DNA and DNA Replication (Chapter 12)

DNA:
● carry genetic information from one generation to the next
● contains codes for protein synthesis
● deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA Structure:
● a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
● a phosphate group

● nitrogeneous base (Adenine, Guanine = Purines [2 nitrogeneous bases],

Cytosine, Thymine = Pyrimidines [1 nitrogeneous base])
● Only AT and CG, because hydrogen bonds can form only between certain
base pairs. This principle is called base pairing. Hydrogen bonds form
between certain nitrogeneous bases and provide just enough force to hold
the two strands together.
DNA History:
● Franklin got an X-ray of DNA
● Watson and Crick made the model of DNA as a double helix, in which two
strands were woven around each other.

DNA Replication.
● the DNA molecule separates into two strands with use of enzymes. The
hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken.
● then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base
pairing.
● Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template for the new
strand.
● Each strand of the DNA double helix has all the info needed to reconstruct
the other half by the mechanism of base pairing.
● Because each strand can be used to make the other strand, the strands are
said to be complimentary.
● The result is two DNA molecules identical to each other and to the original
molecule.
 ● Each DNA molecule resulting from replication has one original strand and one
new strand.

Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis), Cancer (Chapter 10 )

● Cells grow by mitosis and the doubling of cells, to repair/grow tissuses/
reproduce
● the three “main” events of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
● during interphase, cells grow and develop, DNA and chromosomes are
duplicated, organelles form.
● Cytokinesis = Cytoplasm pinches in half, each daughter cell has an identical
set of duplicate chromosomes. In plants, cell plate forms.
● After mitosis, the two remaining cells contain the same number of
chromosomes that the parent cell contained before mitosis.
Cancer
● Cancer is when regulatory proteins (cyclin) are not present so there is a
rapid growth of cells.
● Uncontrolled cell growth produces tumors

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration (Chapter 8 and 9)

● water and carbon dioxide produce (through sun) glucose and oxygen.
6CO2+6H2O--sun-->C6H12O6+6O2
● glucose and oxygen produce carbon dioxide and water and ATP.
C6H12O6+6O2--->6CO2+6H2O+ATP
● Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts.
 ● Cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm, and in the mitochondria if
oxygen is present.
● One’s products is another’s reactants, they are both part of the same cycle.
They need each other to produce the other.
● We need oxygen that plants make to breathe and their glucose to sustain our
energy needs.
● They need our carbon dioxide to survive.

Diffusion and Osmosis (Chapter 7)

● Diffusion, more concentrated travels to less concentrated until equilibrium is
reached. Passive = no energy. Active = energy.
● osmosis, diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Solute cannote pass, but solvent (water) can. Pressure caused by osmosis is
osmotic pressure.
● facilitated diffusion, protein channels open/close to needs of cell. only if
moving on concentration gradient. no energy needed.
● active transport, substances move against concentration gradient, requires
energy, uses protein pumps w/ATP and endocytosis and exocytosis. protein
pumps change shape, “popping”
● hypertonic solution, less solute concentration and more water. more water
inside cell, water going out of cell. More stuff on outside of cell.
● hypotonic solution, high solute concentration and less water. More water
outside of cell, going in cell. May rupture animal cell. Plant cell’s cell wall
helps prevent from rupture, keeps plant upright and turgid (turgor pressure)
● isotonic solution has equilibrium.
● high concentration to low concentration

Cell Structure (Chapter 7)

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
● Eukaryotes: have membrane bound organelles and a nucleus which stores
DNA. (Ex: US, animals, plants)
● Prokaryotes: don’t have nuclei or membrane bound organelles. Their DNA is
free floating. (Ex: bacteria)
● Both cell membranes contain DNA
Plants :
● Chloroplast. site of photosynthesis
● large central vacuole
● cell wall, gives fixed shape
Animals:
● many small vacuoles
Both:
● everything else (cytoplasm, plasma membrane, nucleus)
Cell Membrane
● regulates in/out, protection and support.
Biomolecules and Enzymes (Chapter 2)
Monomer Polymer Biomolecule
Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Carbohydrate CHO
(1:2:1)
Amino Acids Polypeptides/ Proteins Proteins CHON
(Enzymes are proteins)
Nucleotides Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids
CHONP

Carbohydrates
● CHO, 1:2:1
● main source of energy, structural purposes also
Lipids
● made of glycerol (where the oxygen is) and fatty acid tails. (CHO)
● stores energy, part of biological membranes, waterproof coverings. chemical
messengers, steroids

Nucleic Acids
● store and transmit hereditary info.
● CHONP. Ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid.
Proteins
● amino on one end and carboxyl on other end. the only CHON.
● controls reaction rate, regulate cell processes, form bones and muscles,
transport substances in/out of cells, help fights disease.
Enzymes
● Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells.
● They regulate chemical pathways, make materials cells need, release energy,
and transmit info.
● They lower activation energies. They are biological catalysts.
● The reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are substrates. There is an
active site where the substrates fit. This is called an enzyme-substrate
complex.
● Enzymes are affected by : ph values and temperature

Interactions Within and Among Animal Systems (Chapters 35-40)

● Cell- tissue- organ- organ system- organism
● Homeostasis is when organisms keep internal conditions, such as
temperature and water content, regulated and constant. this allows us to
survive.
Body Systems and Homeostasis
● to maintain temperature, the muscle action involved in shivering produces
heat, warming your body. if you get too hot, your biological thermostat turns
on “air conditioning” by causing you to sweat.
● Breathing is controlled by the nervous system within the medulla oblongata,
where cells monitor the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood. it innervates
the diaphragm (muscular) to contract, pulling air into the lungs where it goes
to the alveoli (respiratory). There the air comes in contact with the capillaries
(circulatory) and exchanges O2 and CO2.
● To exercise, (nervous system) uses neuromuscular junction to produce an
impulse in the muscles. (Skeletal system) generates force and produces
movement from contracting body parts. Tendons attached to bones work
together, so skeletal muscles (muscular system) works with it.

Scientific Method and Inquiry (Chapter 1)

● An experiment involves controlling one 'input' variable, holding all others
constant (to the best of your ability) and measuring the effect on an output
(independent) variable of a change in the control (dependent) variable.
● Manipulated variable = deliberately changed
● responding variable = observed and changes in response to manipulated
variable
● Without a control variable(s), any number of causes could produce the
observed effect, making it very difficult to determine exactly which cause
produced the observed effect.
● You need a control group to have something to compare your results to.
● To increase validity, make sure you have fully controlled variables,
● A hypothesis is a proposed scientific explanation for a set of observations.
They must be tested.
● a theory is a well tested explanation that unifies a broad range of
observations. has already undergone extensive testing by various scientists
and is generally accepted as being an accurate explanation of an
observation, unlike hypothesis.

Meiosis vs. Mitosis (Chapter 11 pgs.275-278)

● In reduction division, the nucleus divides into four nuclei each containing half
the chromosome number
● Mitosis is asexual
● Meiosis is sexual
Meiosis has, Mitosis doesn’t:
● Crossing over
● reduction division
●