Bonophool Banerjee

Meat theory insight

By the word meat we mean the body tissues of animals that can be eaten as food, anything
from frog legs to calves brains. However, we usually make a distinction between the meat
animals -cattle, ships, pigs and poultry and fish and between meat and variety meats like-
organs like livers, kidneys, and intestines and so on. Meat proper is muscle tissue whose
function is to move some part of the animal. The next thing which comes into mind is why
do need to eat meat at all. This is because the Bio- chemistry of most animals is pretty
much the same as ours, their tissues supplying us the number and proportions of amino
acids and proteins that we need. The history of meat consumption’s starts from the
domestication of animals. Research in nutrition and medicine suggests that we are paying
for our high consumption of meat and other animal products with our health. On an
average we eat twice as much protein every day as we actually need and most of the
proteins come from red meats, eggs and dairy products. The problem is not of the excess
proteins in the diet but of the large amounts of saturated fats and cholesterol that
accompany it. These substances lead to heart diseases.

TYPES OF MEAT

The names for the various types apply to the specific animals from which they are
obtained. The term beef, for instance, refers to meat from cattle over 9 months old. Meat
from cattle that are 3 to 9 months of age is classified as calf. Veal comes from calves
ranging in age from 1 to 3 months.

Pork is derived from hogs that are generally 5 months of age or older. Most of the meat
from older and heavier hogs is utilized in various processed meats.

Lamb comes from sheep less than 14 months of age and usually weighing from 90 to 140
pounds (40 to 65 kilograms). Mutton refers to meat from sheep over 14 months of age.

Variety meats include liver, heart, tongue, brain, kidney, sweetbread (thymus gland),
tripe (stomach of ruminant) and chitterlings (large intestine of pig). Each of these meats
has a distinctive flavor and consistency when it is cooked.

In processed meats the properties of fresh meat have been modified through grinding,
chopping, seasoning, the alteration of color, or heat treatment. Typical processed meat
products include bacon, cured ham, corned beef, canned meats, precooked meats, and
sausages.

Major components are:

• Lean muscle
• Connective tissue
• Fat
• Bones
Bones: Bones consists of cell, fibres and ground substances It has protective and
supportive function in the skeleton. It provides for the internal support of the body
and for the attachment of the muscle and tendons essential for locomotion. It
protects the vital organs of the cranial and thoraces cavities and it encloses the
blood-forming element of the bone marrow. In addition to this mechanical function,
it plays an important metabolic role as modifiable store calcium that can be drawn
upon as needed. The shape of the bone is an excellent guide for identification of the
various cuts of meats.
Cartilage is a firm elastic substance often gets converted into bone.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
Although the muscle tissue gives the meat its characteristic appearance and to
some extent its flavour and texture, it is the connective tissue that determines the
tenderness of the meat. Connective tissue in the meats forms walls of muscle fiber,
binds them into bundles, surrounds the muscle as a membrane and makes up the
tendons and ligament that attaches the muscle to the bones.
We are concerned with three types of connective tissues: -
• Collagen: They are most abundant type. Wavy, non-branching threads that
lie singly or in bundles characterize them. Massive accumulation of collagen
as fiber is the tendon that muscle to the bones. These fibers are white in color
and are less elastic. They are composed of protein called collagen. Collagen
when heated gets converted into gelatin (at the ordinary cooking level). This
process is called hydrolysis.
• Elastin fibers: These fibers get the name from the ability to stretch much
like a rubber band: that is to say they posse’s elasticity. They are yellow in
color and are found in branches. They connect bones to bones. They are
composed of proteins called Elastin, which makes them much heavier than
collagen. Elastic is the most undesirable because it does not break down upon
heating. It may soften if temperature is sufficiently.
• Reticular fibers: These are fine branching threads composed of protein
Reticulin. These threads form a dense network. They are in very small amount
in muscle fiber. Reticular fibers also form the framework of the
reticuloendothelias system (lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils etc. )

• Fat or adipose tissue: It is deposited in connective tissue in three location:

1. beneath the skin subcutaneous fat

2. between the muscle inter muscular fat
3. it appears as fine flakes of fat on the surface of meat and is approved as
marbling _ intra muscular fat

Muscle tissue:
There are three types of muscle tissue- Skeletal muscle, Cardiac muscle, Smooth
muscle
Composition of meat:
Meat is made up of proteins, fat, minerals, (phosphorous, iron and calcium), some
carbohydrates, nitrogenous and non –nitrogenous extractives, pigments, enzymes,
vitamins and water.
Proteins: 15 to 20 % in any type of cut in meat. It is directly related to amount of
lean tissue in it. Amount of protein decreases as the fat and bones content
increases.
Fats and carbohydrates: fat is essential to all metabolism. The fat cell begins to
store droplets of fats only after the available nutrients exceed the amount
necessary for organ production.
Two types of carbohydrates are found in meats:
1. Glycogen- stored mainly in livers.
2. Glucose-, which is found in blood.
Pigments
Myoglobin and hemoglobin are two pigments, which contribute to red color of the
meat.
Hemoglobin transports the O2 in the blood stream and myoglobin holds O2 in the
muscle for contraction. Organ meats have more hemoglobin than skeletal muscle
because of their greater blood supply.
Enzymes: Protein splitting enzymes may be responsible for increasing tenderness
during ageing or ripening.
Minerals: phosphorous and iron are the chief minerals in meat. Potassium is found
in muscle fiber and sodium is found in fluids.
Extractives
Lactic acid is always present in the muscle tissue of the animal. There is always
increase in the amount of lactic acid after the rigor mortis sets in. the nitrogenous
extractives found in muscle are the end product of protein metabolism. Some
authorities regard the nitrogenous extractives as the source of meat flavour.

Following is the percentage constituent of beef muscle: -

Water - 67%
Protein - 19%
Fat - 13%
Carbohydrate - 1%

Slaughtering procedures:

• In order to get the best quality of meats it is very important to slaughter the animal
in the prescribed manner. Animals may be slaughtered in jhatka or halal method
depending on consumer sentiments.
• The animals should be fed well 24-48 hours before slaughtering.
• Once animals are brought to the slaughterhouse, they should be given rest of
minimum 24 hours to maintain adequate strength of lactic acid, after slaughter.
• Animals are given 90 volts electric shock for less than 10 seconds. The stunning
process gives rise to blood pressure and makes the heart to pump the maximum
amount of blood. This process ensures perfect bleeding and improves the keeping
quality of the meat.
• The animal should be bled immediately after stunning within 5 sec.

Rigor Mortis:
It means the process by which the body becomes stiff after death.
Meats from animals that have just been dressed are soft and pliable. The fat
becomes cool and hardens. At the same time several changes occur in the muscle
protein.
• Decrease in glycogen by its conversion to lactic acid.
• A simultaneous drop in Ph
• A development of rigor or stiffening and with greater changes the muscle
become soft and plaint.
• Changes in muscle to electrical resistance.
• Changes in the elasticity of the muscle
• Changes in the elasticity of the muscle fiber.
The onset of rigor, occur in two stages:
In the first stage the Ph drops to about 6.2. This stage is little affected by
temperature but is affected by the physiological state of muscle. The drop in the ph
is proportional to the amount of the glycogen changed to lactic acid.
In the second stage, which is affected by temperature, the ph continues to drop and
stiffening takes place, each small drop in the ph being accompanied by a
comparatively large increase in stiffening.
The Rigor Mortis is characterized by:
1. Dullness of muscle through lack of transparency
2. Contraction and hardening of muscle
3. Stiffness and hardening of muscle
It is associated with the breakdown of adenosine tri phosphate and its non-
replacement because of the lack of oxygen.
Rigor Mortis normally appears about 10 hours after the death of the animal and
disappears after 24 hours. Various factors affect its onset, degree and its
disappearance. The Ph of the freshly killed animal is 7.0 and it drops to 5.6 due to
the conversion of glycogen to lactic acid. The low ph is a desirable factor for
keeping quality of meat The hardening of fat after death of the animal is due to fall
in temperature not due to rigor mortis.
Quality check for meats
The following guidelines are to be borne in mind to ensure that the product is of correct
specification and quality.

• Age of the animal

• Setting of the meat
• Color of the meat
• Odours of the meat
• PH (hydrogen ion concentration)
• Evidence if proper bleeding
• Evidence of any infection
Age of the animal:
Recommended age group of animals for slaughter:
S. No. Category of product Age

1 Lamb Less than 14 months

2
Veal Less than 3 months

3 3-24 months
Calf

4 8 –12 weeks
Broiler

5 Capon
Less than 8 months

6
Duck Less than 4 weeks

7 Pork 6-7 months

Setting of the meats:

The meat should be well set. The meat surface should not be slimy. The fat should be firm
and white with no bad odours. The meat should be firm and not spongy.

Odours:
The normal mutton should not have any odours. Sometimes the odours is might have been
acquired by foodstuffs, drug administration, or by absorption.

Boiling test for abnormal odours and taste:

Abnormal odours are common in meat commodities after slaughter but not when they
cooled. It may reappear when meat is cooked. To detect this meat is subjected to boiling
test:
Boil the meat in a closed container. During boiling the lid is lifted and the vapour is smelt.
Abnormal odours and taste should be noted and the meat should be received accordingly.

The ph (hydrogen ion concentration)

Estimation of ph gives indication as to the keeping quality, as it is related to the extent of
bacterial contamination and post slaughter biochemical activities in the muscle. If animals
are exhausted at the time do slaughter then the glycogen of the muscle goes down and the
ph level goes up? The meats with higher ph level are considered to be of poor quality.
Acids in meat tend to arrest bacterial growth. No spoilage occurs at ph 3.5. Normally at ph
5 and below the condition are not favourable for bacterial growth and chances of spoilage
are remote.

Color:
Evidence of appropriate colour is the evidence of quality meat. Colour is caused by meat
pigment, which is called myoglobin. The extent of such influence, in this connection
depends on feeding, pre and post slaughter, and packaging, air, curing

Evidence for proper bleeding or for infection

Multiple shades of colour like gray, bluish or other unusual colours render the meats unfit.
The bluish colour indicates improper bleeding, which could be from fever, fatigue or cold
slaughtering. The flesh looks darker, flabby and watery. The organs appear congested.

Tenderness in meat
Connective tissue: it is generally agreed that amount of connective tissue directly
related to the tenderness of meat. Cut of meat with much connective tissue are
tougher than those containing little connective tissue.
Fat: Good marbling of meat throughout the meat tissues increases the tenderness.
Fat separates and dilutes the connective tissue fibers and makes them more
available to heat treatment.
Age: meats from younger animals are tender than older one. It could be due to lack
of muscular development in younger animal. Tenderness of muscle decreases as
the diameter of the muscle increases with the age of animal. Older animal with
greater muscle development have increases connective tissue.
Location: The location of the cut is an indicative of its tenderness. The least used
muscles are tenderer than those that are fully developed, those found in neck,
chunk and round cuts.
Temperature: the temperature at which meat is cooked is cooked will alter the
tenderness of the meat and affect the contraction of the fibers. High temperature
and over cooking causes toughening of meats. Whether or not the meat tenderizes,
depends on the relationship between of collagen and coagulation of the muscle
protein. If hydrolysis of collagen predominates, the meats may become tender. If
hardening of muscle protein dominates the cooking process the meat increases in
toughness.
Grinding and pounding: Grinding breaks and cuts the muscle fiber and
connective tissue and making it possible for all the ground meat to be prepared in a
fashion similar to those tender cuts. Pounding is used to tenderize the meat; this
process breaks and tears only the surface meat fibers connective tissue fibers.

Ageing: it is an important method of tenderizing meat. When Rigor Mortis occurs in

an animal’s carcass, the muscle is hard and the muscle protein acting and myosin
joins to form act myosin. As a result of this, some muscle fibers contracts and
alternating fibers are stretched. As ageing continues, after onset of rigor mortis, the
much softer and muscle fiber appear to straighten out with noticeable break. Fiber
breaks are caused by enzymatic action on the protein.
Because of discoloration of meat and moisture loss, only cuts of meats such as ribs
and loins with thick covering of fat that can be cut off are suitable for ageing. Lamb
is occasionally aged; pork is never aged because of its high fat content, veal does
not have the proper fat covering for the ageing process.
Dry ageing: Meat is held at 34-38deg F for three to six weeks. The humidity may
be low (70-75%) to keep the cut surface dry or relatively high (85-()%) to purposely
grow mould. If the latter method is used, evaporative loss is decreased. Meat
procured for hotels is aged by this method.
Fast ageing: in this method meat is held for two days at a temperature of 21deg. C.
at high humidity. Microbial is retarded by the use of ultraviolet light. Most of the
meats marketed in retail market are aged in this manner. Additional ageing occurs
in 6-10 days, that it takes for meat to be transported, marketed, stored and cooked.
Vacuum packaging: The weight loss and surface spoilage that occurs in ageing
can be lessened if the meat is packaged in a moisture and vapor proof film. Meat
vacuum packed in this manner should not loose in tenderness, juiciness and flavor
for 1or 2 weeks but has a significant reduction in weight loss.
Freezing: The effect of freezing on meats has been studied very avidly and it is
found that it makes little or no difference.
Enzymes Meats can be made tender by the use of the proteolytic enzymes such as
papain, an enzyme found in papaya leaf. When meat tenderizers are used,
uniformity of tendencies is difficult to obtain. In large cuts, only the application
affects the surface of the meats.
Bromelin and Facin are also being used instead of Papain. The enzymes are mixed
in salt solution and used as dry mixture or as a liquid drip.
The enzymes tenderizes the meats by breaking down the outer fiber of the muscle
fiber , collagen , and the elastin material found in the muscle tissue. Enzymes
activity is slow at room temperature; it is most active in the range of 60-70deg C.
hence action of tenderizer takes place only during cooking of the meat. Cooking
meat until it is well cooked deactivates the enzymes – cooking it short of well-done
stage may permit the continued the activity of enzymes in the muscle fiber by
hydrolyzing the actomyosin.
Ante mortem:
The tenderizing solution (PAPAIN) is introduced in the jugular area of the animal for
even distribution of throughout the body tissue this tenderizing process has been
approved as successfully increasing the tenderness of beef.
At present beef subjected to ante mortem enzyme process is being produced
commercially and marketed as “proten”. Tough cuts of meats that have been
treated by this method can be cooked by dry heat method.
Acid material:
Adding acid material to the meat does not increases its tenderness. Neither soaking
meat in vinegar for 48 hours nor praising it has increased its tenderness.
Marbling
Marbling is intra muscular fat tissue that contributes to meat quality. Marbling causes the
meat to be firm and to reflect a desirable colour of the lean meat. Marbling fat provides
moist heat while cooking by covering the individual muscle cells with lipids. This condition
assists in breaking down connective tissue when heat is applied to the meat. Fat also
provides liquid and creates a desirable mouth sensation during chewing (mastication). Fat
thus contributes more to flavour than to tenderness. 8-9% fat in steaks or roasts is
adequate for good flavour.Quality is greater than this add very little to the meat
palatability.

LAMB AND MUTTON

In India where sheep and goat farming is not advanced and scientific, often the older
animals which have tougher meat are slaughtered. Generally the female goats and sheep
are slaughtered at a later stage because first they are used for breeding only. The male
animals are however slaughtered earlier and therefore much tender in texture. To get the
best quality of meat the lamb is received double with reproductive organs intact to identify
if it is male or female animal .Best quality mutton is bright red in colour, close grained and
firm. It has a great deal of fat that is evenly spread over the muscular tissue and within the
muscles also.

Quality determination of Lamb and Mutton.

1. The flesh of lamb is lighter in colour than that of Beef. Mutton flesh is darker.

2. The lean meat of Lamb and Mutton has a fine, velvet like texture.

3. The fat is very firm, brittle and white.

4. The cut surface of bone is porous and of reddish colour.

5. Compact and evenly fleshed.

The illustration given here shows a carcass of Lamb and Mutton with its basic cuts.

Cuts of Lamb / Mutton

SL.N CUTS/JOINT FRENC USES APPROXIMATE
O. S H WEIGHT
NAMES
LAMB MUTTON
 1 Scrag end Le cou Stewing, ½ kg. 1kg.
Broths

2 Middle neck Les Stewing 2kg. 3kg.

basses
cotes

3 Best end Le carre Roasting, 2kg. 3kg.

Grilling,Frying

4 Saddle La selle Roasting, 3.5kg. 5kg.

Grilling,
Frying

5 Chump ---------- Grilling 1kg. 1.2kg.

chops

6 Legs ( 2 Le gigot Roasting 3.5kg 5kg.

nos.)

7 Breast (2 La Roasting, 1.5kg. 2.5kg.

nos.) poitrine Stewing

8 Shoulders (2 L’epaul Roasting 3kg. 4.5kg.

nos.) e

Except the above mentioned cuts there are some more edible parts obtained from a
carcass which are termed as Offal (Abats) i.e. heart, liver, kidney etc. of butcher’s
meats and giblets of poultry etc.

LAMB/ MUTTON OFFALS --- ABATS d’agneau /mouton

ENGLISH FRENCH PREPARATIONS

NAME NAME

Brains Cervelles Soak well in the cold water. Clean and

remove membranes which cover the brain.
Re-soak to whiten .Place in boiling court-
bouillon. Cook for 20/30 minutes. Cool in
liquor. Uses: Ravioli feeling, hot and cold
brain sauce

Kidney Rognon Slit on bulging side and open without

separating the two halves. Remove the
skin, trim. Skewer to keep kidney open.
Uses: Grilled Lamb’s Kidney.

Liver Foie Trim off tubes and sinews skin. Cut into thin
slices. Uses: Braised lamb’s liver.

Lamb Pluck Fressure Liver, heart, spleen, lungs. Blanch spleen

d’agneau and lungs in salt water for 10 minutes. Slice
all thinly. Fry in clarified butter. Uses: Hash,
Saute, Stews.

Sweet breads Ris d’agneau The thymus of calf, lamb and mutton. Soak
in cold water. Blanch, trim, cook in stock,
 butter and lemon juice. Simmer for 25
minutes. Cool, used as garnish in vol-au-
vents, pies etc.

Tongue Longue Soak in cold water, scald, skin and trim.

Trotters Pieds Blanched, boned, singed, hair is removed.

PORK
Quality determination of Pork

Unlike Lamb, Pork is not improved by aging but is eaten fresh. When buying Pork always
look for:

1. Fine grained, firm and pale pink flesh.

2. Covered with not less than 15 mm. (1/2 “) of creamy fat.

3. A thin, supple outer rind.

4. Avoid over-fat pork.

5. No trace of moisture

6. Too red or too much of fat indicate an older animal.

What is called a suckling pig?

A young piglet usually slaughtered at two months old, generally having a weight less than
15 kgs. Oftenly roasted whole and also used in Blanquette, Ragout etc.

The illustration given here shows the basic cuts of pork.

CUTS OF PORK (Side of Pork)

SL.N CUTS/JOINT FRENCH USES APPROXIMATE

O. S NAME WEIGHT (28kgs.-
30kgs.)

1 Spare rib L’echine Roasting, Pies 02 kgs.

2 Loin / Pork La longe Roasting, Frying, 06 kgs.

Chop Grilling

3 Legs Le cuissot Roasting, Boiling, 05 kgs.

Ham
 4 Trotter/ Foot Le pied Grilling, Boiling 02 kgs.

5 Belly/ La poitrine Boiling, Braising 02 kgs.

Streaky

6 Shoulder/Ha L’epaule/Pla Roasting, 03 kgs.

nd and te de cotes Sausage,Pies
spring

PIG’S OFFAL (Abats de porc)

SL. ENGLIS FRENC PREPARATION

NO H H
.

1 Brains Cervelle As for Lamb brain.

s

2 Trotters Pieds Prepare as for Lamb trotters. When cooked, drain, straighten,
press between two boards and cool. Uses: Salads and grilled

3 Kidney Rognon Prepare as for Lamb’s kidney. Can be diced or sliced for pies,
puddings, sauté etc.

4 Liver Foie As for Lamb’s Liver

5 Tongue Langue Prepare as for Ox’s tongue. Can be pickled in same way and
used as ingredient in potted head and brawn.

What is Ham ?
A hind leg of the pork cured in various ways, termed as Ham. The ham may sell sliced,
whole, cooked or raw. The word CURE which is basically a dry salting, brining or sweet
pickling process may be followed by an extended drying and maturing period to impart
additional flavour to it. Also the ham may be smoked over different types of aromatic wood
to have their required individuality variations in their preparations.

A good ham should be plump with an ample, though not too thick layer of fat under the
rind.

Some popular Hams

Italian Ham: Out of all the great varieties of Hams available in Italy, Parma ham is the
most famous of all. It is cured and hung to dry for 8-10 months. This particular ham is
served raw or lightly fried in butter. It is also served with egg and pasta dishes. Other
Italian Hams are suitable for braising, boiling and baking and either served hot or cold.

French Ham: Bayonne is the best known French ham (raw).It is wine cured and unlike the
raw ham of Spain and Italy, it is smoked wrapped up in straw. Usually eaten as a first
course, but may be used in cooking in variety of ways.

German Ham: The production of Black Forest ham can take up to three months. Raw
ham is salted and seasoned with garlic, coriander, black pepper pepper, juniper berries and
other spices. After Curing (food preservation) for two weeks, the salt is removed and the
ham cures for another two weeks .Next, the ham is cold smoked at a temperature of 25°C
(77°F) for several weeks, during which time the ham acquires its deep red colour. The
smoke is created by burning fire brush and sawdust. The smoking process gives the ham
much of its flavour. Black Forest ham has a very pronounced flavour and is common in
German cuisine. It may be eaten fresh, for example on bread or with fruit, or used as an
ingredient in cooked dishes.

British Ham: A York ham that has been dry cured using a method traditional to the York
region. Current producers describe the process as taking ten weeks. The dry curing process
is followed by a maturation period to help the ham develop a greater depth of flavour. Dry
curing lends the ham a slightly saltier flavour and drier texture than other hams. The true
York ham is said to have been made from the meat of the Large White Pig. However some
would have it that the original York Ham was a smoked cured meat which was smoked
using the waste timber from the building of York Minster. Dry curing involves cutting the
meat from the carcass and rubbing in a mix of salt, saltpetre and sugar. Unfortunately for
Yorkshire York ham is not one of those products which have protected regional status. Any
ham cured anywhere can be called a York ham if it is cured using the York ham method.

What is curing ?
A very ancient technique of preserving mainly pork, certain types of fish by using salt which
is sometimes followed by smoking and drying. It can be done in two ways. One is dry cure
by rubbing in salt or wet cured in a brine.

Meat Curing Ingredients

• Nitrates and nitrites are the common “curing” ingredients used in the production of
sausage

• Nitrite is the compound that distinguishes fresh products from cured products

• Nitrate is converted to nitrite during the fermentation and cooking process

Function of Cure

• provides protection against the growth of botulism

• extends shelf life

• stabilizes the flavor of the cured meat

• used to achieve the characteristic flavor and color

Cure: Caution !!

• Too much: can be toxic to humans!

• Too little: can result in the growth of harmful bacteria!

• Federal regulations:

• maximum of 2.75 ounces of sodium or potassium nitrate per 100 pounds of

chopped meat, or

• 0.25 ounces of sodium or potassium nitrite per 100 pounds of chopped meat

Cure Rates are Critical!

• Most cures are added in the form of commercial premixes

 • Use the cure premixes according to labeled directions only

• Any use other than according to labeled directions will produce an unsafe and illegal
product

Addition of Cure Ingredients

• Today we use injection, tumbling and direct mixing of cure ingredients

• Tumbling forces the cure into the muscle under vacuum

• Other methods include:

• Dry rubbing

• Artery pumping

• Soaking in brine containing cure

Curing Accelerators

• Speed up the curing process, reduce the holding time

• Examples are ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or sodium erythorbate (isoascorbic acid)

• Must be used according to labeled directions

What is Bacon?

Bacon is a cured meat prepared from a pig. It is first cured in a brine or in a dry packing,
both containing large amounts of salt; the result is fresh bacon (also green bacon). Fresh
bacon may then be further dried for weeks or months (usually in cold air), boiled, or
smoked Fresh and dried bacon must be cooked before eating. Boiled bacon is ready to eat,
as is some smoked bacon, but either may be cooked further before eating.

Bacon is prepared from several different cuts of meat. In the United States, it is
almost always prepared from pork belly. Elsewhere, it is more often made from side
and back cuts, and bacon made from bellies is referred to as "streaky", "fatty", or
"American style". The side cut has more meat and less fat than the belly. Bacon
may be prepared from either of two distinct back cuts: fatback, which is almost
pure fat, and pork loin which is very lean. Bacon-cured pork loin is known as back
bacon. Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled, or used as a
minor ingredient to flavor dishes. Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts,
especially game birds. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho,
meaning "buttock", "ham" or "side of bacon", and cognate with the Old French
bakko

In continental Europe this part of the pig is usually not smoked like bacon is in the
United States; it is used primarily in cubes (lardoons) as a cooking ingredient,
valued both as a fat source of and for its flavor. In Italy, this is called pancetta and
is usually cooked in small cubes or served uncooked and thinly sliced as part of an
antipasto.

Types of Bacon

• Streaky bacon comes from pork belly. It is very fatty with long layers of fat
running parallel to the rind. This is the most common form of bacon in the
United States. Pancetta is Italian streaky bacon, smoked or aqua
 (unsmoked), with a strong flavor. It is generally rolled up into cylinders after
curing. In America unsmoked streaky bacon is often referred to as side pork.
• Middle bacon, from the side of the animal, is intermediate in cost, fat
content, and flavor between streaky bacon and back bacon.
• Back Bacon comes from the loin in the middle of the back of the pig. It is a
very lean, meaty cut of bacon, with less fat compared to other cuts. It has a
ham-like texture. Most bacon consumed in the United Kingdom is back bacon.
Americans may call this cut Irish bacon or Canadian bacon.
• Cottage bacon is thinly sliced lean pork meat from a shoulder cut that is
typically oval shaped and meaty. It is cured and then sliced into round pieces
for baking or frying.
• Jowl bacon is cured and smoked cheeks of pork.
• Slab bacon typically has a medium to very high fraction of fat. They are
made from the belly and side cuts, and from fatback. Slab bacon is not to be
confused with salt pork which is prepared from the same cuts, but is not
cured.

Bacon joints include the following:

• Collar bacon is taken from the back of a pig near the head
• Hock, from the hog ankle joint between the ham and the foot.
• Gammon, from the hind leg, traditionally "Wiltshire cured".
• Picnic bacon is from the picnic cut, which includes the shoulder beneath the
blade. It is fairly lean, but tougher than most pork cuts.

BEEF AND VEAL

Beef cattle are specially breed for meat production .The quality of cow’s meat varies
considerably according to breed, age and degree of fattening. Cows are reared in the
following ways:

I. Lot Fed.

II. Grass Fed.

III. Grain Fed.

Lot Fed: For a minimum of 100 days the animal is fed on corn, grass and millet and
allow to move in a very limited area. Fat content in these cows are very high and they
are the costliest too because of intense farming required.

Grass Fed: In this method of farming the cows are allowed to move in a slightly larger
area and are fed with only grass for 70 days.

Grain Fed: The best quality beef is obtained from this kind of farming, where in the
animals are allowed to move in a much larger area and hence there is a lot of marbling
 but not too much of it. The animal is fed only with grain and a little grass for 100 days.
This is costlier than grass fed cows.

Quality determination of Beef.

When choosing Beef, the following points are to be borne in mind:

a) It should bright red and shiny in appearance.

b) Firm and springy to touch with a sweet light scent.

c) It has a good network of white or slightly yellowish fat.

d) In order to be tender, the beef must be matured after slaughtering.

e) The meat should look fresh and moist, not watery.

f) The lean or prime cuts should look smooth and velvety.

Composition of Beef

Beef consists of

Water -- 65% ( maximum)

Proteins -- 20%

Fat -- 31%

With some traces of phosphorus and iron .Beef produces 220-340 cal. from each 100 grms.

CUTS OF BEEF

Here is an illustration for cuts of beef. For convenience a side of beef is quartered between
tenth and eleventh ribs and cut straight across. This provides a 10 ribs Forequarter and 3
ribs Hindquarter.

CUTS OF BEEF

HINDQUARTER
1. Sirloin: Sold with or without the fillet; tender, prime beef with a thin covering of fat.
Average weight is 6.5 -9 kgs .Cooking methods applied – Roasting, Grilling and
Frying.

Fillet: Under cut from sirloin. Very tender, thin prime beef. Average weight is 1-1.8
kgs. Cooking method applied – Roasting, Grilling, Frying and Steaks.

2. Rump: Lean, prime cut with a narrow border of fat. Less tender than sirloin or fillet
but of good flavour. Average weight is 5 kgs. Cooking methods applied – Grilling,
Frying and Rump steaks.

3. Topside and Silverside: Very lean cut about 7.3 kgs. In weight. Used for Braising,
Stewing and 2nd class Roasting.

4. Leg (hind leg) or Shin / Shank: Lean meat with high proportion of connective
tissues, weighing around 2.7 kgs. Usually cut in to cubes or thickly sliced. Used for
clarification, beef tea and stew.

5. Top rump or Thick flank: Lean meat, similar to top side but not as tender.
Weighing around 5.9 kgs. Usually cut into boneless joints, sliced and cubed. Cooking
methods applied – Pot roasting, Braising, Casserole, Stew, Pies, Pudding and
Sausages.

6. Think flank: Coarse- grained meat layered with meat about 4.5 kgs. In
weight.Cooking method applied – Pot roast, Braise, Boil and press to serve cold.

FOREQUARTER

7. Brisket: Coarse- grained meat layered with fat about 4.5 kgs. In weight. Usually
bonned and rolled. Used for Braise, Boil and press to serve cold.

8. Top rib: Lean medium quality meat, about 6.5 kgs. In weight, boned and rolled and
thickly sliced. Mainly pot roasted or braised.

9. Rib roast or Fore rib: Traditional roast beef joint; about 4 kgs. In weight. Used for
good roast, grilling and frying.

10.Chuck and Blade (Braising steak): Lean medium quality meat with good flavour;
about 12 kgs. In weight. Main uses are casserole, stew, pies, pudding and braise.

11.Neck or Sticking piece:Good flavour meat, produces rich gravy during long slow
cooking.Generally cubed and minced. Main uses are casserole, stew, Pates, stuffing
etc.

12.Clod: SAME AS ABOVE

13.Shin (Fore leg): Lean meat with high proportion of connective tissue and about 1.4
kgs. In weight. Generally used for clarification, beef tea and 2nd class mincing.

Bonophool Banerjee
 Small Cuts of Beef Suitable for Grilling & Frying.
• All small cuts of beef which are suited for grilling or shallow frying are referred to as
steaks. It was in France after the Battle of Water loo by the occupying English
forces. All steaks come from one of the following three joints.

• Fillet.

• Sirloin.

• Rump.

A Typical Fillet.
(Likely to Weigh 3 Kg.)

• Chateaubriand.
– Cut from the head of the fillet, and for more than two portions between 300
gms – 1 kg (12 ozs – 1 lb) can be obtained.

• Fillet steak.
– 4 – 5 steaks can be obtained each of 100 – 150 gms (4 – 6 ozs).

• Tournedos steaks.(Double fillet Steak)

– Approximately 6 – 8 at 100 gms (4 ozs). Each steak should be tied to form a
regular shape.

• Tail of fillet.
-Fillet Mignon: Small cut from the tail of Fillet often used as a part of mixed grill
around 75 grms. In weight.

– This is cut into julienne or minced according to its intended use.

Sirloin.
• Minute steaks(Entrecote minute).
– Cut each steak approximately 1 cm thick and flatten with a cutlet bat making
it as thin as possible. If necessary trim to a regular shape with 150 grms.
weight.
 • Sirloin steaks.
– Cut into 1 – 2 cm slices and trim to about (entrecotes) 150 gms (6 ozs).

• Porterhouse and T-bone Steaks.

– Porterhouse steaks are cut including the bone from the rib end of the
sirloin.

– T-bone steaks are cut from the rump end of the sirloin including bone and
fillet.

– Club steaks are cut at the end of tenderloin but excluding the tenderloin.

– Rib steaks are cut with the bone.

Steaks obtained from the boned out Sirloin(Contre filet)

– Double Sirloin Steaks(Entre cote double) are obtained as a large cut from
boned out sirloin of 300 grms. In weight.

– Sirloin Steaks(Entrecote steaks) are cut from boned sirloin of 200 grms.
Weight.

Rump.
• The middle portion from each slice is considered to produce the best steak and are
known as point steaks.

• Some menus feature a 'plank steak'. This is a complete slice for more than two
customers and is divided into portions after cooking.

CLEANING OF BEEF FILLET

To start with, cut and trim away as much fat as possible. Then cut away the chain
muscle which lies to the side of the main meat. Use it for mincing or stewing.

Then pull out the silver skin or tight tissue coating which surrounds the meat. Slide the
point of a knife under it and scrape away from the meat, leaving the meat completely
cleaned beneath.

TENDERIZING MEAT

Meat can be tenderized by pounding, scoring or marinating. These techniques break down
the fibers in meat, rendering from more tender and adding flavour.

USING MARINADE TO TENDERIZE MEAT

The term marinade indicate a seasoned liquid, cooked or uncooked which is usually a
mixture of oil, an acid such as vinegar, lemon or lime juice and herbs and flavourings,
where meat, offal game, fish or vegetables are steeped for varying lengths of time. Its
principal purpose is to tenderize the meat by softening the fibres and to develop the
flavours. The acids act to tenderize the meat, the oil acts as lubricant and of course the
herbs acts add flavour. It also enables fish and meat to be kept rather longer that would
normally be possible.
Generally three types of marinades are prepared such as cooked, uncooked and instant
marinades. A cooked marinades must be cooked before cooking i.e. robust red wine
marinade for beef or venison, allow it to cool completely before adding to the meat. Large
pieces of beef and game can be marinated in a cooked marinade for up to 3 days, small
cuts for a day, while more delicate meats such as veal or liver should only be marinated 1-2
hours. Pork marinades often use sweet and sour flavours or Barbecue sauce.

Instant marinades are used to impart flavour not for tenderizing. They are used for fish,
fritters, with lemon oil,parsley, thyme, bayleaf, rosemarrry, salt pepper, shallots, Brandy,
Madira like many ingredients.

Lay the meat or pieces of meat or small joints in a non-corrosive dish like glass, porcelain or
glazed earthenware.

Barding: Thin slices of pork or bacon fat which are placed around lean meat joints of meat,
some game birds and poultry and even some fish before roasting, to prevent them from
drying out. Barding is also used as a lining for pates cooked in pastry or terrins. The fats
are generally removed before serving except few like partridge, other game and pates. It is
not advised for some very tender meats as the strong flavour of pork fat might over shadow
the taste of the meat.

Larding: The process of adding fat to cuts of meat or certain types of fish to make them
more juicy and tender. It consists of threading thin strips of pork fat (lardoons) into a large
cut of lean meat with a larding needle. The lardoons can be seasoned with salt, pepper,
chopped parsley and marinated in brandy for an hour in a cool place before larding.
Sometimes strips of ham or pickled tongue may also be used. It also develops the flavour
and appearance.

BEEF OFFAL-ABATS DE BOEUF

ENGLISH FRENCH PREPARATION

Ox tail Queue de boeuf Since there is a lot of fat and bone on an

ox tail, trim off the excess of fat. Soak in
cold water for two hours to allow the
blood to soak out. Cut into chunks through
cartilage between segments of bone.
Drain the pieces and pat dry with
absorbent paper. Use the larger pieces for
casseroles and stews. The smaller pieces
are used for soups e.g. Oxtail Soup.

Brain Cervelle Soak well in cold water and remove the

thin membranes which cover the brain.
Poach in a court bouillon for 20-30
minutes and cool in the liquor. May be
used for pasta fillings, salads and in hot
and cold sauces.

Kidney Rognon Ox kidney is the largest type available

with a dark colour and strong aroma. Soak
it in lightly salted water for two hours
before using. Slice vertically in to half. Cut
out the central core and cut the flesh into
dice. Long cooking process is required to
tenderize the kidney. They are used to
flavour steaks, pies, pudding, casserole
and soup.

Tongue Langue The flavour of fresh Ox tongue is

improved by soaking overnight in cold salt
 water. The most popular tongue is one
that has been wet cured pickling brine. It
is simmered slowly or braised.

Liver Foie de boeuf It is larger, coarser and much stronger in

flavour than other livers. Wash under cold
water and pat dry. Remove any outer
skin. Trim off tubes and sinews. Cut
lengthwise to required thickness. It
contains very less natural fat and will
become solid and unpalatable due to over
cooking.

Heart Coeur de boeuf This should be very much fresh, moist and
firm with a pleasant smell. Wash under
running cold water to remove any blood
clots. Trim off excess fat and veins. Soak
in cold water for one to eight hours,
blanch for two minutes, drain and rinse
under cold water. It can be braised,
casseroled, and pot roasted.