Extension

(Agfo 4081)
 CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF EXTENSION
1. Definition of Extension
• Various scholars and practitioners have many
definitions regarding Extension .

• The term Extension is open to a wide variety of

interpretations.

• There is no single definition of extension which is

universally accepted .

• Below are some collections of various definitions of

Extension Education
•Extension is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by
learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions
– J.P. Leagans (1961)

•Extension Education is an out of school system of education in which

adult and young people learn by doing. It is partnership between the
Government and the people, which provides service and education
designed to meet the needs of the people. Its fundamental objective is the
development of the people. – Kelsey and Harne (1963)

•Extension Education is a programme and a process of helping village

people to help themselves, increase their production and to raise their
general standard of living. – D. Ensminger (1961)
•Increase dissemination of useful knowledge for improving rural life. –
H.W. Butt (1961)

•Extension Education is a two-way channel; it brings scientific

information to the village people, and also takes the problems of the
village people to the scientific institution for solution. It is a continuous
educational process, in which both learner and teacher contribute and
receive. – B. Rambhai (1958)
• From the above definitions, it can be asserted
that:

– “Extension "is “an out of school educational

programme which brings about a desirable
change in behavior (knowledge, attitude, practice
and skills – KAPS) of rural people to help improve
their social, economic and psychological status”.
 2.History of extension
2.1 Origins of extension in the world

• It is not known where or when the first extension activities

took place.

• However, Chinese officials were creating agricultural policies

and disseminating advice to farmers at least 2,000 years ago.

• However, the birth of the modern “Extension” was in Britain

in 1840.

• In 1850, William Sewell of Britain used the word Extension to

take teaching and learning outside the boundaries of
university campus.
•In 1867-68 ,James Stuart used the word extension when he was
addressing “Women Association and Working Men’s Clubs” of North
England.

•Again in 1871, he appealed to the officials of the Cambridge University

to establish Extension centers

•In a formal way, Cambridge University in 1873, London University in

1876 and Oxford University in 1878 developed Extension system.

•In the19th century, the word Extension was used in the form of
Extension education in U.S.A.

•This was to respond to the problem of rural people migration to urban

 2.2 History of extension in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia has had government agricultural
extension services since the 1950s.

• The Imperial Ethiopian College of Agriculture

and Mechanical Arts (IECAMA) was the first to
provided extension services in addition to
research and teaching.

• In 1963, the Ministry of Agriculture was

established, and the mandate of extension
provision was transferred to this institution.
•During this time, there were several national development plans
devised, the most prominent of which were the Chilalo and Wolayita
Agricultural Development Units (CADU and WADU).

•CADU was established in Arsi to improve living standards through

increased production and infrastructure, while The WADU program,
based in Wolayita .

•Then the minimum package programs (Minimum Package Program –

MPP1 and MPP2) has been happened.

•The country then moved into a socialist period.

•During this time the government implemented the “participatory

extension approaches” and continued with the MPP2 program until
1985.
•Much of the focus during this time was on land reform. The MPP2
program ended around 1985 (Abate 2007).

From around 1986-1995, there were various new programs, such as:

The National Program for Food Self Sufficiency (1986-89),

 Modified Training and Visit (T &V) Approach and
 (PADEPs) the Peasant Agriculture Development Extension
Projects (1986-1995)

• Following the downfall of the socialist regime in 1991, the focus

changed to a free market economy.

In 1993, NGO Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG-2000) had been

implemented.

Its goal was to increase food production and stimulate links between
research and extension
 
In 1995 the PADETES programs had been adopted.

Its goal was to improve incomes via

increasing productivity,
ensure self-sufficiency in food production,
 establish farmer organizations,
increase production of export crops,
 conserve natural resources,
and increase women’s participation in development.
3.Objectives, Principles and element of Extension
• Extension education has now developed as a full-fledged discipline, having its own

Philosophy,
Objectives,
Principles,
Methods and techniques

• Which must be understood by every extension worker and others connected with
the rural development

• Its principles, methods and techniques are applicable not only to agriculture but
also to veterinary and animal husbandry, dairying, home science, health, family
planning, etc.

• Based upon its application and use, various nomenclatures have been given to it,
such as agricultural extension, veterinary and animal husbandry extension, dairy
extension,…etc.
 3.1 Objectives of Extension Education
•The fundamental objective of extension education is the
development of the people.
 
–Extension is concerned with three basic tasks:
 
1.The dissemination of useful and practical information
relating to agriculture and home economics;

2.Practical application of such knowledge to help farmers/farm

families and rural people analyze their problems. And

3.Assisting farmers/farm families and rural people to solve their

own problem by using the technical knowledge they gained. Thus
helping people to in order to help themselves.
 3.2 Principles of extension :
Some of extension principles are:

1. Principle of interest and need: Extension work must be based on the

needs and interests of the people. There cannot be one programme for
all people.

2. Principle of cultural difference: Extension work is based on the cultural

background of the people with whom the work is done. Improvement
can only begin from the level of the people where they are. This means
that the extension worker has to know the level of the knowledge, and
the skills of the people, methods and tools used by them, their
customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc.
3. Principle of participation: Extension helps people to help
themselves. Good extension work is directed towards assisting rural
families to work out their own problems rather than giving them ready-
made solutions. Actual participation and experience of people in these
programmes creates self-confidence in them and also they learn more
by doing.
4 . Principle of adaptability: People differ from each other, one group
differs from another group and conditions also differ from place to
place. An extension programme should be flexible.

5. The grass roots principle of organization: A group of rural people in

local community should show ownership of extension work. The
aim of organising the local group is to demonstrate the value of the
new practices or programmes so that more and more people would
participate.

6.The leadership principle: Extension work is based on the full

utilization of local leadership. People have more faith in local
leaders and they should be used to put across a new idea so as to
gain acceptance with the least resistance.

7. The whole-family principle: Extension work will have a better

chance of success if the extension workers have a whole-family
approach instead of piecemeal approach or separate and
unintegrated approach. Extension work is, therefore, for the whole
family, i.e. for male, female and the youth
 Principle of co-operation. Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint
8.

democratic enterprise in which rural people co-operate with their village, block and
district officials to pursue a common cause.

Principle of satisfaction: The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is the

9.

satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result of solving a
problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in behaviour.
Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. "A satisfied customer is the best
advisements’.

The evaluation principl:. Extension is based upon the methods of science, and it
10.

needs constant evaluation. The effectiveness of the work is measured in terms of the
changes brought about in the knowledge, skill, and attitude and adoption behaviour of
the people but not merely in terms of achievement of physical targets.
 Element of extension:
The common elements of extension include:
– 
 

A. Intervention
 
Almost all definition of extension emphasis that extension is a deliberate activity (planned and
programmed) systematically designed and goal-oriented. It is, therefore, an intervention.

“Intervention is defined as a systematic effort to strategically apply resource to manipulate

seemingly causal elements in an on-going process, so as to permanently reorient that process
in direction deemed desirable by the intervening party.”

B. Communication

The instrument used in extension for inducing change is communication. Extension is therefore
a communication intervention. Communication is defined as:
 
“A process whereby meaning or ideas are created and encoded by a source, transmitted via
channel and received, decoded and assimilated by a receiver”.
 
Communication can include singing, dancing, talking and others.
C. Voluntary change
Extension definition stresses that extension’s effectiveness depending on the
willingness of people to be persuaded or on the extent to which they see extension
as serving their own interest and benefit.
D. Target processes

Extension aims at transferring information, knowledge or technology and aim to

influence decision-making of the people. However, other communication
interventions (advertising, public relation, political propaganda etc.) also do the
same.
At the individual level, all communication intervention deals with; target
behavior/process includes attitude, knowledge, decision-making, opinion formation
and so on.

But At societal level of aggregation, advertising deals with one’s share of the
market, public relation deals with the reputation of the company while political
propaganda deals with the percentage of votes for one’s candidate. Extension on the
contrary deals with cheap and good quality food for consumers, nature conservation,
preventing health hazard , reducing birth rates, etc
In general, extension gives much concern on material and qualitative needs of
society.
 F. Deployed by an institution

• Extension requires money.

• It is professional activity.
• It must be paid for, whether extension is full-
time occupation.
• Hence, institutions usually deploy extension,
as an instrument.
• Extension cannot be seen in isolation from
organizational structure and management.
 4. Type of extension:
A. Informative extension:
• it is seen as an instrument for helping people make well-considered
choices among alternatives .
• The emphasis here is to assist the individuals to make optimal
decisions with respect to achieving his/her goal.
• The individual is seen as free to use or not to use the extension.
 
B. Emancipatory extension:
• This mostly prevails in the socialist and Christian tradition.
• Here, extension is seen as an instrument of emancipation and uplifts
of the poor “pedagogy the oppressed”, as paolo Friere has called it.
• Hence, extension in such tradition is considered to be an
instrument for achieving societal objectives, for correcting structural
problems.
 C. Formative extension (Human Resource Development) :

• In both traditions, there is considerable emphasis on the use of

extension for the development of human being, on forming or enhancing
his/her capacities to make decision , to learn, to mange , to
communicate with others, to analyses the environment , to be a leader,
to stand up to oppression, to organize so forth.
 
D. Persuasive extension
• Government in all countries has embraced the use of extension as a
policy instrument for achieving societal objectives or collective utilities
when it comes to inducing preventive behavior with respect to
environment pollution, health hazard, vandalism, traffic safety, and so
on. Such preventive behavior is in the interest of the society as a whole
or of future generation, but not necessarily in the short-term interest of
the individuals who are the target of such extension.
Differences between Formal Education and Extension Education

• Extension work is considered as an aspect of

adult education which differs from formal or
classroom education in that it prepares its
clientele to tackle the problems of today and
helps them to live here and now.
• Formal education on the other hand, prepares
its students for life after school years.
• There are several differences between the two.
• Some of these differences are
Formal Education
1. The teacher starts with theory and
works up to practical.
2. Students study subjects
3. Students must adapt themselves to
the fixed curriculum offered
4. Authority rests with the teacher.
5. Class attendance is compulsory.
6. Teacher instructs the students.
7. Teaching is only through instructors.
8. Teaching is mainly vertical
9. The teacher has more or less
homogeneous audience.
10. It is rigid.
11. It has all pre-planned and pre-
decided programmes
12. It is more theoretical.
Extension Education
1. The teacher (extension worker) starts with
practical and may take up theory later on.
2. Farmers study problems.
3. It has no fixed curriculum or course of
study and the farmers help to formulate
the curriculum
4. Authority rests with the farmers.
5. Participation is voluntary.
6. Teacher teaches and also learns from the
farmers.
7. Teaching is also through local leaders.
8. Teaching is mainly horizontal.
9. The teacher has a large and
heterogeneous audience.
10. It is flexible.
11. It has freedom to develop programmes
locally and they are based on the needs
and expressed desires of the people.
12. It is more practical and intended for
immediate application in the solution of
problems.
 CHAPTER TWO
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

Introduction
•  Extension is a process of communication.
• Ability to communicate determines to a very
large extent the success or failure of an
extension worker.
• Therefore, extension educators and
practitioners alike must have adequate skills in
communication and
• Being capable of initiating and managing
communication process.
When we communicate, it is because we have an idea or a feeling that we want to
share with someone.

Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets the
sender’s message in the same way the sender intended.

1. Communication Defined
 
There is growing disagreement even among communication experts themselves as to
which among human behaviors count as acts of communication.

Communication may either be verbal (use of spoken word or sound) or non-verbal

(use of gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

 According to Rogers et al. (1981), communication is a process that involves the

exchange of ideas between two or more individuals in an attempt to arrive at
convergence in meaning.
James (1990) said that communication is a process involving the passing of messages
from one person to another through the use of symbols which all parties in the
communication process understand.

In other words, communication is processes through which Ideas, innovations,

technology or messages are transferred from the source to ultimate users via channel
for modifying the behavior of receivers in the desired direction.

2. Communication Process:

Communication process starts with a sender/source; that has a message for a

receiver. The sender has the responsibility for the message. The sender's message
travels to the receiver through one or more channels chosen by the sender.
There are about six basic elements in the process of communication

Source sender: The intentions, ideas, feelings of the sender

and the way he/she decides to behave, all of which lead to
his/her sending a message that carries some content.
Message: The sender encoding his/her message by
translating his/her ideas, feelings, emotions, and intentions
into a message appropriate for sending.
The channel: through which the message is translated.
The receiver: The receiver decoding the message by taking
it and interpreting its meaning.
The receiver responding internally to this interpretation of
the message.
The amount of noise that interferes with communication.
The characteristics of sources for effective communication
 
• Knowledge
– Known his audience, its wants and needs
– Know subject matter, (message) he/she passes to audience
– Know extension methods to reach the audience with his message 
• Attitude
– is interested in his audience , its welfare and how his message can help them
– is interested in improving his skills in communication
• Compatibility
– Extension agent should respect the socio-cultural values and beliefs of the audience
– Speaks clearly and use terms and expression the audience can easily understand.
• Empathy
– Feeling with deeply for someone problems, whatever somebody feel, you feel too
• Credibility
– Have two dimensions:
• Expertise (competence) and
• Trustworthiness.
– The extension agent should be very knowledgeable in determining technology. The people must be
able to perceive that you are knowledgeable for the subject matter.
• Self-concept
– The extension worker has to develop self-confidence in the assistance that he provides for the clients.
For this, he has to improve the skill through formal and informal education as well as work experience.
 A channel or medium
• A channel or medium is the means by which a
message travels from the source to the receiver.

• The methods include visual, oral (spoken) and written.

• The more senses employed in the communication

process, the greater the chance that it is understood.

• Combining channels uses, such as audio-visual

systems for instance are often more effective than any
channels used in isolation.
 Visual communication:
 “Seeing is believing” is an important principle of extension education.
 Visual material such as
– Pictures
– Charts
– Diagrams,
– Posters,
– Exhibits and displays
 Can perform important communication function in country where people are familiar
with use symbols.
 
 When we use visual material as a channel of communication, we have to take the
following precaution measures:

– Verify that illustrations and symbols used are properly understood

– Use the appropriate color to imply something because certain color may be seen as taboo or
unlucky

– Use logical color to represent real feature of the subject e.g., grass should be green, river blue
etc.
 Spoken communication (interpersonal communication)

• Take regularly during individual contact such as

– Home or farm visits,
– Meeting,
– Discussions and demonstration of all kinds,
– Radio and TV programs.

• Except for radio and TV programs they allow two-way communication

(face to face communication), which has great advantage.

– Lack of understanding can be detected in the reply and may be cleared up on

the spot.

– Gestures, facial expressions and even the tone of the speaker and the listener,
contribute to the assessment of how well the communication is being
received.
 

 One obstacle in oral message is not recorded in any way

and the receiver may remember it in a different way
from that which the sender intended.

 For this reason, oral message are best followed by some

form of written instruction, where are appropriate, or by
a follow up visit or demonstration to illustrate clients.

 It is effective communication channel except it

consumes time.
 
Written Communication:
• Written communication is indispensable in the day-to-day operations of any organization.
– It include bulletin,
– leaflets,
– news articles,
– personal letters and
– circular letters
• Advantage

– It has greater status and carries more authority than oral communication; particularly if it carries an official
stump.
– It provides a general low cost method of spreading information to large number of people
– If it is prepared in attractive way , it will make the reader to seek further information
– The material can be retained for a long as is necessary 

• Disadvantage

– Only for literate

– It is entirely one-way communication

• Extension staff, in any field of work, must adapt their methods to the particular subject, to the
ability of the audience to understand the different techniques used and the facility available.
 The receiver
• Is the target or audience of communication.

• In extension communication it is important that the receiver of

each message be clearly defined and segregated into
homogenous groups for effective communication.

• Good extension teaching requires a thorough study of

audience.

• This means their abilities, backgrounds, interests and previous

accomplishments.

• The more we know about the audience, the better job of

teaching we can do.
Generally characters of receiver that affect communication are:
 
1. Educational level
• literate person can be a better receiver than illiterate one

2. Knowledge
• If the receiver have knowledge about an innovation for which he is advised to take, he will be easily convinced for the
technology

3. Attitude
• The audience should have a positive attitude towards the sender and message in order to accept a certain technology within a
short time

4. Socioeconomic characteristics
 
• * Economic position
 
– The high economic status of the receiver, the faster accepts the innovation due to the rich farmers can afford the cost
of an innovation. i.e., an individual that has relatively high source of income will be easily communicable for a certain
innovation than other who has low-income sources.
 
• * Risk-orientation
 
– Rich farmers bear risk that comes as a result of a new technology.
 
 5. Listening ability
 
An individual with a good listening ability is a good receiver

6. Age
Younger people easily receive the message (new technology) but old people mostly they
are traditional (conservative).

So that it is important to have communication with younger people.

However, there is a condition whereby older people accept an innovation at faster rate
than the young people are.

This is mainly due to older people acquired a lot of experience through their lifetime
and hence they can decide what is good or bad to them.

Feedback is the response from the receiver to the source of the message. Feedback is a
control device and an important indicator of the success of communication as well
as areas requiring modification and further enquiry.
 2.MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
• In general, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract
form.

• The elements of communication explained above provide the building blocks from which all models
of communication are drawn.
1. Source/sender
2. Message
3. Channel/medium
4. Receiver
5. Effect, and
6. Feedback

• Models of communication provide a theoretical conceptual framework depicting and explaining the
process of communication.

• Various models have tried to depict and explain communication process. Some of them include the
– linear model,
– interactional model,
– transactional model among others.
 2.1Linear model
• Linear model is a one way model to communicate with others.

• It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in

the presence of noise.

• Drawbacks – the linear model assumes that there is a clear-cut beginning and end
to communication.

• This is perhaps the most basic model of communication.

• Communication involves two people – the sender and the receiver of the message.

• In this way, the flow of information is linear: this model failed to illustrate various
processes that take place within the key actors of the communication process.

• There are several linear models of communication.

• Some of them include the Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver models which were
designed to make electrical signal transmission more efficient.
 Shannon's Model of Communication Process
• Shannon's (1948) model provided, for the first time, a
general model of the communication process that could
be treated as the common ground of such diverse
disciplines as:

– journalism,
– rhetoric,
– linguistics, and
– speech and hearing sciences.

• The model provides an excellent breakdown of

elements of communication process into eight discrete
components:
1.An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

2.The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the
destination.

3.A transmitter. a telephone instrument that captures an audio signal, converts it into
an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the telephone network.

4.The signal, which flows through a channel.

5.A carrier or channel, a medium through which information/message are transmitted.

The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper,
and postal systems.

6.Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried.

7.A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to

face communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several
layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set.

8.A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.
Figure 2.1: Shannon's (1948) linear model of communication
 2.2 Interactive Model
• An interactional view of communication assumes
that the sender who encodes a message also
receives feedback from the receiver who decodes
the message.
• The sender channels a message to the receiver and
the receiver having received the message, then
becomes the sender and channels a message to
the original sender in the form of feedback.
• The concept of feedback mechanism portrayed by
this model, indicates that communication is not a
one way as viewed by the linear model, but a two
way process.
•Sometimes noise, a term referring to any distractions, will compromise the message.

• Once the receiver has the message, he or she will send feedback, letting the sender know
whether the message was transmitted well and how the receiver feels about it.

•The communication of both people, the sender and receiver, is influenced by their

 individual experiences,
 culture, and
 knowledge.

•This is called their field of experience.

•The field of experience also includes

 communicators’ cultural background,

 ethnicity geographic location,
 extend of travel, and
 general personal experiences accumulated over the course of their lifetime.

• Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous

 Immediate physical environment

Sender Encoding Channel or medium Decoding Receiver

Feedback

Immediate physical environment

Figure 2.2: Interactive model of communication

 2.3 Transactional model
• The main drawback of the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators
can both send and receive messages simultaneously.

• This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over
time.

• The transactional model suggests that both the receiver and sender of the message change
roles most of the time.

• The receiver is also a sender of the message, while the sender is also a receiver of the
message.

• This model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent.

• Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be
simultaneously sending and receiving messages.

• This model acknowledges neither creators nor consumers of messages, preferring to label
the people associated with the model as communicators who both create and consume
messages.
 There are three implications in the transactional model:
1.“Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously
changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are
changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well.

2.In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.

3.Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their

background
prior experiences
Attitudes
cultural beliefs and
self-esteem.
Figure 2.3: A transactional model of communication
Other models of communication include the power-in-communication model and cultural
model.

• Power-in-communication model: Simply put, this

model of communication stresses the importance of
power relations in any form of communication.

• Not only does power influence communication; it is

part of any communication situation.

• This is, in fact, especially so in business

communication where a variety of
dominant/subordinate roles are prevalent.
 Cultural model
• Clearly, this model puts culture at the centre of the
communication process.

• Communication happens because of culture, so there is no

adequate understanding of the nature and process of
communication without recognizing the central role of
culture in it.

• Communication involves language and other non-verbal

modes of interaction; all these are culturally-shaped.

• Communication also involves the transmission and

negotiation of meaning; these are also cultural practices
 Why does communication happen?
• There are at least five general reasons why we
communicate. These are:
(1) to influence people,
(2) to establish or maintain interpersonal
relationships,
(3) to acquire different kinds of knowledge,
(4) to help people, and
(5) to play .
• Out of these general purposes of communication
emerge both some motivations for communication, as
well as results which we hope to achieve by
communication
 CHAPTER Three
Adoption and diffusion of innovation
• An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as
new by an individual .

• These may be new varieties of crops and plants, new breeds of

livestock or fish species, new chemicals and medicines, new
technique of doing things etc.

• Farmers themselves may develop some new practices, which are

also innovations.

• Irrespective of the time period , when a person first become aware

of it, it is an innovation to that person.

• There are two categories of innovation/technologies namely:

material and knowledge based technology
• Definition of Diffusion 

• Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated

through certain channels over time among the members of a social
system.

• Definition of Adoption

• According to Rogers (1995) Adoption process is a mental process

through which an individual passes from hearing about an
innovation to final adoption.

• The adoption of a practice is not a unit act and instantaneous.

• The farmer’s decision to accept or reject adoption of science based

production technology consists of several stages and involves
sequence of thoughts and decisions.
 Differentiation between Diffusion and
Adoption

• Diffusion is a social process while adoption is a

mental and is individual process.

• Diffusion and adoption are thus closely

interrelated concepts and processes.

• An innovations is essentially a new technology or

idea of doing something.
 3.1 Elements of Diffusion
• Most individuals do not evaluate an innovation on the basis
of scientific studies of its consequences, although such
objective evaluations are not entirely irrelevant, especially to
the very first individuals who adopt.

• Instead, most people depend mainly on subjective

evaluation of an innovation, conveyed to them from
individuals like themselves who have previously adopted the
innovations.

• This dependence on the experience of peers which indicates

that diffusions is a social process and the heart of diffusions
process consists of the modeling and imitation by potential
adopters of their network partners who have adopted
previously.
The four main elements involved in diffusion
are as follows
1. Innovation
2. Communication Channels
3. Time
4. Social System
 Innovation
• An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new or an
improvement over the existing one by the individual or members of a social
system.

• If the idea seems new, it is an innovation.

• The innovation may represent a slight modification of a significant departure

from, the existing idea or practice.

• The “idea” constitutes the central element of an innovation which often

manifests itself in a material or behavioural form.

• Most agricultural innovations manifest a material form, which includes

improved implements, high- yielding and disease resistant seeds, hardy and
fast growing fish, biofertilizers, botanical pesticides and herbicides.

• Some innovations manifest themselves in behavioural forms such as improved

cultural practices.
 Communication Channels
•  A communication channel is the means by which messages get from
one individual to another.

• Mass media channels involve a mass medium such as radio,

television, newspapers and others, which enable a source of one or a
few individuals to reach an audience of many.

• On the other hand, interpersonal channels are more effective in

persuading an individual to accept a new idea

• Especially if the interpersonal channel links two or more individuals

who are similar in socioeconomic status, education, or other
important ways.

• Interpersonal channels involve a face-to-face exchange between two

or more individuals.
 Time
The third element in diffusion process is time. Time is involved in diffusion in
 
• The innovation – decision process is the mental process through which an
individual or other decision making unit passes from first knowledge of an
innovation to forming an attitude towards the innovation, to a decision to
adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to confirmation of this
decision.
 
• Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is
relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of a social system.

• Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by

members of a social system. The rate of adoption is usually measured by the
length of time required for a certain percentage of the members of a system to
adopt an innovation. It is a system perspective rather than an individual as a
unit of analysis. There are differences in the rate of adaption for the same
innovation in different social system.
 Social System
•  A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are
engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal.

• The members or units can be individuals, informal groups,

organizations, or sub systems.

• The sharing of common objective binds the system together.

• Diffusion occurs within a social system.

• The social structure of the system influence how and what information
is disseminated.

• Knowledge of social structure is important to consider while studying

diffusion.
• A village as a social system is made up of a variety of individuals and groups with
distinctive statuses, roles, norms and goals all of which functionally relate to each other
to attain its major goals and objectives.

• The structure of a social system constitutes a set of boundaries within which innovation
diffuse.

• The differences in the adoption of agricultural innovations at the village level can often
be explained in terms of their differences in structural characteristics.

• The degree to which a village is structurally homogeneous or heterogeneous, affects the

rate of diffusion of agricultural innovations within its boundaries.

• The information can be distributed through formal (Government) and informed

communication structures (peers, groups etc.)
 
• Therefore, the four main elements involved in diffusion affect level and rate at which an
innovation is adopted.
• The rate of adoption is usually measured by the length of time required for a certain
percentage of the members of a system to adopt an innovation. Based on
innovativeness, the adopters can be classified into five categories
 3.2 The innovation Decision Process
• The Innovation - Decision process is the process through
an individual (or other decision making unit) passes from
first knowledge of an innovation, to forming an attitude
toward the innovation to a decision to adopt or reject
and to implementation of the new idea.

• This process should be distinguished from the diffusion

process by which new ideas are communicated to the
members of a social system.

• Stages of the Innovation-Decision Process

 3.2.1 Knowledge
• The innovation-decision process begins with the Knowledge
Stage.

• One cannot begin the adoption process without knowing

about the innovation.

• In this stage, a person first becomes aware of the technology.

• Perhaps he/she sees someone use the technology in real life.

• He/she may also see said technology advertised on television

or read about it in a magazine or on the web. A peer or
mentor may inform her about it as well.
 3.2.2 Persuasion
• A person moves into the next stage, the Persuasion
Stage, when he/she moves beyond simple
awareness of the technology.
• He/She begins to show interest in the technology
and seeks out information about the technology:
– costs,
– features,
– user reviews, etc.
• It is at this point that he/she begins to consider
himself/herself as a potential user of the technology
and begins to actively consider whether or not to
adopt the technology into her regular activities.
 3.2.3 Decision
• At the Decision Stage, a person makes the choice to reject or adopt the technology.

• This personal process involves the weighing of advantages, disadvantages, costs,

benefits, and trade-offs.

• The decision to not adopt, rejection, is an active choice to not acquire the technology
or ever use it.

• Otherwise, the person begins to use and integrate the technology into his/her daily life.

• Although this stage is perhaps one of the most critical for understanding technology
adoption, it is perhaps one of the most difficult to study.

• As Rogers points out, the process of deciding occurs silently and invisibly to the outside
researcher; one can rarely capture the exact moment of decision.

• Instead, the researcher can only access the adopter’s reflections and retrospectives of
the decision to adopt or not, sometimes months or years later.

• Such data is, of course, fraught with validity concerns.

 3.2.4 Implementation
• The task of integrating the innovation into regular use is called the
Implementation Stage.
• This can be a slow, time-consuming process.
• For the person involved, changes to his/her usual habits and practices may be
necessary.
• The technology is also being evaluated at this time to see if it meets
expectations.
• Further information about the technology may also be sought in order to
improve usability and usefulness of the technology.

• During this stage, re-invention may occur. Re-invention refers to the process by
which a person adapts or modifies a technology to better meet his/her needs
and improve its overall compatibility.
• This modification may also involve using the technology for a task different from
the technology’s original intent.

• Moreover, technologies that are more readily repurposed were found to be

adopted more quickly than less flexible technologies.
 3.2.5 Confirmation
• Once the processes of integration and re-
invention have completed the final stage,
Confirmation Stage, has been reached.
• At this point, the person finalizes their decision
regarding the adoption of the technology. One
option is exactly that—adoption. At this point,
the person is committed to using the technology
to its fullest potential it can serve in his/her life.
Another option is a reversal of the original
choice to use the technology. This is essentially
a delayed rejection.
3.3 Factors Determining the Rates of Adoption
• The rate of adoption is a relative measure, meaning that the rate of
one group is compared to the adoption of another, often of the entire
society.

• The rates of adoption for innovations are determined by an

individual’s adopter category.

• It is generally measured as the number of individuals who adopt a new

idea in a specified period, such as each year.

• So the rate of adoption is a numerical indicator of the steepness of the

adoption curve for an innovation.

• The variables determining adoption rate according to Rogers (1995)

are as follows:
 A. Relative advantage
•  Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better
than the idea it supersedes.

• Relative advantage refers to the extent to which the

innovation is more productive, efficient, costs less, or
improves in some other manner upon existing practices.

• The degree of relative advantage may be measured in

economic terms, but social prestige, convenience, and
satisfaction are also important factors.

• The greater the perceived relative advantage of an

innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption will be.
 B. Compatibility
• is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent
with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential
adopters.

• Compatibility is the trump card for all innovations, even those with
high relative advantage.

• An innovation must be considered socially acceptable to be

implemented.

• An idea that is incompatible with the values and norms of a social

system will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is
compatible.

• And some innovations require much time and discussion before they
become socially acceptable
 C.Complexity
• is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
difficult to understand and use.

• Some innovations are readily understood by most

members of a social system; others are more
complicated and will be adopted more slowly.

• New ideas that are simpler to understand are

adopted more rapidly than innovations that require
the adopter to develop new skills and
understandings.
 D. Trialability
• is the degree to which an innovation may be
experimented with on a limited basis.

• New ideas that can be tried on the installment plan

will generally be adopted more quickly than
innovations that are not divisible.

• An innovation that is trialable represents less

uncertainty to the individual who is considering it for
adoption, who can learn by doing.
 E.Observability
• is the degree to which the results of an innovation
are visible to others.

• The easier it is for individuals to see the results of an

innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it.

• Such visibility stimulates peer discussion of a new

idea, as friends and neighbors of an adopter often
request innovation-evaluation information about it.
 3.4 Adopter Categories
• Innovations are not adopted by everyone at the same time.

• Specific innovations are used more quickly by some and

taken up later by others, while others in the society never
adopt them.

• It is inferred that some adopt early, while others will adopt

late.

• There are five adopter categories, or classifications of the

members of a social system on the basis on their
innovativeness as shown in Figure 8.1. The categories are
as follows:
 a) Innovators
• Are the first 2.5% of the individuals in a social system to adopt an innovation.

• This interest in new ideas leads them out of a local circle of peer networks and into
more cosmopolite social relationships.

• Communication patterns and friendships among a clique of innovators are common,

even though the geographical distance between the innovators may be considerable.

• Being an innovator has several prerequisites.

– Control of substantial financial resources is helpful to absorb the possible loss from an
unprofitable innovation.

– The ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge is also needed.

– The innovator must be able to cope with a high degree of uncertainty about an innovation at the
time of adoption.

• Though an innovator may not be respected by the other members of a social system,
the innovator plays an important role in the diffusion process.
 b) Early adopters
• Are the next 13.5% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.

• Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local system than are innovators.

• Whereas innovators have urban contacts (cosmopolitanism), early adopters live within the
local communities.

• This adopter category, more than any other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership
in most systems.

• Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation.

• This adopter category is generally sought by change agents as a local missionary for
speeding the diffusion process.

• They serve as a role-model for many other members of a social system.

• The early adopter is respected by his or her peers and is the embodiment of successful,
discrete use of new ideas.
 c) Early majority
• is the next 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.

• The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a system.

• The early majority interacts frequently with their peers, but seldom holds
positions of opinion leadership in a system.

• The early majority's unique position between the very early and the relatively
late to adopt, makes them an important link in the diffusion process.

• They provide interconnectedness in the system's interpersonal networks.

• The early majority may deliberate for some time before completely adopting a
new idea.

• They follow with deliberate willingness in adopting innovations, but seldom lead.
 d) Late majority
• is the next 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.

• The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a system.

• Like the early majority, the late majority make up one-third of the members of a system.

• Adoption may be the result of increasing network pressures from peers.

• Innovations are approached with a skeptical and cautious air, and the late majority do not adopt until
most others in their system have done so.

• The pressure of peers is necessary to motivate adoption.

• Their relatively scarce resources mean that most of the uncertainty about a new idea must be removed
before the late majority feel that it is safe to adopt.

• The late majority are not oriented to their social system.

• They are isolates, traditional bound and do not encourage any adoption.

• Their participation in community social systems or organizations and activities is very low. They are low
in their education, change agent contact and media exposures.
 e) Laggards
• Are the last 16% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.

• Laggards are the most traditional minded of all adopter categories; many are near isolated in the
social networks of their system.

• Similar to the late majority, the laggards' participation in community social systems or organizations
and activities is very low.

• They are low in their education, change agent contact and media exposures.

• The point of reference for the laggard is the past.

• Decisions are often made in terms of what has been done previously.

• Laggards tend to be suspicious of innovations and change agents.

• Resistance to innovations on the part of laggards may be entirely rational from the laggard's
viewpoint, as their resources are limited and they must be certain that a new idea will not fail
before they can adopt.

• They are the last to adopt or may never adopt the innovation.
Figure 8.1: Categorization of Adopters of Innovation
 Unit 4
Extension methods

• In this unit, we will discuss different type of extension methods to

different situations.

• All people do not learn, or change their practice, at the same

speed.

• Some may be ready to adopt a new practice and need to know

how to carry it out, while others are scarcely aware that it exists
or are just beginning to show an interest in it.

• For this reason, the use of variety of extension method suited to

the needs of the people

• And used either consecutively or in some cases simultaneously, is

necessary to carry out an effective extension .
• As an extension agent, one needs to know different
approach by which he can transfer a particular
extension message to audience or farmers.

• Here, we will discuss basically three types of

extension methods, which are frequently used in
extension program, namely:
– Individual,
– Group and
– Mass extension method.
 Principles of selecting extension methods

• Before choosing any extension method, the extension

agents should consider the following principles:
1. No single extension method is better than another. Each
extension method has its own advantage and
disadvantage, and specific condition where we can use it.
For instance, individual extension method has great
advantage to convince the farmers about a particular
innovation if we have sufficient manpower and material
resource.
While group and mass extension methods have great
advantage to reach a large group of people within limited
time if we do have limited manpower and material
resources.
 2.Use of number (combination) of methods
to carry out effective extension program:
• people learn in different ways, some by listing, some by seeing, and
some by discussion.
• As a consequence, combinations of method enable to transfer
extension message for each member of the audience.
• For example, you want to introduce an improved charcoal stove, like
“lakech” stove, to the beneficiaries in your locality.
• First, you have to use radio, TV, poster, etc. to induce the stoves, which
are mass method of extension.
• Secondly, demonstrative the performance of the stove on selected
demonstration site where people gather, like a market place, around a
church, etc. in this case we have employed group extension methods.
• Thirdly, contact some model person who can afford the price of the
stove and willing to use it.
 3.Method will overlap:
• If a demonstration stimulates group discussion, two
methods are utilized that will reinforce the
information contend in the demonstration.

• In other word, when we conduct demonstration to

induce how a particular practice or innovation is
working, as the same time we are encouraging a
discussion among the member of the group.
 4.Use visual aids and materials when
possible and appropriate:

• It is good to use visual aid like poster, picture,

specimen etc. while we explain about new idea or
practice for the farmers to adopt it.
 5.Understanding the nature and type of
audience to be served
• Different audience have different ways of understanding an
innovation.

• For example, there is a circumstance where we do not use the

same type of extension methods to illiterate and literate
people transfer a particular extension message.

• It is not important to use written printed material in mass

extension method for illiterate people except poster.

• Individual and group extension methods are more relevant for

illiterate people than mass extension method.
 6.Understanding the nature of content
(message) to be transferred:
• The type of message which we want to transfer to audience
determines the type of extension method.

• If we want to show the performance of a particular fruit trees, it is

good to conduct demonstration where that particular tree species
is performing well.

• So that the audience have a good view about the species an make
its own decision whether to adopt it or not.

• But if you tell for the farmers about the performance of that tree
orally through individual extension method, they do not have much
impression and may neglect the idea.
 4.1 Individual extension method
• The extension worker is interacting on a one-to-one basis with
individual farmers who receive the individual attention.
• Although this is time consuming and costly,
• it is important because
– working individually the extension worker learns about the people of the area
– provide opportunity for the local citizen to get to know the extension worker,
and
– It also nurtures the credibility and integrity of the extension works.
• One of the problems of individual extension method is usually serious
shortage of mature and experienced staff available for extension duties
• The organization who have to rely mainly on young urban, recently
qualified, people who lack a depth of field experience and who find it
difficult to establish the trust and mutual respect necessary between
the extension staff and their clients.
• This may be a particular serious problem in communities where there is
more respect for age and wisdom than for formal education..
• On the other hand more mature staff tends to prefer a less active
role and is normally offered few incentives to take up such posts,
which often involve considerable travel and irregular hours of
duty.

• A small core of experienced and well-rewarded staff assisting a

large, more mobile, group of younger and less experienced
people may be the best that many countries can hope for at this
stage

• In the section, we will discuss

– Farm and home visit
– Office call and enquiries
– Informal contacts
– Model farmers and
– Field flag individual extension methods
 4.1.1 Home and farm visits
• This method involves meeting individually at the farm
or home.
• It serves a number of purposes:
– Establishes contact with men and women farmers and
other in the household
– Helps to provide information and assistance because
people will listen to the advice and suggestion of
extension staff whom they feel, they know and like
personally, and whose knowledge they respect:
– To acquaint the extension staff(particularly new members)
with the client and his family, to exchange traditional
ideas, and to establish a friendly working relationship;
–.
– To obtained first hand knowledge of the living and working
condition of the client and his family, and the problem faced
by them and help to supply general information on forestry
matters to the family;
– To explain in detail and demonstrate about particular
recommended forestry practices
– To invite the person and his family to take part in a planned
activity;
– To investigate/discuss issues that the person is afraid to say in
public. An individual sometimes does not express his/her real
perception about a particular issue when you ask them in a
group or public if he/she thinks it may result in some
attachment with specific sensitive issue.
– In farm or home visit extension approach, an individual will
be relatively free to express his/her perception about a
particular practice or idea
 Preparation
• careful planning and preparation should be carried out while you
conduct home and farm visit .
• This helps to ensure that each visit is effective and make the best
use of time involves.
• Such checklist will develop and improve with local experience but
some points that should appear in an initial checklist are as follows:
A. Obtain or prepare a community plan. You have to make a
community plan how to conduct farm and home visit
B. Prepare and review visitation record. You have to refer what kind
of suggestion have been given on the visitors record book, and
then you will decide the type of extension assistance that is
needed to farmers you intended to serve or to take a particular
technology.
C. Maintain an active calendar. You have to list all activities you
intend to carry out within the time framework.
D. Greet the farmer and members of the farm family. This helps to build
friendship and trust between the farmer and extension agent. Moreover, it
provides an opportunity for the farmers to express his idea freely and frankly.
E. Observe the conditions and activities of the farm operation. You have to
observe the whole farm situation and farming practice that are carried out on
the farm together with the farmer.
F. Discuss observations and make notes. You have to make thorough discussion
with the farmer what you have observed on the farm.

G. Respect the clients’ privacy. You should not enforce farmer to show you what
he does not want to do. This means that there are certain things that a
farmer not interested to show for any outside when he thinks, culturally, it is
a taboo or something he may attach with evil eye.

H. Never try to force your idea into client. When you make a discussion about
the practice on the farm or a new extension technology, you should not
enforce the farmer to accept your idea only. You should attentively listen his
idea and make argument to reach in conclusion.
• Advantage
– The extension staff gain firs-hand knowledge of the actual problems
faced by their clients and are able to see the circumstance in which they
arise;
– They help to develop the good will and confidence of the family visited in
the extension agent and in the advice given. This strengthen the personal
bond between the extension agent and the farmer;
– Individual teaching provided in this way is most effective as it can take
place in the way, and at the speed, most suited to the client
• Disadvantages
– Visits are expensive in terms of transport, time and can only be made at
time convenient to the client;
– The number of people who can contacted within a give period is limited.
This will result loss of contact with the community as whole and causes
jealousy and dislike amongst some members of it;
– A tendency may develop to visit some families with whom good contact
has been established, more frequently, at the expense of trying
establishing better relation with others.
 4.1.2 Office calls and enquiries
• This method is concerned with personal visit made by clients to the extension
office, to seek information and assistance.

• Farmers will come to extension office to request about the arrival of new improved
variety or seek technical advice about a technology being introduced in the area.
• You have to encourage those farmers who are interested in forest extension to
come at the extension office , and set aside particular times of the week for these
visits, if possible,(e.g., marker days, when people are likely to be in the area rather
than on their farms).
• Train the extension agent to receive visitors politely .
• Ensure that none of the staff abuses their positions by asking favors from the public
for doing this work.
• His means you should not request any incentive from the farmers for the service
you provide them.
• This is because it losses trust between extension agent and farmers.
• The more confidence the people have in an extension agent, the more likely they
are to call on his for assistance and follow any advice or suggestions he might offer.
• Some important consideration and suggestion for dealing with office calls and making the best use of the
time of the staff are as follow:

A. Place the extension office in a convenient location; if the extension office is placed at central place where
farmers can get easily, every farmer will see and come to seek advice.

B. Keep regular office hours: you should notify regular time at which you avail in the office so that farmer,
who comes to the office to seek advice, will not waste his/her time by searching extension agent. The
consultation hours or days should be suited to local custom.

C. Provide a visitors record book; we have to prepare visitor record book at the office so that the farmers
could write their comment by themselves or request the extension agent to writ for them. This may serve
as a basis for follow-up activity or as an index of public interest or participation in an extension activity.

D. Keep the office neat, orderly, and attractive: the extension office should not divert the attention of the
farmers who come to seek advice.

E. Maintain an up-to-date bulletin board and have information materials readily available: you have to post
recent information on the notice board so that the farmers could know what kind of technology has been
introduced in their respective locality and become aware of the input require to implement the technology.

F. Listen carefully and encourage your client to that he deeply involves in discussion: you have to give
attention to what the farmers are talking about a particular practice so that you will have a real
communication with them. Even if the majority of farmers do not read written information on the bulletin
board, they will ask someone at the near-by to read for them.
 4.1.3 Informal contact

• Informal contacts are based on casual or chance meeting

between extension staff and members of the public,
• Which can be turned to good account by gathering information
on attitudes towards forestry extension in the area, or on
problems faced by the public.
• They can take place on
– the street,
– in market places or
– at local celebration.
• An effective extension worker is skilful in utilizing such informal
contacts such meetings provide the extension worker with an
opportunity to meet clientele and facilitate the establishment
of a personal bond, discussion of problems, and the
recommendation of solutions.
Some of advantages of using informal contacts are described below:

A. They provide many good opportunities for introducing extension ideas to the
public at places or coffee shop, discussion of such matters is normal and socially
acceptable

B. They give extension staff not only an opportunity to learn about other peoples
views and attitude on forestry but also their wants; needs and aspirations over a
whole range of topics

C. They provide members of the public with an opportunity to seek information or

advice on a matter which they might feel did not justify an office call or letter

D. They may assist in establishing good relations and confidence in the extension
staff that will encourage the public to make fuller use of their services in future.
 4.2 Group extension method
• Group extension is a way of disseminating information and
technologies through groups of farmers.

• It is a key part of participatory extension system.

• Group extension methods are more frequently used in extension

work than individual methods.

• This is because an extension worker can reach more people than

individual methods.

• This is important factor when time and staff are limited.

• Group methods are especially effective in the persuading extension

clientele to try a new idea or practice.
 Some of features of group methods are:

• Less expensive than individual methods, to cover a

given number of people;

• Very effective, in that attitudes and decisions arrived

at by group usually carry more weight in a
community than individual attitudes and decisions
and they are more likely to be widely adopted;

• They are able to assist the learning or change

process of individuals by the exchange of ideas and
experiences between members of the group.
 Some of the disadvantages of group method however, are:

• It may take along period of discussion for a group of people to arrive at a

decision on a matter

• One or two people with strong-held divergent opinions may deflect the
group from a wise decision

• Because of differences in conditions and interests of the group members,

instruction in forestry practices cannot always be related to the particular
problems of each members of a group of people together at the same
time for discussion or action

• In this unit we will discuss method and result demonstration, field days,
field trips or tours, farmers training centre and extension school group
extension methods
 4.2.1 Demonstration
• Result demonstration and
• Method demonstration

– Result demonstration

• It is intended to stimulate interest in the practice and induce people to learn more
about it and to give it a trial.

• The comparison between the old practice or technique and the new one is an
essential feature of a result demonstration.

• The difference are there to be seen and discussion by the group.

• Question can be asked and answered and the extension staff can explain
additional information on the time taken, work involved and the costs.

• Result demonstration in forestry involves a much longer time span than in

agriculture and it may only be possible to show some stages in the whole process.
 Some of the main purposes:

• They are an effective method of introducing a new topic or idea in an

extension campaign;

• They appeal to the individual and help influence the more skeptical
member of a group;

• A high percent of audience is likely to understand the topic due to the

combination of seeing and hearing and the availability of additional
explanation from staff members on the spot;

• Helping to organize the demonstration gives some of the groups

members the opportunity to develop skills in community leadership;
and,

• They establish a feeling of confidence by the people in the extension

staff and in extension work in general
 Steps in carrying out a successful result demonstration include the following:

A. Decide on the purpose of the demonstration

– What it is intended to prove; simple clear-cut comparisons between
treatment of species; it could also be about the performance of new
practice.
– While you set extension objective, you should collect extension
information by taking into account any social, financial or administrative
barriers that might exist to the adoption of the practice.
B. Plan the demonstration
– Identify proven conservation practices if your objective is to demonstrate
conservation practices
– Check if the practice fit local condition
– Consult local leaders in planning to get permission for conduction the
demonstration in the selected site
– Invite researcher to participate
C.Select the demonstration site
– Identify the area most suited for the demonstration and the sources of
any materials needed(e.g. seeds, plants, tools, equipment, visual aids, etc)
– Consult with the community leaders to arrange the most convenient date
and time for the demonstration, the person to take part in it and the
person to be invited.
– Make sure that the site is easily accessible and is typical of the area (slope,
soil, usage, etc.)

D. Prepare a detail plan

– Secure cooperation of the host farmer
– Secure necessary budget
– Consider what evidence is needed to convince the community and how
proof of this can be established
– Identify who will be responsible for doing what at what time
– Decide on the number of demonstrator needed and their roles in the
demonstration; and
– Prepare a written plan covering the entire demonstration step by step
E. Conduct the result demonstration
– Welcome the persons attending the demonstration
– Thank the hosts for allowing the demonstration to take place in that particular area;
– Explain the purpose of the demonstration and why the practice is believed to be of
value to the people
– Introduce the persons will do the demonstration;
– Explain what they will do and what the expected result will be;
– Invite, and answer as fully a possible, any question from the audience , note the
names and addresses of persons who cannot be given a full answer at the time and
arrange to let them have one as soon as possible; and
– Distribute extension literature or material relevant to the situation to those attending

F. Supervise the demonstration

– Record details of what took place, anything that went wrong, comments by the
audience or other relevant observations, carefully and use these as a means of
improving future demonstrations.
– Maintain the demonstration interest in the procedure;
– Check on the progress of the demonstration area and ensure that any subsequent
treatments are properly carried out;
• Some disadvantage of result demonstration:
– They may be relatively costly to organize ,
particularly if travel to the site is involved at the
extension organization’s expense; and,
– They take time to plan and carry out, especially for
forestry activities
 B. Method demonstration
• This is the oldest form of teaching.
• They are the basis of the apprentice system, which has trained
skilled craft workers for many hundreds of years.
• It shows farmers how to actually carry out specific operation
involving in forestry or agriculture activities.
• “Hearing can enhance understanding and seeing is believing; bur
real learning require doing.”
• The focus therefore should be to involve each participant in
actually implementing the recommended practice and correct
mistakes in this stimulated situation.
• In forestry extension , they can be used to show a person how to
do a job, such as potting seedling, planting, cutting etc. step by
step until they have acquired sufficient proficiency in the task.
• The purposes of method demonstration are:
– To teach basic forestry skills to small group of people
– To teach how to do certain things, (rather than why they should be
done, as in a result demonstration)
• Some advantages of method demonstration are:
– It is possible to instruct a reasonable number of people in basic
forestry skill at one time

– People attending can see , hear , discuss and participate in the

demonstration process; this results in much more complete
learning than passively listening to a talk, even if illustration are
used to support it

– If properly carried out, demonstration can generate a great deal of

interest and enthusiasm for a practice, as well as skills required for
it.
Steps in carrying out an effective method
demonstration are:
A. Decide on the purpose of the demonstration
– First decide on the objective and what should be covered by the
demonstration, (e.g., nursery establishment, seed sowing, tree
planting, etc.) then check these objectives against such question
as:
• Can people afford to follow it in their present situation
• Are supplies of plant and materials requiring readily available in
sufficient quantities to allow it to be adopted in the area?
• Have any social, cultural or economical problems been fully discussed
with the local leaders?
B. Select the demonstration site
– Make sure it is accessible to villagers
– Check it represent typical practice
– Consult with local leaders
C.Prepare teaching material and equipment
– Gather all the necessary material required (such as soil, seed, seedling, potting bags,
fertilizer, etc) in convenient places.
– Instruct the demonstrator on the correct performance of each step in the operation.
– Rehearse the presentation, when even possible , at least three times until the staff
are thoroughly familiar with it, know the most suitable place and time required for
it.
D.Announce the demonstration
– Ask local leaders to announce the nature of the demonstration and why it is
important.
– Put up signs or posters if available (hand made ones are satisfactory)
E. Conduct the demonstration
– When people have gathered to watch the demonstration, welcome them and
explain what is to be done and why it is important for them to learn the new
method.
– Check the effectiveness of the demonstration by inviting some of the audience to try
one or most of the steps involved and discretely correct any error they may make.
– Summaries the importance of the operation, the steps involved and the materials
required
F. Learning by doing
– Encourage farmers to teach and help each other until they
get it right.
– Allow as much practice by member of the audience as
circumstance permit. Encourage question, comment and
suggestion from the participant
G. Follow-up
– In evaluating demonstration, follow-up visit should be
made to check whether the people have in fact learned
the skills demonstrated and have put them to good use.
– Individual visit farmers to see if they have tried the
recommended practices and give encouragement
– Note down how many farmers adopt the new practices;
they will probable come up with improvement to your
recommendations.
 Some of disadvantages of method demonstration are:

• If there are too many participants, some of them may

be unable to see, hear clearly what is being
demonstrated and may adopt wrong technologies

• Many people may not be able to practice the skill

demonstrated adequately due to shortage of time or
facilities

• People may gain only a superficial knowledge of the

procedure and may, therefore, be unable to apply it on
their own successfully, with out additional training.
 4.2.2 Field days
• We take away farmers from their place and show that , how other
farmers in other areas are doing, in research stations by choosing
convenient sites.
• Field days are best held on land belonging to local persons who have
successfully adopted improved forestry practice, or if this is not
possible,
• If field day conducts on farmer’s farm, the participant of the
demonstration will be convinced about the performance and
techniques of new practice.
• This is because on farm demonstration represent the actual farming
practice and farm situation in that specific area.
• However, field day on experimental station or governmental
demonstration site help to display how to particular improved forestry
or agricultural practice is performing under well managed and
controlled condition, which may not reflect the reality in actual farm
condition.
 Purpose of conducting field day
• To commence or inspect progress, or observe the
outcome of result demonstration.

• To see by field demonstration the scientific bases on

which advisory work is based

• It provides insight into attitudes and feeling of

others. People attending the demonstration will
have discussion on what they have observed and
hence it is possible to know how each participant is
feeling about the practice
 Some consideration in planning field day

A. Identify the objective to be achieved: the objective of field day

could be demonstrating a good farming practice or performance of a
new improved variety. Hence, we have to put the objective of the
field day clearly.
B. Select a demonstration site: identify the area most suited for the
demonstration and the source of any materials needed(e.g. seed,
plants, tools, equipment, visual aids, etc.); carry out the
demonstration on private or community land rather than on
government land if this possible;
C. Work with area leaders and host farmers: consult with the
community leaders to arrange the most convenient date and time
for the demonstration, the persons to take part in it and the persons
to be invited;
D. Publicize the field day well in advance: you have to invite the people
who will participate in the demonstration by word of mouth, through
local leaders and other influential people; their endorsement of it will be
of great value. It could be also by letters of invitation, posters press and
announcements on the radio. The number of people invited should be
limited to those who will benefit most from the visit and who are likely to
be most effective in supporting the extension program.
E.Display signboards at the field day site: erect a sign to ensure continued
public interest in the demonstration site.
F. Arrange transportation: we have to prepare transportation facility to
take participants to place where the demonstration is carried out.
G. Let the host farmer explain the demonstration: the host should do
most of the talking and demonstrating during the field day. If the host
person explains the performance of new practice on his holding, the
participant will be convinced about the technology. This is because of
host farmer explain the way that farmers are able to understand; the
language they can understand. Moreover, it builds confidence and
empowerment of the host farmers.
H. Hold group discussion with participants: you have to
encourage the participants to make discussion on what they
have observed on farmer’s d field. This help to have a common
understanding about the new practice. Extension staff
comments briefly and favorably on the most important and
successful aspects of their activities.
I. Summarize the main point: at the end of the visit, the
extension staff should summarize the main points of
discussion. Extension staff should be ready to explain any
technical points to visitors in terms they can understand.
J. Thank the host: at the conclusion of the briefing they should
thank the hosts for their co-operation in making the field day
possible and the visits the extension staff.
K.Evaluate the field day: after we conduct the field day, we have
to make a critcal evaluation what has been intended and
achieved in the demonstration.
Read for the other group extension methods

• 4.2.3 Field trip or tours

• 4.2.4 Farmer training center
• 4.2.5 Extension school
4.3 Mass extension methods
Hen
Dove
Owl
DUCK
BULBUL
Flamingo
Penguin
Kingfisher
pelican
Peacock
Ostrich
Pigeon
Domestic Animals.
Donkey
Dog
Cow
Camel
Horse
Sheep
Goat
Cat
Ox