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Bonding between non-metals consists of two electrons shared between two atoms. In covalent
bonding, the two electrons shared by the atoms are attracted to the nucleus of both atoms.
Neither atom completely loses or gains electrons as in ionic bonding.
2. Polar bonding with an unequal sharing of electrons. The number of shared electrons depends
on the number of electrons needed to complete the octet.
IODINE:
Iodine forms a diatomic non-polar covalent molecule. The graphic on the top left shows that
iodine has 7 electrons in the outer shell. Since 8 electrons are needed for an octet, two iodine
atoms EQUALLY share 2 electrons.
OXYGEN:
Molecules of oxygen, present in about 20% concentration in air are also a covalent molecules .
See the graphic on the left the Lewis symbols.
There are 6 electrons in the outer shell, therefore, 2 electrons are needed to complete the octet.
The two oxygen atoms share a total of four electrons in two separate bonds, called double
bonds.
Answer:
When differentiating between covalent (molecular) or ionic, the type of elements
in the compound decides which it is. Covalent bonds are between non-metals only.
Ionic bonds are between a metal and a non-metal.
Covalent bonds can either be polar or non-polar. You could determine this with the
known electronegativities of the elements. First you have to represent the molecule
by any means necessary (Lewis Dot Structure, lines, etc). This isn't nesessary for a
compound with two atoms. Once drawn, you will know which atoms are bonded to
the other atoms in the molecule. Then you look at the electronegativities for each
element in one bond. If one atom's element has a higher electronegativity value
than the other, then the bond is polar. If they are the same, then the bond is non-
polar.
The reason a bond would be polar is because one atom has a higher
electronegativity value, which means that the element has more attraction to
electrons than the other. If it is attracting electrons more than the other, then the
electrons are spending more time one one side. The disparity of electron
distribution causes one side to be slightly negative (δ-) and the other to be slightly
positive (δ+).
Diatomic molecule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diatomic molecules are molecules composed only of two atoms, of either the same or different chemical elements. The prefix di- means two in Greek.
Common diatomic molecules are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide. Most elements aside from the noble gases form diatomic
molecules when heated, but high temperatures—sometimes thousands of kelvins—are often required.
Contents
[hide]
1 Occurrence
2 Molecular geometry
3 Historical significance
4 Energy levels
o 4.1 Translational energies
o 4.2 Rotational energies
o 4.3 Vibrational energies
energy spacings
5 Further reading
6 See also
8 External links
[edit]Occurrence
Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been characterized [1] in the terrestrial environment, laboratory, and interstellar medium. About 99% of the Earth's
atmosphere is composed of diatomic molecules, specifically oxygen and nitrogen at 21 and 78%, respectively. The natural abundance of hydrogen
(H2) in the Earth's atmosphere is only on the order of parts per million, but H 2 is, in fact, the most abundant diatomic molecule seen in nature. The
Elements that consist of diatomic molecules, under typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C, include hydrogen (H 2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2),
and the halogens. Relative to the other halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine), astatine is so rare, with its most stable isotope having a half-
life of only 8.3 hours, that it is usually not considered. [2] Again, many other diatomics are possible and form when elements are heated to their gaseous
states, but these diatomic species repolymerize at lower temperatures. For example, heating ("cracking") elemental phosphorus givesdiphosphorus.
In most diatomic molecules, the elements are nonidentical. Prominent examples include carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen chloride.
If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as H 2 and O2, then it is said to be homonuclear, but otherwise it is
heteronuclear, such as with CO or NO. The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar and covalent.
[edit]Molecular geometry
Diatomic molecules cannot have any geometry but linear, as any two points always lie in a line. This is the simplest spatial arrangement of atoms after
Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the
most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules. John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that
all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For
example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of
about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.
As early as 1805, Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, and by
1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the
assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860. Part of this rejection was due to the belief that
atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity towards atoms of the same element, and part was due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law
At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress on atomic weights, Cannizzaro resurrected Avogadro's ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic
weights, which mostly agree with modern values. These weights were an important pre-requisite for the discovery of the periodic law by Dmitri
Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer.[4]
[edit]Energy levels
It is convenient, and common, to represent a diatomic molecule as two point masses (the two atoms) connected by a massless spring. The energies
involved in the various motions of the molecule can then be broken down into three categories.
[edit]Translational energies
[edit]Rotational energies
where
For microscopic, atomic-level systems like a molecule, angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by
where
is the average distance between the two atoms in the molecule.
So, substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into E rot, the rotational energy
[edit]Vibrational energies
Another way a diatomic molecule can move is to have each atom oscillate - or vibrate -
along a line (the bond) connecting the two atoms. The vibrational energy is
where
n is an integer
h is Planck's constant and
energy spacings
0 and gives Erot = 0. For O2, the next highest quantum level (l = 1) has an
energy of roughly:
This spacing between the lowest two rotational energy levels of
between rotational energy levels.
In order to treat the problem exactly, one must solve the eigenvalue
equation of the three particle system. However, it is possible to simplify
the problem by using the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. The mass of
the electron is much smaller than the mass of the protons, therefore the
electron moves much more quickly than the protons. The electronic
wavefunction adapts itself nearly instantaneously to any change in the inter-
nuclear distance r. At any inter-nuclear distance r the Hamiltonian
describing the nuclear motion therefore contains the terms associated with
the kinetic energy of the nuclei, the nucleus-nucleus interaction, and the
total energy of the electron at that inter-nuclear distance. The nuclei move
in an effective potential
.
Let I be the moment of inertia of the diatomic molecule about an axis passing through the centre of mass of the molecule and perpendicular to bond length.
Therefore, moment of inertia of a diatomic molecule about an axis passing through the centre of the diatomic molecule and perpendicular to bond length, is the
product of reduced mass of the molecule and the square of bond length.
Standard Conditions :
H+(aq) 1 mol·l-1 (pH = 0)
T = 25°C
Symbolism :
In the hydrogen electrode, hydrogen gas is bubbled over metallic platinum immersed in an
aqueous solution containing hydronium cations. Platinum is a noble metal which is inert and
which only serves to establish the electric contact with the solution. The redox couple in question
is only H+/H2. In order to ensure a saturated layer of hydrogen adsorbed at the platinum surface, a
continuous flow of molecular hydrogen is maintained around the electrode. The gas pressure is
maintained at 1 atmosphere, and the concentration of the H+ cations (in reality H3O+) at 1 mol l-
1
(pH = 0). The temperature is fixed at 25°C, in order to respect standard conditions.
Consequently, the potential of this electrode is the standard potential, and this potential is taken
as a reference and defined to be equal to zero volt.
If this electrode is paired with another electrode (also under standard conditions), the standard
redox potential of the redox couple constituting the second electrode can be determined.
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2 H+ + 2e- --> H2
E = Eo - RT/2F ln P(H2) / a(H+)2
SHE - Thermodynamically sound! But . . .
Things are not much better when you think about the partial
pressure of hydrogen. The vapor pressure of water is about 25
mm Hg at room temperature. So, even if the barometric
pressure is 760 mm Hg, the partial pressure of water saturated
hydrogen is only 735 mm Hg!
NHE - A Synonym?