janbu, 1957). Janbu's analysis
is a direct extension of Terzaghi theory with a factor Nh in addition to the
Terzaghi bearing capacity factors Ne, Ny, and'Nq.
Q + NhQh - N c + N 1
Y D + - NyyB (6-10)
~.. 20 ~
0,+NhOh
=Nec+Nq)'D+ zN,yB
I A - e q 2
i7
0h cannot exceed Q, tan 1> The notations and values of Ne, Nq, Ny, and Nh are shown in Fig. 6-18.
~..
'h c " cohesion Meyerhof has calculated ultimate bearing capacity of footings subjected to
</>"angle of internalfriction inclined loading and published the results in graphical form. They have been
constructed in convenient charts shown in Fig. 6-19. The load is assumed to
.0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.e 0.9 1.0 apply vertically and the bearing capacity is determined by the normal pro-
tan </> cedure. Then it is corrected by the factor Ri shown in Fig. 6-19.
FI,. 6-18General formula for bearing 'capacity of continuous footing
subjected to inclined load. After N. Janbu.
6-11 Footingson Slopes
The bearingcapacityof footingson slopingground may be determinedby

~
' Q Q
the followingequation (Meyerhof,1957):
r::ffr-
DaD
1-- r 4.: q = cNcq + tYBNyq . (6-11)
!!!- Rq !-B-I fl-R
B'Y~
a: The values of the bearing capacity factors Neqand Nyqfor continuous footings
q
B-1 B-1 are shown in Fig. 6-20. These factors vary with the slope of the ground, the
q " ultimate
under
(or allowable)
vertical load
bearing capacity of horizontal footing
relative position of the footing and the angle of internal friction of the soil.
RI " reduction factor, see charts below Before construction of footings on sloping ground, the stability of the slope
itself must be investigated. Footings should not be constructed on slopes
which are unstable. They should also be avoided on slopes where slow creep
of the superficial material takes place. The stability of a stable slope may be
endangered by the addition of footings.

c
o 6-12 Uplift of Footings
'5
" 0.4
'0 The resistance of a footing against uplift is derived from the weight of the
i£
0.2 footing and the weight of soil above it. For soil below ground water level the
submerged weight should be used.
As a footing is being uplifted, a prism of soil is carried by the footing,
o o 20 40 60 eo 90 Fig. 6-21(a). The shape of the prism depends upon the characteristics of soil
Inclination
aO of load to vertical
"inclination
of foundationto horizontal above the footing. Due to lack of conclusive data, no rational design rules
From AREA After G. G. Meyerhof have been developed. However, conventional method assuming a 60 degree
(a) (b) prism, Fig. 6-21(a) may lead to unsafe results. For footings subjected to a
Fig. 6-19 Bearing capacity of footing subjected to inclined load: (a)
small uplift, the method shown in Fig. 6-21(b) may be used. If a large number
horizontal foundation; (b) inclined foundation (after G. G. Meyerhof of footings are subjected to high uplift forces, some model tests or full-sized
and AREA). . field pull-out tests may be economically justified.
1
 ..&
-
r ~

138 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC. 6-13 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 0'F Foo11NGS 139

Both cases: Linear interpretation for footing area, the unit pressure is equal to the total load divided by the
intermediate depths:
=
q cNcq+O.5yB N1'I D/B =0; solid lines footing area. In case of eccentric load, the pressure may be calculated by the
Stability foetor: D/B = I; dash lines procedure described in Sec. 6-9.
N. = yH/c 600
c = cohesion
r = unit weight of soil 500~ "

" .,~
400 '\ Plitlcapacity= W+ F
,,

--j;
ft
case F F=Pof (granular soils)
= cA (cohesive soils)
D .
''':'':'9 Varies with type and W = weight of soil plus footing
~ . characteristics of soil.
Conventional assumption of
F = friction or cohesion

6 .. 60. may be unsafe in (b)

some cases

(0) Po = total horiz. earth pressure at

rest acting on the entire
vertical surface
= 0.4 x unit wt of soil
f = coeff. of friction
= 0.35 - 0.55
c = cohesion = 200-600P"
A = total vertical surface above
perimeter of footing

FI,; 6-21 Uplift capacity of footing: (a) probable uplift capacity; (b)
minimum theoretical uplift.

By far the majority of footings are constructed of concrete, and .the design
of such footings should follow the concrete codes. * The design criteria used
in the current American practice are shown in Fig. 6-22.
If a pedestal is so proportioned that its height is at least equal to twice its
width beyond the face of column, Fig. 6-23, the critical sections for computing
bending, bond, and shear stresses are as shown in Fig. 6-22, and there is no
need to analyse the stresses in the pedestal. For pedestals having smaller
depth/width ratio, the stresses in the pedestal must be ana lysed. The analysis
ma.y be made on the assumption that the bond stress along the entire em-
bedment of dowels below the top of the pedestal is uniformly distributed.
Based on this assumption, the total stress acting on the bottom of the pedestal
is equal to the total stress in the concrete of the column plus the amount of
stress in the column vertical reinforcement transmitted through bond within
the depth of the pedestal. Fig. 6-23 illustrates .the stresses acting on each
~' element of the footing.
'r
;:: The members in a steel grillage are designed as cantilever beams subjected
to uniformly distributed soil pressure.
6-13 Structural Designof Footings
In practiceall individualand wall footingsate designedon the assumption j * American Concrete Institute, American Association of State Highway Officials,
that the distribution of the soil pressure against the bottom of the footing is
1 American Railroad Engineers Association, Canadian National Code, British Code of
straight-line or planar. When the load is applied at the centroid of the Practice, or the local building codes.
SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 SEC. 6-14 FIXITY OF COLUMN BASE AND ROTATION OF FOOTING 141

\,
6-/4 Fixity of Column Base and Rotation of Footing
b Masonry wall The engineer is sometimes confronted with the question of whether the
b Bose It "4
~
I column bases should be fixed or free to rotate. At other times he is compelled
A to design the footings for a central load and a moment, and for a limited
amount of rotation. Therefore an understanding of the rotation characteris-
tics of the column base and the footing is essential.
When the lower end of a column is subjected to a bendin~ m~~.~!!h the
joint between the column and the footing must be strong-enough to transfer
the stresses. In the case of concrete columns, this can be readily done by
embedding the dowels in the footing, and the column may be considered fully
fixed to the footing. The lower end of steel ~olumns may.J?~Lfix,~.Q.J9-1be.
a footings by meanu)Lanchor bolts. Wfieilihe 'anchor:bQit~ ~~e.r~ql,l![edto
(0) resist tension due .to column bending, -iileyare...',.._.gener"allypretensioned io.-a
_. . _u"..'-""

desi~90.m~nimum-st.r~ss..Unless this stres"sisexceeded"from actual bending of

the column, i"hereis no elongation of the anchor bolts. Again, the column
bases may be considered as fixed to the fo~ting~..:.. In either case, the rotation
of column base is caused only by the elastic deformation due to the greater
~
t" 3 clear
"
r compression at'the toe of the base, whic.his geperally small and insignificant.
Iii the event when the anchor bolts are not pretensioned and_lhe.Jotation of
the--base'is critical, reference is made to a paper by Salmon, Schenker, and
Jolinston (1957).
Regardless of the degree of fixity between the column base and the footing,
Total pressure a movement from the column will cause unsymmetrical soil pressure. The
acting on this
area is resisted " s~il pressure is assumed to have straight line or planar distribution, "Sec.6-9A.
by section b-b Unfortunately the pressure distribution is not likely to be planar and cannot
(b)
be determined quantitatively. Therefore, the rotation of a footing acted by
a moment or an eccentric loading can only be estimated on the basis of some
Fig. 6-22 Criteria for design of concrete footings: (a) critical section simple computations guided by good engineering judgement. For example,
(a-a) and load area for computing bond and bending stresses; (b) critical small and shallow footings on sand are prone to rotation because the sand
section (b-b)and load area for computing shear stress. "
readily runs out from under the toe of the footing. If the footing is located at
a greater depth, the sand is subjected to a confining pressure due to the
weight of the overlying soil. The relative effect of the edge condition
Fi:= total stress on diminishes as the size of the footing increases. It becomes apparent that
concrete in the
column small and shallow footings on granuhu soils should not be relied upon for
T1
Lp L + providing fi&ty t~.!!!e c~~~~~~~
F ~ Contrary to sand, clay and clayey soils resemble elastic material and are
--
capable of resisting a concentrated
.. stress at the edge. Furthermore, since -. . a
!:e
F=Fc+F'L large portion otthe settlement of footings on clay is due to consolidati~l),
Fs = total stress in vertical bars over"a long period of time bending moment acting only Ins~?rt durations
of the column
Lp = height at pedestal would not cause significant rotation.
L =length of bar embeddment '-As an example of the type of approach to this problem, the rotation of
fir. 6.23 Stresses in pedestaled footings. footings subjected to moment or eccentric load may be estimated by the

SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP.6
following analysis. The toe of the footing will probably not settle more than
the amount 81 which is the average settlement if the entire footing is subjected
to the maximum toe pressure; the heel of the footing probably not more than
the amount 82 which is the average settlement if the entire footing is sub-
jected to the minimum pressure at the heel. The maximum and minimum
pressures are computed on the assumption of straight line or planar distribu-
tion. The probable amount of rotation, therefore, is equal to or less than
-
(81 8.;) divided by the width (or length) of the footing.
6-15 Construction
Footings are the simplest type of foundation in so far as the construction
procedure is concerned. In addition to the normal exercise of precaution
there are relatively few points that require special attention, namely: the
inspection of subsoil conditions, the relative depth of footings, and the de-
watering of the excavation when necessary.
The construction of footings for buildings is usually started after the
general grading work is completed at which time the ground is leveled to an-
elevation at, or 6 in. below; the bottom of the lowest floor slab. ,!~en the-a~~!
is excavated by simple or power operated hand tools. The bottom of the
excavation is ,carefully excavated to the required depih, the form work for
the sides of footing is placed and held by stakes, and the reinforcemeni -is
placed on cement block supports (and high chairs if top bars are used)~
Before placing the concret;:, anchor bolts or column dowels must be accurately
secured on the form work. Short and straight dowels of small diameter may'
be placed by hand immediately after the concrete is poured. The form work
for the sides may not be necessary and the ~oncrete may be poured against
the vertical sides of the excavation if the soil does not slough in.
A. Inspection of subsoil conditions. Natural soil deposits are seldom truly
uniform. An apparently uniform soil stratum often contains pockets or
lenses of material having somewhat different engineering properties. It is
impractical and almost impossible to ascertain the soil condition under each
footing by ordinary soil boring program. Therefore, it is the responsibility
of the engineer to evaluate the average soil condition based on the soil boring
results, and often he has to make conservative generalizations. Before the
foundation is finally constructed, he must check the actual conditions in the
field. If the soil conditions at certain footin 10 II.!' are not as good as he
i!~~~U.W~~, the footing m'ust e either lowered to a stratum having s~fficicjC
bearing power or enlarged to reduce the pressure to suit the bearing.cap.!lciJy
-7~ of the soil. The choice between these two methods depends upon the relative
economy, the time, or other factors involved.
'The method for checking the soil conditions at the footing excavations
SEC. 6-15 CONSTRUCTION 143
must be simple and expeditious. The soil conditions should be inspected
after the excavation but before concreting. For clays or clayey soils, soil
samples may be taken by a,hand aug~.!:.orshovei, and the approximate strength
maybe determined'by a simple portable unconfined compression tester or by a
pocket siie penetrometer. In most cases, the shear strength can be estimated
by the simple thumb test described in Table 1-2, Sec. I-8A.
For sand or gravel, some simple penetration tests may be used for com-
parison of soil density at various locations. The penetration test may be
simply the counting of blows required to drive a certain size reinforcing rod
with a specific weight dropping a given height. (For example i in. diain rod
driven by a 7 lb hammer falling 18 in.). Such tests should be, made first at
locations where the soil density (and consequently the bearing capacity) is
, known from the soil borings or tests, and the results should be used as a
basis for comparison. If further tests made at any other footing locations
encounter smaller resistance, the adequacy of the soil for sustaining the
design pressure must be carefully investigated by more accurate tests or load
bearing t:sts.
B. Relative depth of footings. Any adjacent footings should not be con-
structed at such different levels that the construction of the lower footing
would. disturb the soil supporting the upper footing, and that the pressure
from the upper footing would n<?tintroduce undue additional stress to the
soil under the lower footing. This difficulty is generally avoided by keeping
the difference in footing elevations not greater than one-half the clear distance
between the footings. For this reason it is always a good practice to construct
the lower footings first, and when necessary to construct the lower fo<;>ting at
a greater depth than contemplated, the elevation of the upper footing can be
adjusted accordingly.
Sometimes the adjacent footings must be constructed at largely different
levels, for example, when a new basement is constructed adjacent to footings
under an existing first floor. Sheeting may be used to retain the adjacent
ground when excavation is made. ,
The problem of footings at two different levels is illustrated in Fig. 6-24
where a wall footing at the first floor adjoins a basement wall. It is the com-
monpractice to l0wer the first floor footing in gradual steps down to the
level of the basement footing as shown in Fig. 6-24(a). By so doing the
natural state of the subsoil is considered unaltered. An al~ernative method is
shown in Fig. 6-24(b). In order to construct the basement, an excavation
larger than the basement floor must be made. After the basement wall is
matured, the overexcavated area is backfilled with suitable soil. If the
original soil is sand or gravel, and the backfill consists of the same material
which is compacted in layers (6 to 9 in.) to a density equal to or greater than
that of the original soil, the footing at the first floor may'be supported on the
 II;

SEC. 6-16 DESIGN EXAMPLE 145

144 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6
"-Wall-.. "--Wall...... According to Eq. (6-2) the medium-dense sand layer will settle 1 in. at a
pressure q2 = 8600 Ib per sq ft. Since an allowable value of 5000 Ib per sq
ft was used in design, the approximate settlement is equal to 5000/8600 =
0.58 in. The same procedure is used for settlemenl calculation for the loose
sand layer. The consolidation settlement of the soft clay was computed by
Eq. (3-4), with the values of eo and Cc determined by laboratory tests.

(a) (b)

Fir. 6-24 Wall footings at different levels.

..-j
backfill. If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfill, the
wall footing should be stepped down as shown in fig. 6-24(a) or else the wall
itself should be designed to span between the basement wall and a point on
the original ground at several feet from the excavation line.
C. Dewatering. The excavation should be kept dry during the construction
period because free water is objectionable for several reasons. In clay or
clayey soils, free water tends to soften the upper portion of the soil and
causes settlement of footings. The soil conditions under water cannot be
readily inspected. Excavation in water is expensive and not satisfactory.
Furthermore, the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, particu-
larly when the water is not stagnant.
To avoid the difficulties mentioned above, excavations below ground
water level are kept dry by various methods discussed in Chapter 5.

6-16 Design Example

On sheet 1, Plate DE 6, the column loads, walls loads, floor loads, and
pertinent soil data are shown. On the right-hand side of the soil profile,
results of the standard penetration tests are shown for the granular soils, and
the unconfined compression strength qu' natural void ratio eo, and compres-
sion index Cc for the soft clay are also indicated.- The water level was 25 ft
below the finished grade.
The first step was to determine the bearing capacity of the upper sand
layer. The N value was adjusted in accordance with Eq. (2-1). Because the
adjusted value exceeds 2 times the test value (N') a reduction factor of 2 was
used. This gives N = 28.
The stress on the layer of loose sand was analysed by the approximate
method discussed in Sec. 6-7.
The total settlement of the footings consisted of three components, namely
the settlement due to each of the three layers of soil above the hardpan. The
hardpan itself contributes practically no settlement, as indicated by the local
experience. The bedrock lies immediately under the hardpan.
 .
III: SEC. 6-16 DESIGN EXAMPLE 14S
144 SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP. 6 .I~
~WolI-.. ~-WolI...... According to Eq. (6-2) the medium-dense sand layer will settle 1 in. at a
pressure q2 = 8600 lb per sq ft. Since an allowable value of 5000 lb per sq
ft was used in design, the approximate settlement is equal to 5000/8600 =
0.58 in. The same procedure is used for settlemeni calculation for the loose
sand layer. The consolidation settlement of the soft clay was computed by
Eq. (3-4), with the values of eo and Cc determined by laboratory tests.

(0) (b)

FI,. 6-24 Wall footings at different levels.

..j
backfill. If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfill, the
wall footing should be stepped down as shown in fig. 6-24(a) or else the wall
itself should be designed to span between the basement wall and a point on
the original ground at several feet from the excavation line.
C. Dewatering. The excavation should be kept dry during the construction
period because free water is objectionable for several reasons. In clay or
clayey soils, free water tends to soften the upper portion of the soil and
causes settlement of footings. The soil conditions under water cannot be
readily inspected. Excavation in water is expensive and not satisfactory. .'
Furthermore, the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, particu-
larly when the water is not stagnant.
To avoid the difficulties mentioned above, excavations below ground
water level are kept dry by various methods discussed in Chapter 5.

6-16 Design Example

On sheet 1, Plate DE 6, the column loads, walls loads, floor loads, and
pertinent soil data are shown. On the right-hand side of the soil profile,
results of the standard penetration tests are shown for the granular soils, and
the unconfined compression strength qu' natural void ratio eo, and compres-
sion index Cc for the soft clay are also indicated.- The water level was 25 ft
below the finished grade.
The first step was to determine the bearing capacity of the upper sand
layer. The N value was adjusted in accordance with Eq. (2-1). Because the
adjusted value exceeds 2 times the test value (N') a reduction factor of 2 was
used. This gives N = 28.
The stress on the layer of loose sand was analysed by the approximate
method discussed in Sec. 6-7.
The total settlement of the footings consisted of three components, namely
the settlement due to each of the three layers of soil above the hardpan. The
hardpan itself contributes practically no settlement, as indicated by the local
experience. The bedrock lies immediately under the hardpan.