Professional Documents
Culture Documents
& Communication”
(FEX-321)
References:-
• G. L. Ray 2006-07, Extension, Communication and Management. Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi
• O. P. Dhama and O. P. Bhatnagar, Education and Communication for
Development. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
• Handbook of Fisheries & Aquaculture. ICAR, New Delhi by Dr. S. Ayyappan
• S. K. Ray et al., Policy Planning for Agricultural Development. Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company Ltd. New Delhi
Introduction to Extension
• The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and
‘tension’ ‘stretching’. Extension is that type of education which stretched out to
people in the rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of the educational
institutions which the formal type of education is usually confined.
• Extension is an education system, and its aim is to bring in desirable changes in
human behaviour.
• Education should be conceived as life-long process of learning.
• Extension methods are used to educate rural people outside regularly organised
schools & class rooms brining out social & cultural development.
• Extension means to extend & to spread useful information & ideas to rural people.
• The National Commission of Agriculture (1976) refers to extension as an in-formal
out-of-school education and services for the members of the farm, family & others
directly or indirectly engaged in farm production, management, conservation and
marketing.
Extension Education
• It can be defined as educational process to provide knowledge to the rural people
about the improved practices in the convincing manner and to help them to take
decision within their specific local condition.
History of Extension
• Shantiniketan project
In 1908, Rabindranath Tagore started the youth organization in the village
in Kaligram Pargana. In 1921, he established RRI (Rural Reconstruction Institute) at
Shantiniketan for development of Agriculture, Coopreatives, Industries and
Education. The objective was to create interest in people for the rural development
and to study the rural problems. These objectives were achieved by developing
village leadership and establishing training centers for handicraft.
Gurgaon Project
•This was started by Mr. F. L. Brayne in Gurgaon in Haryana. The programme was
to introduce improved seeds and improved cultivation method.
• This was started by Mahatma Gandhi and the objective was to raise the standard
of living, scientific development of agriculture, promotion of cottage industries,
spread of literacy, provide the medical and health facilities and development of
village Panchayat. The main features were simplicity, non-violence, sanctity of
labour and reconstruction of human values.
• This was popularly known as a package programme. This name is given because
of the collective and simultaneous application of all improved practices. These
practices were improved seeds, irrigation, fertilizers, plant protection, impliments,
credit etc.
• The programme was started in July 1960 in 7 selected districts in various states.
These were 1. Godavari (A.P.), 2. Shahabad (Bihar), 3. Tanjore (Madras), 4. Raipur
(M.P.), 5. Ludhiana (Punjab), 6. Pali (Rajasthan), 7. Aligarh (U.P.)
Project Year Full name of the Project
IAAP 1964 Intensive Agriculture Area Programme
ICDP 1964-65 Intensive Cattle Development Programme
HYVP 1966 High Yield Variety Programme
SFDA 1970-71 Small Farmers Development Agency
T&V 1974 Training and Visit Programme
KVK 1974 Krishi Vigyan Kendra
FFDA 1974-75 Fish Farmers Development Agency
IRDP 1978-79 Integrated Rural Development Programme
TRYSEM 1979 Training for Rural Youth for Self Employment
NREP 1980 National Rural Employment Project
NAEP 1983 National Agriculture Extension Programme
BFDA 1985-90 Brackish water Fish Farmer Development Agency
JRY 1989 Jawahar Rojgar Yojna
PMRY 1995 Prime Minister Rojgar Yojna
IVLP 1996 Institute Village Linkage Programme
ATICs Agricultural Technology Information Centres
NFDB 2006 National Fisheries Development Board
Fisheries Extension
• Fisheries Development is closely related with the improvement in the ability of the
fisherman’s/fish farmer’s understanding and adoption of the new technology.
Farmers need to be provided with recent useful and practical information. Thus
there is a need for any agency to interpret findings of research to fishermen/farmers
and to inform problems of fishermen/farmers to research stations for solution. This
gap is bridged by extension agencies. Fisheries extension bridges gap between
fisheries research station and fishing/farming community by establishing suitable
teaching organisations at various levels of administration.
• Jai Vigyan Mission (2000) for ensuring household food and nutritional security
through enhancing productivity of fisheries in tribal, backward and hilly areas is
presently underway in Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Assam.
Objectives
• The Objective of the extension is to raise standards of living of rural people by
helping them using their land, water and live stock in the right way. Rural people are
helped in planning and implementing their family and village plans for enhancing
production. The specific objectives of fisheries extension are :
• To assist people to discover and analyse their problems & identify their felt needs.
• To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve
their problems.
• To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a
way people would be able to understand and use.
• To assist people in mobilising and utilising resources which they have and which
they need from outside.
• To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
Objectives give direction of movement. Before starting any extension programme,
its objectives must be clearly stated, so that one knows where to go, and what is to
be achieved.
Basic Principles
In the history of extension work, there are certain general principles of extension
education, which have been applied and tested. Thus extension work is based upon
these following 15 working principles, and the knowledge of principles is necessary for
an extension worker.
Extension teaching methods provide appropriate learning situation for extension workers
to help people learn new ideas and practices. All methods have their own advantages
and limitations. No single extension method is effective under all conditions, e.g. reading
material is for those who can read, radio programme is for those who have radios,
meeting for those who can attend, and demonstrations of recommended practices are
for those who can come to demonstration sites. A suitable combination of extension
methods leads to higher success in diffusion of innovations.
Learning for adoption of any new practice is attained through the following principal
steps:
1)Creating awareness of new idea.
2)Developing interest for consideration of ideas.
3)Creating desire for more learning.
4)Helping people to acquire conviction & accept new ideas and practices.
5)Ensuring action by learner.
6)Maintaining satisfaction.
Education produces changes in human behaviour, changes in what people know, in
what they think, in what they can do and in what they can actually do (Fig):
Learners
Principle of learning
1.Learning is facilitated when a new behavior contribute in satisfying felt needs on part of
learner .
2.Learning should be meaningful.
3.Learning is facilitated when two or more senses are used at a time by a learner.
Senses Learning %
Taste 1
Touch 1.5
Smell 3.5
Hearing 11
Sight 83
4.Learners possess the ability to take 10% by reading, 20% by hearing, & 70% by talking
and 90% by doing.
5.Learning is effected when learners participate actively.
6. Learning is effected when there is repetition by learner.
7. Learning is effected when situation are real.
8. Learning is effected when learners are ready to know.
9. Learning is facilitated when learners are provided with knowledge of progress of
learning.
10. Learning is facilitated when learners do self evaluation.
11. Learning ability is different for each Learner.
3. Co-operative method
a.Group discussion
b.Seminar
c.Symposium
d.Panel
e.Question and answer session
The scope of extension education includes all the activities directed towards the
development of rural people. The extension service must have dynamic programme
keeping pace with the constantly changing conditions.
Development of society or
community
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK)
KVK’s are district level farm science centre established by ICAR as innovative
institutions for imparting vocational training to the practicing farmers and field level
extension functionaries. A no. of extension education programme such as National
Demonstration Project, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Lab to Land Programme and Operational
Research Project were started and play an important role in bringing research scientists
face to face with farmers. The scientists help to transfer the technology developed by
them directly to the farmers field and also obtain necessary feed back for further
refinement of the technology. These programmes greatly contributed towards the
increase of agricultural productivity in the country.
First KVK was started at Pondichery. The main aim of KVK is to reduce the
time length between generation of technology at Research Institution and its transfer to
the farmers for increasing productivity and income from agriculture & allied sectors on a
sustainable basis.
In order to achieve this goal following four mandates are in the design of KVK:
•Conducting on farm testing for identifying the technology in terms of location specific
sustainable land use system.
•Organise short and long term vocational training courses in agricultural and other fields
for the farmers and rural youth with the emphasis on learning by doing for higher
production on farm and generating self employment.
•Organise front line demonstration on various crops to generate production data and
feed back information.
Training programmes by KVK’s:
The courses engaged at KVK’s are of short duration (1-2 or 3 months) and only field
level extension staff like village level workers are trained at KVKs.
• To improve socio-economic condition for better living standard of the members, woman
play an important role in agricultural production particularly in the post-harvest operation.
Therefore, woman’s training programme to increase their efficiency in agricultural
operation and to improve the family living are also important.
• The training programmes should be need based courses of few week duration or for
few months or may be for longer duration of 1-2 years. There may be part-time or full-
time educational programme.
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA):
· interview and question design techniques for individual, household and key
informant interviews
· methods of cross-checking information from different sources
· sampling techniques that can be adapted to a particular objective
· methods of obtaining quantitative data in a short time frame
· group interview techniques, including focus-group interviewing
· methods of direct observation at site level, and
· use of secondary data sources.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA):
• Participatory rural appraisal evolved from rapid rural appraisal (RRA)-a set of informal
techniques used by development practitioners in rural areas to collect and analyze data.
Rapid rural appraisal developed in the 1970s and 1980s in response to the perceived
problems of outsiders missing or miscommunicating with local people in the context of
development work.
• In PRA, data collection and analysis are undertaken by local people, with outsiders
facilitating rather than controlling.
• Chamber and Blackburn (1996) state that "PRA can be described as a family of
approaches, methods and behaviours that enable people to express and analyse the
realities of their lives and conditions, to plan themselves what action to take, and to
monitor and evaluate the results”.
• Its methods have evolved from Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). The difference is that
PRA emphasises processes which empower local people, whereas RRA is mainly seen
as a means for outsiders to gather information.
• PRA is generally a continuing participatory process, unlike RRA which is more
a one-off process.
• Rural people set the priorities; determine needs; select and train community
workers; collect, document, and analyse data; and plan and implement solutions
based on their findings.
• Actions stemming from this research tend to serve the local community.
Outsiders are there to facilitate the process but do not direct it.
• According to Rogers, E.M. & Shoemaker, F.F. (1971) “Communication is the process
by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver”.
• According to Van den Ban & Hawkins (1988) “Communication is the process of
sending and receiving message through channels which establishes common meaning
between a source and a receiver”.
Communication Process
• “Communication means the movement of knowledge to people in such ways that they
act on that knowledge to achieve some useful results”.
• This result may range all the way from a small improvement in doing some productive
task, to the generation of a sense of national unity and strength in a country.
• The ability to influence others is closely linked with ability to communicate ideas. The
essence of learning is understanding new ideas in relation to recognized problems.
• For two or more people to engage in a common, cooperative effort, they must be able
to communicate with each other. To strive common goals, they must have a body of
common knowledge and ideas.
• Diffusing knowledge is a relatively easy task but getting people to understand, accept
and apply is the difficult one.
•Good communication does not consist merely of giving orders, or to imparting
knowledge, but of creating understanding and helping people make use of that
knowledge.
•Progress in the future will stem largely from better technology and greater skill in
communicating it to others.
• Economic and social change will occur only when staff workers have effectively
communicated useful ideas to large number of people.
Models of communication
If the problem does not relate to research, the extension agent shall find out
whether the message has been relevant to the audience, or whether the
channel, treatment or audio-visual aids has been appropriately used. If not,
corrective steps should be taken without any loss of time.
Feed back
Adoption behaviour is many a times interpreted in terms of ability of the farmers to adopt a new
technology. This interpretation may not be wholly correct as it does not take into account the
lapses of research and extension. Technologies, for the development and dissemination of
which there have been very little dialogue with the farmers, are less likely to be adopted,
particularly by the resource-poor farmers.
Training and education:
• Optimism
• Responsibility
• A sense of humor
• Integrity
• Time-management
• Motivation
Fisheries Research
Colleges Institutes
• IFP
• CMFRI • CIFNET (Fisheries Nautical &
• CICFRI Engineering Training)
• CIFT • CICEF (Coastal-Engineering
• CIFE for Fishery, Bangalore)
• NBFGR • FSI
• CIFA • FISHERIES DEPTT.
• CIBA • SPONSORED SCHEMES
• DCFR
FISHERIES UNDER ICAR
Fisheries Research and Education under ICAR is supported by:
1 National Institute (Deemed University)
5 Resources Specific Research Institutes
1 National Research Centre
1 National Bureau
13 Fishery Colleges
Fisheries Research under five major programmes covering eight Plan Schemes:
PROGRAMMES SCHEMES
• Planning is a process which involves studying the past and present in order to forecast
the future and in the light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and what
must be done to reach them. Programme planning is a decision making process
involving critical analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the
various alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant ones,
giving necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by the cooperative
efforts of the people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual
and community growth and development.
Ex- In village ponds, Integrated fish farming goals can be finalized after checking up
cultural compatibility with the farmers; technical compatibility with the scientists and
financial compatibility with the Banks & Govt. Departments.
Objectives and needs of having programme:
Extension programmes have the definite purpose of improving rural life through individual, group
and community action. Extension programme planning has certain principles which hold good
irrespective of the nature of the clientele and the enterprises they may be pursuing.
1.Should be based on an analysis of the past experiences, present situation and future needs.
2.Should have clear and significant objectives which could satisfy important needs of the people.
3.Should fix up priority on the basis of available resources and time.
4.Should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources.
5.Should have a general agreement at various levels.
6.Should involve people at the local level.
7.Should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
8.Should have definite plan of work.
9.Should provide for evaluation of results and consideration of programme.
10.Should provide for equitable distribution of benefits amongst the members of the community.
Steps in Extension Programme Planning
Rural Sociology
Level of family living: The phrase level of living is more meaningful to use in reference to
actual condition the status of family from standard point of view is related to degree of
satisfaction, social adjustment and psychological well being of family members.
Factors influencing the level of living
1.Income: The level of living as measured in terms of such item as housing, food,
clothing and so on is definitely related to the income of family. The difference in
proportion of income spent for various items between two groups are significant. First to
be noted is higher proportion of expenditure of the lower income group which went for
food, housing clothing. The higher income groups spent more for furnishing
transportation, medical care, gift and welfare. It is quite evident therefore that the
variation in the amount of income is associated with modification in the pattern of family
living.
2. Formal education: the level of living is not entirely a function of economic factor.
The amount of formal education has been found to be definitely associated with income
and with the level of living. Those with more education are spending more money and a
large proportion of it for less immediate need and the families are living in more valuable
and better furnished houses. Formal education appear to create wants for items which
are associated with higher living level.
Factors influencing the level of living
Non-availability of quality seed: half of the surveyed farmers could not get pure, healthy
seed instead what they got was a mixed one. Smaller size and high mortality are some
other constraints indicated by farmers. Non-availability of exotic carp seed is also a
limiting factor for culture operation. Aquaculture can not be carried out without a reliable
supply of fish-seed. To ensure sustained supply of fingerlings in rural areas, it is
essential to involve private entrepreneurs to produce and distribute seed.
Absence of organized marketing: Fish is a highly perishable commodity. Market for its
speedy disposal is a pre-requisite for fish-farming. Transportation also poses a problem for
farmers. In the absence of organized market, farmers sell their produce to middleman. At
times they are being deprived of remunerative price. Due to lack of refrigeration/preservation
facilities at the village-level, major portion of the fish catch is sold as fresh. The most
common marketing channel through which fish is reaching at the consumer is as follows:
As fish is marketed through middlemen, the fish-farmer is unable to get major share of the
consumer price since all these intermediaries have profit margin. There is a wide gap
between what consumer pays and what farmers (producer) receives.
Poor technical skills of farmers: Future technologies are going to be knowledge and skill-
intensive. Surveys have shown that majority of the fish-farmers follow old practices and as
the consequence they get low yields (sometimes below 1 tonne/ha/year). Farmers lack
expertise in dealing with disease and mortality. Technical competency to bring about
adoption of new knowledge and skill is being emphasized. Informal education, group
discussion, community video and method demonstration and help in reinforcing skill for
improved technology.
Paucity of credit: The introduction of scientific fish farming necessitate higher dozes of
certain inputs which call for substantial amount of credit. In India, most of the credit flows are
from private non-institutional sector. Merchants provide finance for fishing operation in
Inland capture. Apart from marketing agents, professional money-lenders advance credit
against securities of gold and agricultural properties. Problems like multiplicity of ownership,
non-recognition of aquaculture as land based activity, absence of long - term leasing policy
and non-assurance of seed supplies at the appropriate time constrained the access to
credit.
What is participation?
Participation means ‘act of partaking’ or ‘sharing in’. It is also defined as a dynamic group
process in which all members of a work group contribute, share or are influenced by
interchange of ideas or activities towards problem solving or decision making.
Aqua-service centres
Unemployed educated youth have started operating aqua-service centres in the line of
agri-clinics. These centres offering services like soil and water testing, feed analysis,
disease diagnosis, market intelligence etc. Besides, these centres are in the business of
selling inputs like feed, fertilizers, pesticides, other therapeutics etc. In Andhra Pradesh
several such service centres could be found in Kolleru lake area of West Godavari
district. These are having various nomenclatures, viz. farmer facility centre and aqua-
service centre.
One-stop aqua shop
One-stop aqua shop (OAS) provides better access to farmers regarding appropriate
aquaculture technology as well as information on Government schemes and rural
banking and micro-finance. The shop is a single outlet for all inputs that a fish-farmer
may require in fish cultivation. The inputs include fish feed, fertilizer, chemical etc.
Besides, OAS is helping farmers in providing information on fish farming through posters
and information brochures supplied by state departments and research institutes. This is
becoming quite popular.
New initiatives in fisheries extension
Aqua choupal: Aqua choupal, the unique web-based initiative of ITC Ltd, offers farmers
of Andhra Pradesh all the information, products and services they need to enhance
productivity, improve farm gate price realization and cut transaction costs. Farmers can
access latest local and global information on weather, scientific farming practices and
market prices at village itself through web portal. Aqua choupal also facilitates supply of
high quality farm inputs as well as purchase of shrimps at their doorstep.
The fruits and benefits of an effective extension service have long been
recognized, yet very often extension services in developing countries have failed to
accomplish desired objectives and meet people’s expectations. In Indian context, role of
agricultural extension in brining benefits of the green revolution to farmers and making
country self-reliant in food production has been appreciated.
• Leadership in extension requires skillful communication. Much misunderstanding
results from faulty communication. Progress is slowed when too many people say the
wrong things, at the wrong time in the wrong ways, to the wrong people. Saying the right
things, at the right time, in the right way, to the right people is the formula for good
communication.
• In extension education programmes, it is assumed that people will continue their ways
of thinking and doing until they have new learning experience that cause them to adopt
new ways.
• It is also assumed that to accept new modes of thinking and acting specified by a
programme, people need a greater incentive to change than to continue their present
course.
• Success at this task requires thorough understanding of the six key elements of
communication: a skillful communicator sending a useful message through proper
channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired.
The Communicator
Fortunately, there are some things a communicator can do to improve his credibility to
an audience.
A good communicator is characterized by the following:
He knows-
• His objectives – has them specifically defined.
• His audience – needs, interests, abilities, predispositions.
• His message – Content, validity, usefulness, importance.
He is interested in -
• His audience and its welfare.
• His message and how it can help people.
• Results of communication and their evaluation.
• Communication process.
• Communication channels – their proper use and limitations.
• How to improve his communication skill.
He prepares -
• A plan for communication – Teaching plan.
• Communication materials and equipment.
• A plan for evaluation of results.
He has skills in -
• Selecting message.
• Treating messages.
• Expressing messages – verbal and written.
• Selection and use of channels.
• Understanding his audience.
• Collecting evidence of results.
The foregoing are well tested ways a communicator engaged in extension education can
help assure an acceptable degree of success. Good communicators have, or soon
develop, ability to handle these critical points. In contrast, communicators allow certain
behaviour to block their success.