Ultimate Biology Revision Notes For O-Level

Ultimate Biology Revision Notes for O-Level
O-Level
Table of contents:
Chapter 1, Cell structure and organization
Chapter 2, Movement of Substances
Chapter 3, biological molecules
Chapter 4, enzymes
Chapter 12, nutrition and transport in flowering plants
Chapter 5, nutrition in humans
Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Cell structure and organisation
What are cells?

All living things - made up of billions of tiny cells
Cells: building blocks of life. They are the simplest structural and functional units of life.
What do cells do?

● Takes in raw raw materials
● Processes these raw materials to make new molecules
● Either used by the cell itself or transported to other parts of the body
Cell -> has different structures that perform different roles in the cell
-> division of labor: increases efficiency within the system
-> ensures that the cell can survive and perform its role within the body

How to study parts of the cell?
- Too small to be seen by the naked eye

- Must either use light or electron microscope
Light microscope - come out as color images, with maximum 1000* magnification
Electron microscope - come out as black and white images which can be artificially colourised, with maximum
200000* range magnification.
Longitudinal section cross section/transverse section

[To get a clearer picture of how a cell is constructed, we may need to make sections of the cell at different
planes.

What does a cell consist of?
Definition: a cell is a unit of life. It consists of a mass of living matter called protoplasm.
Protoplasm:
● Complex jelly like substance
● Many chemical activities that allow cells to survive and grow are carried out here.
Made out of 3 parts:
- Nucleus
- Cytoplasm
- Cell membrane (cell surface membrane)
Cell membrane:
● Surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell
● Made out of lipids(lipid bilayer) and proteins
● It is a partially permeable membrane; allows some substances to pass through but not others
● It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell wall:
● Rigid structure
● Made out of cellulose
● Encloses the entire PLANT cell, surrounding the cell membrane
● Protects the cell from injury and gives the PLANT cell its fixed shape.
● Fully permeable; allows all substances to pass through; does not control type of substances that enter
or exit the cell
● Absent in animal cells
Cytoplasm:
● Jelly like substance
● Fills the inside of the cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane
● It is part of protoplasm between the nucleus and the cell membrane
● Where most cell activities occur
● Contains organelles* - cellular structures that perform specific job within the cell.

Nucleus:
surrounded by membrane called the Nuclear membrane
● Contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes
Function of nucleus:
● Controls cell activities such as cell growth and repair of worn out parts
● Essential for cell division (cells without nucleus, eg: RBC, cannot divide)
Chromosome:
● Each chromosome: Long thread like structure found within the nucleus(human cell has 46
chromosomes)
● Made out of proteins and a compound called Deoxyribonucleic acid.
● DNA -> stores hereditary information
● DNA contains information that the cell needs for carrying out its activities.
● When cell is dividing - chromosomes condense and shorten to form thick, rod, like structures
Note: Chromosomes are only visible during cell division due to their change in structure*
Nuclear membrane:
- separates contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

● Consists of stacks of flattened spaces lined with a membrane
-> surface appears rough when viewed under an electron microscope - due to the presence of small round
structures called ribosomes attached to its outer surface
-> outer surface of the RER - is consistent with the nuclear membrane
Function:
Transports proteins made by the ribosomes to the Golgi Body for secretion out of the cell.
Ribosomes:
-> small round structures
-> either attached to the RER or lie freely in the cytoplasm:
Function:
-> needed to synthesize proteins in the cell
-> those attached to the RER - make proteins that are usually transported out of the cell

-> those that lie freely in the cytoplasm - make proteins that are usually used within the cytoplasm of the cell..
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

-> does not have ribosomes attached to its outer surface
-> it is more tubular that the RER
-> it is connected to the RER
Function:
Synthesizes substances such as fats and steroids (sex hormones in mammals are steroids)
Converts harmful substances into harmless substances - through a process called detoxification
Golgi body (golgi apparatus)

● Shaped like a disc
● Consists of stacks of flattened spaces surrounded by membranes
● Vesicles (tiny spherical spaces enclosed by a PPM) - seen fusing with 1 side of the Golgi Body and
pinching off the opposite side.
Function:
● Chemically modifies substances made by the ER
● Stores + packages these substances into vesicles for secretion out of the cell.

Movement of substances from ER to out of cell:
1. Vesicles transport substances within the cell

Small vesicles - containing substances made by the ER - pinched off from the ER
2. These vesicles - fuse with the Golgi body
Substances made by the ER might be chemically modified in the golgi body
3. Secretory vesicles - containing chemically modified substances - pinched off from the golgi body
-> move to the cell membrane
4. Secretory vesicles - fuse with the cell membrane.

-> contents are released outside of the cell.
Chloroplasts:
● Oval structures found in plant cells ONLY
● Contains green pigment called chlorophyll - traps LIGHT ENERGY
● Essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants make food.
● No folding of inner membrane
● Has stacks of discs, thylakoids
● Double membrane
Exam techniques:
Must state - trap light ENERGY
Recognising chloroplasts:
no folding of inner inner membrane
Stacks of discs - thylakoids
Double membrane

Vacuoles:
● Fluid filled space enclosed by a PPM
● Store substances within a cell
Plant cells: 1 large central vacuole - contains liquid called cell sap
Cell sap - contains dissolved substances - sugars, mineral salts, amino acids
Animal cells - numerous small, temporary vacuoles - contain water and food substances.
How are cells adapted to their function?
Definition: differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific function.
Examples:
1. RBC
● Contains hemoglobin - binds reversibly to oxygen - transports it around the body
● Circular biconcave shape - increase SA to V ratio - oxygen can diffuse in and out of the cell at a higher
rate
● Absence of nucleus - allows for more packing of hemoglobin - more transport of oxygen as more
oxygen can fit in the cell. ++
● Flexible - can squeeze through capillaries easily
2. Muscle cell
● Elongated and cylindrical shape, contains many nuclei, contains many mitochondria
● Contains many mitochondria - provide energy for contraction of the muscle cell.
● Has contractile protein fibers - contract and relax to bring about movement
● Many nuclei - allow for cell division.
3. Root hair cell

● Long and narrow protrusion/extension -> increase SA to V ratio of cell to soil -> absorb water and
mineral salts at a higher rate.

Mitochondria, ER, Ribosomes, Golgi body - only visible under electron microscope

Movement of substances
Diffusion:
Example: perfume
1. Perfume - made up of particles like atoms, molecules, ions
2. Individual perfume particles - evaporate from surface and become gas
3. Gas particles have very high kinetic energy - constantly moving in all directions at high speeds - bump on
top 1 another and move about randomly.
4. Cause gas to spread throughout the house, until it reaches the nose.
Concentration gradient and its relation to diffusion
Definition: Concentration gradient: difference in

concentration between 2 regions.
● The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate

of diffusion.
● If more than 1 substance is dissolved in the same solvent,
the dissolved particles of 1 substance will diffuse independently of
the others.
Definition: diffusion is the net movement of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient.
Diffusion explanation: (describe q)

● Particles of fluid (liquid/gas) -> possess kinetic energy
● They are continuously moving about in random directions
● Movement is random -> thus particles will move (diffuse) down the concentration gradient and become
evenly spaced out after some time.
-> faster due to heat, particles gain more KE -move faster.
Diffusion: can also occur across a permeable membrane, but not a partially permeable membrane*
Permeable membrane - allows both solvent and solute to pass through.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
1. Concentration gradient - already discussed above*

2. Surface area to Volume Ratio
3. Diffusion Distance
1. Diffusion distance
Time taken for substance to move from 1 point to another - depends on distance between the 2 points. (known
as diffusion distance)
● The shorter the diffusion distance, the less time is needed for the substance to travel. (ROD is higher)
Diffusion - important way by which O2 and CO2 move in and out of a cell.
- Diffusion in lungs and root hair cells

- Diffusion distance is short - allowing faster rate of diffusion.
Note: solute can also diffuse*

2. Surface area to volume ratio
- Rate of movement of substances across cell membranes - depends on how large the cell membrane is.
- For 2 cells of the same volume - one with larger protoplasm allows higher ROD.
Greater surface area to volume ratio of cell - high rate at which substances move in and out of the cell.
> as the cell continues to grow in size, growth slows down - stops once it reaches optimum size.
Stops growing at optimum size because -> when size increases, rate of oxygen and good intake slows down.
Thus, it is not beneficial for cells to grow too big. (this is why cells are small)
Refer to diagram from your notes*
The larger cell - has more surface area than smaller cell - but less surface area per unit volume of protoplasm
compared to smaller cells.
-> The rate of intake of food and O2 per unit volume is slower in larger cells than smaller cells.
How do cells adapt their surface area to volume ratio?
Some cells -> specifically adapted to absorb substances. Root hair cells, epithelial cells which line the small
intestine.
Such cells - have long narrow protrusions / folds in their membranes.
Greatly increases the SA to V ratio of cell membrane through which materials can be absorbed into the cell.

Osmosis
What is Water Potential and how is it related to osmosis?
Definition: water potential is the tendency of water molecules to move from 1 place to another. [dilute solution
has higher WP than concentrated solution]
When PPM separates 2 solutions of different water potentials - water potential gradient is established.
Factors affecting the rate of osmosis:
1. Water potential gradient

2. Distance over which water molecules move
3. Surface area to volume ratio
EXAM TECHNIQUES:
- Must say - DOWN the WP/concentration gradient OR AGAINST the concentration gradient
- Osmosis - must say water molecules ONLY
- Diffusion - must add it can occur across PPM too
- Water moving into cell sap of plant in large central vacuole via cell membrane (PPM)
- Water moved into cytoplasm of animal cell through cell membrane (PPM)
- State exactly where the WP is, vacuole or cytoplasm. Else you get 0.
- DO NOT SAY ‘cell increase in size’. Say: ‘cytoplasm/vacuole increases in size’

What happens to cells in solution with higher water potential? Follow answer phrasing EXACTLY.
Overview - water molecules move from region of higher WP (outside cell) to region of lower WP (inside cell)
Plant cell:
> Expands or swells, becomes turgid
1. Cell sap in the large central vacuole of the plant cell has a lower water potential compared to the
outside of the cell.
2. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules moving from outside the cell to the cell sap in
the large central vacuole in the plant cell through the partially permeable cell membrane.
3. As water molecules enter the cell, the large central vacuole increases in size and pushes the cytoplasm
against the cell wall.
4. The cell expands or swells, and has become turgid.
> does not burst, as it is protected by inelastic and rigid cell wall [refer to function of cell wall]
> turgidity of cell with water - known as turgor
> pressure exerted by the water in the vacuole - known as turgor pressure
Animal cell:
Expands or swells, and the cell membrane eventually bursts
1. Cytoplasm of the animal cell has a lower water potential compared to the outside of the cell
2. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules moving from outside the cell to the cytoplasm
of the animal cell through the partially permeable cell membrane.
3. As water molecules enter the cell, the cytoplasm increases in size and pushes against the cell
membrane.
4. Unlike plant cells, the animal cell does not have an inelastic and rigid cell wall to protect it from injuries.
Thus, the cell membrane bursts.
Note: water enters cytoplasm rather than vacuole in animal cells as there is no large central vacuole in animal
cells.
What happens to cell in solution with same water potential
-> no change in size or shape

->movement of water molecules in both directions is the same
-> there is no net movement of water molecules in or out of the cell.
-> equilibrium

What happens to cell in solution with lower water potential:
Overview: water molecules move from region of higher WP (inside the cell) to region of lower WP (outside of cell)
Plant cell:
> decrease in size and become flaccid/limp
1. Cell sap in the large central vacuole of the plant cell has a higher WP than the outside of the cell.
2. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules from the cell sap in the large central vacuole of
the plant cell to the outside of the plant cell through the partially permeable cell membrane.
3. Cell decreases in size and becomes flaccid/limp
4. As water molecules move out of the cell through the partially permeable cell membrane, vacuole
decreases in size.
-> cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell wall (cell membrane shrinks with the cytoplasm too!)
-> shrinkage of cytoplasm and cell membrane away from the cell wall is known as plasmolysis
-> The cell is said to be plasmolysed and [can be restored to ori. State by placing it in solution with
higher WP]
Animal cell:
-> cell shrinks and spikes appear on the cell
1. Cytoplasm of animal cell has a higher WP than the outside of the cell
2. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules moving from the cytoplasm of the animal cell to
the outside of the animal cell through the partially permeable cell membrane
3. Cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell membrane
-> this is called crenation
4. Animal cell becomes dehydrated and will eventually die
Importance of Turgor in Plants:
Turgor (aka how turgid cells are) -> important role in maintaining shape of soft tissue in plants.
-> young stems and leaves of herbaceous and non-woody plants able to remain firm and erect.
-> due to turgor pressure within the cells
When high rate of water loss from cells -> they lose turgidity and plant wilts.
=> movement of certain plant parts also due to changes in turgor
● Change in turgor of guard cells, cause opening and closing of stomata
Plasmolysis - causes cells to become flaccid and limp

Cells: killed if they remain plasmolysed for too long
Not advised to add too much fertilizer around the Inability of roots to absorb water + continued
roots of the plant. evaporation of water from leaves - cause plants to
Soil solution becomes very concentrated and the WP wilt
decreases. Unless sufficient - water added to dilute soil solution
Water molecules move out of root hair cells by - plants eventually die.
osmosis.

Active transport:
Definition: active transport is the process in which energy is used to move particles from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration through a partially permeable membrane.
Requires energy from respiration

No Oxygen - No respiration - no energy - no active transport (even though anaerobic respiration can occur the
school is still stupid)
Where does active transport occur

Only in living things as living things respire
Some energy released during respiration used in active transport
Human body: Plants:

Uptake of glucose by the microvilli of epithelial cells in Root hair cells take in mineral salts from soil solution
the small intestine, and from kidney tubules into the by diffusion or active transport. (depending on
blood capillaries. concentration of mineral salts in soil solution)
[in the form of ions]

SUMMARY:
Osmosis to inside the cell:
Plant cell:
● Plant cell will expand or swell. The cell sap has a lower water potential than the solution outside of the cell. By
osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules entering the cell into the cell sap in the large central
vacuole through the partially permeable cell membrane. As water molecules enter the cell, the large central
vacuole increases in size and pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall. The cell has become turgid.
● Optional points you can write down:
○ Cell does not burst as it is protected by the rigid cell wall
○ Turgidity of cell with water -> turgor
○ Pressure exerted by water in vacuole -> turgor pressure
Animal cell:
● The animal cell will expand or swell, and the cell membrane will eventually burst. The cytoplasm of the cell
wall has a lower water potential compared to the solution outside the cell. By osmosis, there is net movement
of water molecules entering the cytoplasm through the partially permeable cell membrane. As water
molecules enter the cell through the partially permeable cell membrane, the cytoplasm increases in size and
pushes against the cell membrane. However, unlike the plant cell, the animal cell does not have a cell wall to
protect it from injuries, which causes the cell membrane to burst.
Osmosis to outside the cell:
Plant cell:
● Decreases in size and becomes flaccid/limp. The cell sap of the plant cell has a higher water potential
compared to the surrounding solution outside the cell. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules
moving from the large central vacuole (cell sap) to outside the cell through the partially permeable cell
membrane. As the cell loses water, the vacuole decreases in size. The cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell
wall. The shrinkage of cytoplasm and cell membrane away from the cell wall is known as plasmolysis. The cell
is said to be plasmolysed.
Animal cell:
● The cell shrinks and spikes appear on the cell. The cytoplasm of the animal cell has a higher water potential
than the solution outside of the cell. By osmosis, there is net movement of water molecules moving from the
cytoplasm of the animal cell to the solution outside the cell through the partially permeable cell membrane.
The cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell membrane. The process is called crenation. Animal cell becomes
dehydrated and will eventually die.

Biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Definition: carbohydrates are organic molecules made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Hydrogen
and oxygen atoms are present in the ratio 2:1
● Glucose: formula of 𝐶2𝐻12𝑂6 (ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1)
● sucrose(cane sugar) hsa formula 𝐶12𝐻22𝑂22(ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1)
Classification of carbohydrates:
Sugars:
- Sweet and soluble in water
- When dissolved in water - they will lower the water potential of solution
- Sugars provide us with energy to do work and carry out activities
Single sugars [monosaccharide]

-> basic unit of a carbohydrate
-> can pass through cell membrane and be absorbed into cells
Common single sugars - glucose and fructose

Both have chemical formula: 𝐶2𝐻12𝑂6
-> atoms are arranged differently within molecules - different arrangement gives rise to different chemical and
biological properties.
Single sugar occurrence
glucose Found in plants and animals
fructose Common in plants, but rare in animals.

Double sugars [disaccharide]
-> double sugar is formed when 2 single sugars are joined together
Common double sugars - maltose and sucrose
maltose(malt sugar) -> occurs in germinating grains.

-> maltose consists of 2 glucose molecules bonded together
Sucrose molecule - made up of 1 glucose and 1 fructose molecule joined together
Glucose + fructose -> sucrose
Double sugar - can be split into 2 single sugar molecules - using an organic molecule called enzyme.
[maltose mixed with enzyme maltase, glucose molecules are produced]

How can we test for reducing sugars?
[benedict's test]
Procedure for liquid:
1. Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the sample in a test tube

2. Shake thoroughly
3. Place the tube in a beaker of boiling water for 2 – 3 minutes.
Procedure for solid:
1. Add finely chopped sample into a test tube containing 2 cm3 of deionised water
2. Shake thoroughly
3. Allow solids to settle.
4. Decant the liquid into another test tube.
5. Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution into the sample.
6. Shake thoroughly
7. Place the tube in a beaker of boiling water for 2 – 3 minutes.
Positive result:
Benedict's solution turns from blue to green/orange/red precipitate upon heating.
[semi quantitative test]
Negative result:
Benedict's solution remains blue upon heating
Solution remained blue No reducing sugar
Solution turned from blue to green precipitate Traces of reducing sugar
Solution turned from blue to yellow or orange Moderate amount of reducing sugar
precipitate
Solution turned from blue to red precipitate. Large amounts of reducing sugar.
Reducing sugars: Non reducing sugars:

- Glucose - Stachyose
- Fructose - Sucrose
- Maltose - Trehalose
- Lactose - Verbascose
- Glyceraldehydes - Raffinose
- arabinose
Non reducing sugars - will not give green/yellow/orange/red precipitate upon heating.

Complex carbohydrates [polysaccharides]
-> made up of many similar molecules of single sugars joined together to form a large molecule.
Starch, glycogen, cellulose - complex carbohydrates made up of numerous glucose molecules.

- Glucose molecules linked in different ways - giving rise to diff. Structures
- Thus, they also have different chemical and biological properties.
- Also have diff. Roles
Complex structure role occurrence

carbohydrate
starch Starch molecule: made -> storage form of Found in storage

up of several thousand carbohydrates in plants. organs of plans
glucose molecules -> when needed, it can be -> potato, tubers,
joined together digested to glucose -> tapioca.
provide energy for cell
activities.
cellulose Cellulose molecule is -> cellulose cell wall protects Present in cell wall of
made up of many cells from bursting or damage. plant cells
glucose molecules -> cellulose - cannot be
joined together. digested in our intestines.
-> Bonds between -> serve as dietary fiber that
glucose units are prevents constipation.
different from that in
starch
glycogen Glycogen is a branched -> storage form of Stored in the liver and
molecule. carbohydrates in mammals muscles of mammals.
-> Made up of many -> when needed, it is digested
glucose molecules to glucose to provide energy
joined together. for cell activities.

Glycogen and starch are stores of glucose
Plants - store glucose in the form of starch

Animals - cannot make or store starch in their bodies. [however, we get most carbohydrates from plants in
form of starch]
Animals - main store of energy - glycogen. [sometimes called ‘animal starch’]

- Stored mainly in liver and muscles
Glycogen and starch are suitable storage materials in cells as:

● They are insoluble in water -> do not change WP of cells
● Large molecules -> cannot diffuse through cell membranes - will not be lost from cell
● Easily broken down to glucose when needed - eg: tissue respiration
● Molecules have compact shapes -> occupy less space than all glucose molecules that make up
glycogen or starch molecules.
Breakdown of starch
- May be digested in alimentary canal

When starch is digested -> bonds within the polysaccharide -> broken down and glucose molecules released.
Enzyme amylase - digested starch to form sugar maltose.

Maltose - hydrolysed to glucose by maltase.
Complete digestion of starch gives glucose molecules.
Function of carbohydrates:
● Substrate for respiration to provide energy for cell activities. IMMEDIATE source of energy.
● Form supporting structures - eg: cell wall in plant cells
● To be converted to other organic compounds - amino acids and fats
● For formation of nucleic acids - DNA
● To synthesize lubricants - mucus, which consists of carbohydrate and a protein
● Synthesize nectar in some flowers. [nectar is sweet liquid that plants produce to attract insects]
Test for starch:
Add a few drops of iodine solution to the sample [on white tile]
Positive results;
Iodine solution turns from yellow/brown/yellowish-brown to blue black
Negative result:
Iodine solution remains brown/yellow/yellowish brown.

What are fats?
-> fats are a type of lipid
Definition: fats, like carbohydrates, are organic molecules made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Unlike carbohydrates, fats contain much less oxygen in proportion to hydrogen.
- tristearin(beef fat) -> chemical formula of 𝐶57𝐻110𝑂6
-> has very little O2 in proportion to hydrogen.
● Proportions of elements that make up fats are not fixed - no general formula for fats.
Fats - can be animal or plant fats.

- Commonly used as a store of energy, especially by animals.
Fats can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
Eg: Tristearin → glycerol + 3 stearic acid molecules

[by enzyme lipase]
Sources of fats:
Butter, cheese, fatty meat, olives, many nuts, peas, beans, seeds of castor oil and palm oil
Meat of most fishes and ‘white meats’ have relatively less fats.
Some fishes like herring and salmon have lots of fats.
Functions of fats:
● Source and a long term storage of energy.
○ Suitable for long term storage material as fats have higher energy value compared to
carbohydrates and proteins
● Insulating materials that prevents excessive heat loss
○ Animals such as seals - thick layer of fat (blubber) beneath skin to help reduce loss of body
heat
● Solvent for fat soluble vitamins and many other vital substances such as hormones
● Essential part of cells, especially cell membranes
● Way to reduce water loss from the skin surface. Glands in skin secrete an oily substance.
○ Oily substance forms a thin layer over the skin surface - reducing the rate of
evaporation of water.
○ Oily substance also reduces the rate of heat loss from the skin

Test for fats:
[ethanol emulsion test]

1. Add 2 cm3 of ethanol to a drop of the sample.
2. Shake thoroughly
3. Add the solution to 2cm3 of water in a test tube.
1. Add a finely chopped sample into a test tube containing 2 cm3 of ethanol.
2. Shake thoroughly
4. Decant the liquid into another test tube containing 2cm3 of water.
Positive result:
A cloudy white emulsion is formed [state the colorless to cloudy white emulsion change as well]
Negative result:
Solution remains clear
What are proteins
Definition: proteins are organic molecules made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. Sulfur MAY also be present
- Always present in all cells
- Molecules are the largest and most complicated of all food substances.
- Commonly found in meat of animals
Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins

- Protein molecule - built up from simpler compounds known as amino acids.
Amino acid - made up of:
● amino group(− 𝑁𝐻2)
● Acidic group(-COOH)
● Side chain (denoted by R, which may sometimes contain sulfur)
General formula of amino acid:
20 different naturally occurring amino acids. [methionine, valine]

-> differ because of different R groups.
-> amino acids combined in various ways to form millions of different protein molecules.

Long chains of amino acids fold to give proteins a 3d shape
-> many amino acids - joined in linear manner to form polypeptide
-> polypeptides - may be linked up to form even longer chain of amino acids
-> protein molecules - made up of 1 or more such chains folded together.
Most proteins - polypeptide chains are folded into a more complex, 3d shape.
Sources of proteins:
Found in both animal and plant foods
Milk, eggs, seafood, meat such as chicken and lean beef
Soya beans, nuts, grains and vegetables such as french beans
Functions of proteins:
● Synthesis of new cytoplasm, for growth and repair of worn out body cells
● Synthesizes enzymes and some hormones
● Formation of antibodies to combat diseases

Test for proteins
[biuret test]

1. Add an equal volume of sodium hydroxide to the sample in the test tube.
2. Add a drop of copper (II) sulfate solution, shake after every drop.
Or:
1. Add an equal volume of Biuret solution to the sample in a clean test tube.
2. Shake well and allow the mixture to stand for five minutes.
1. Add finely chopped sample into a test tube containing 2 cm3 of deionised water
2. Shake thoroughly
4. Decant the liquid into another test tube.
5. Add an equal volume of sodium hydroxide to the sample in the test tube.
6. Add a drop of copper (II) sulfate solution, shake after every drop.
Positive result:
Solution turns from blue to violet
Negative result:
Solution remains blue

Enzymes
Enzymes - biological catalysts
Definition: a catalyst is a substance that can speed up a chemical reaction, without itself being chemically
changed at the end of the reaction.
Definition: enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. They catalyze or speed up the rate of
chemical reactions. They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Enzymes - made up of protein molecules - that are folded to take on 3D globular shapes.
Enzymes lower activation energy
Activation energy - energy required to start a chemical reaction.
Enzymes - provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy required to start the chemical reaction.
Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions, and they speed up the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy.
Example:
What reactions do enzymes catalyze?
Some food molecules - large and insoluble in water.

These molecules cannot diffuse through the cell membrane
Enzymes - required to break these large molecules into simpler and smaller substances so that they are:
● Soluble in water
● Small enough to diffuse through the cell membrane
Enzymes involved in digestion - digestive enzymes.

● Amylase - digests starch into maltose
● Maltase - digests maltose into glucose
● Protease - digests proteins to polypeptides, then to amino acids
● Lipase - digests fats to fatty acid and glycerol (refer to formula in previous chapter)

Enzymes either build up or break down complex substances
Enzymes - involved in biological reactions.
● Reactions that build up complex substances (anabolic reactions)
● Reactions that break down complex substances (catabolic reactions)
Reactions that build up complex substances

● Cells build up / synthesize complex substances into simpler ones.
Eg:
- Amino acids taken into cells may be used to build up proteins
- The cytoplasm contains special enzymes to catalyze such reactions
In photosynthesis -> glucose is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.

Chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis - controlled by enzymes
Reaction that break down complex substances

● Cells break down complex substances to simpler substances
Eg:
- Large food molecules are broken down into smaller molecules by digestive enzymes.
- In cell respiration - glucose broken down to release energy and form CO2 and water.
- Process involves series of chemical reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme.,
- Enzymes act together to completely break down glucose.
- Hydrogen peroxide - sometimes produced during chemical reaction in cells.

- Substance is toxic to cells.
- Both plant and animal cells produce the enzyme catalase - to catalyze to break down hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen.
- Removes the toxic effect
- Catalase - especially abundant in the blood and liver of mammals.
Enzymes catalyze practically all the chemical reactions that occur in an organism
Only produced when they are needed.

Classification of enzymes
Carbohydrases - enzymes that digest carbohydrates
Proteases - enzymes that digest proteins
Lipases - enzymes that digests fats(lipids)
Characteristics of enzymes
Enzyme is specific in its action - due to its 3D shape.
- Lock and key hypothesis explains ho-w shap[e of an enzyme affect the way it functions
Lock and key hypothesis
Substances on which enzymes act on - substrates
- According to lock and key hypothesis - enzyme reactions depend on the presence of active sites
Active sites are grooves (depressions) or ‘pockets’ on surface of an enzyme molecule -> into which a substrate
molecule(s) with a matching shape can fit [exactly like a lock and key]
Enzyme - lock
Substrate - key
- When substrate binds to an active site of enzyme - an enzyme substrate complex is formed.
Enzyme substrate complex - temporary molecule formed when substrate binds to active site of enzyme
Reactions take place at active site - converts the substrate molecule(s) to produce molecule(s)
Produce molecule(s) separate(s) from the enzyme.
Enzyme molecule remains unchanged and is free to combine again with more substrate molecules.
E + S ⇔ ES ⇔ P
1. 2.
substrate entering
active site of enzyme
● Enzymes have specific 3D shapes. It has ● Only substrate with a 3D shape

depression called active site complementary to that of active site can fit
● Substance on which the enzyme acts is called into the enzyme
substrate. ● Results in formation of enzyme-substrate
complex
● Enzyme = lock, substrate = key
● Substrate fits into enzymes like how a key fits
into a lock.
● Called lock and key hypothesis.

3. 4.
● While substrate is attached to active site - ● Products leave active site of enzyme
chemical reaction occurs ● Enzyme remains unchanged
● Substrates are converted into the products. ● It can catalyze another reaction.
Characteristics of enzymes
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions

Enzymes - alter rates of chemical reactions that occur in a cell
Enzymes - speed up chemical reaction by lowering activation energy needed to start the reaction
Enzymes are specific in action

Enzymes -have active sites
Only substrates with shapes complementary to the active site can fit into the enzyme.
When enzyme binds to its substrate - it forms enzyme substrate complex
High temperatures, acids, alkalis - can affect the shape of the active site of enzymes and affect its function.
Enzymes are required in minute amounts and remain unchanged at the end of reactions
Enzymes - very efficient molecules
Remain unchanged in reactions they catalyze - same enzyme molecule can be used over and over again.
Small amount of enzyme - can catalyze reaction for large amounts of substrate.

Enzymes are affected by temperature
1. Enzyme is less active at low temperatures

At low temperatures - kinetic energy of molecules is low -> causing them to move more slowly.
Enzymes and substrate molecules - move slowly
Rate of substrate molecules colliding with enzymes is very low (effective collision is very low)
Very low rate of enzyme substrate complex formation.
2. As temperature increases, the rate of enzyme reaction increases
Increasing temperature increases KE of molecules -> causing them to move more rapidly.
- Rate of effective collision -> increased
- Increases rate of enzyme substrate complex formation
3. Optimum temperature, where enzymes are most active
Optimum temp for humans - 40-45
4. Increasing temperature above optimum temperature causes rapid decrease in rate of enzyme
reaction.
Beyond optimum temperature - enzyme activity decreases
- High temperature breaks the bond within the enzyme and the active site of the enzyme molecule
begins to lose its original shape.
- Active site of the enzyme is no longer complementary to the shape of the substrate.
- Active site thus no longer able to bind to substrate
- No formation of enzyme substrate complex
Enzyme is now denatured
5. At this temperature all enzyme molecules are denatured
Definition: denaturation is the change in the 3D structure of the active site of an enzyme or any other
soluble protein, caused by heat or chemicals such as acids and alkalis.
[substrate can no longer fit into active site. No enzyme substrate complex is formed. No reaction occurs. When
enzyme denatured, no longer can act as a catalyst]

Enzymes are affected by PH
Enzymes - affected by acidity or alkalinity of solutions in which they act
Some work best in acidic solutions(protease in stomach)

Others require alkaline solutions(intestinal enzymes)
When enzymes - placed in PH conditions that vary from optimum, they start to denature
[extreme changes in acidity or alkalinity of solutions denature the enzymes]
M: indicates maximum activity of amylase at PH of about 7 (optimum ph)

As the solution becomes acidic (PH 7-5) or alkaline (ph 7-9) - activity decreases.
At ph 4 or above ph9 - enzyme is completely denatured.

Nutrition and transport in flowering plants
External features of a leaf
1. Network of veins
Made of main vein branching out to form a network of fine veins.
Veins carry water and mineral salts to the cells in the lead blade.
Veins also carry manufactured food from these cells to other parts of the plant
2. Leaf blade
Leaf blade has a large flat surface compared to its volume.
-> Enables it to obtain the maximum amount of light for photosynthesis
A large, thin leaf blade - also means that carbon dioxide can rapidly reach inner cells of the leaf thru diffusion.
3. Leaf arrangement
Leaves - always organized around stem in a regular pattern
In general - leaves grow either in pairs (opposite one another on stem) or singly in an alternate arrangement.
- Ensures that the leaves are not blocking one another from light and each leaf receives
sufficient/maximum light energy.
4. Leaf stalk
Leaf stalk holds leaf blade away from stem - so that leaf blade can obtain sufficient light and air.
In some leaves - grasses, maize - leaf stalk is absent.
Such leaves have long leaf blades

Internal structure of leaf
1. Upper epidermis 2. Mesophyll

Leaf blade has an upper epidermis made up of a Mesophyll - lies just between upper and lower
single layer of closely packed cells. epidermis.
Main site of photosynthesis - contains 2 types of
Upper epidermis is covered on the outside by a waxy
tissue - palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll.
and transparent cuticle.
2a. Palisade mesophyll
● Consists of 1 or 2 layers of closely packed,
long and cylindrical cells - more cells can be
contained per unit area.
● Contains numerous chloroplasts.
● Specialized for photosynthesis
2b. Spongy mesophyll

● Contains cells with an irregular shape
● Numerous large intercellular air spaces among
loosely packed cells
● Carries out photosynthesis but contains
fewer chloroplasts than palisade mesophyll
● Cells covered with thin film of moisture
● Contains transport tissue - xylem and phloem
which are grouped together to form the
vascular bundle.

3. Lower epidermis 4. Cuticle
Beneath mesophyll - lower epidermis Cells are covered by outer layer of cuticle
Consists of single layer of closely packed cells Reduces water loss from epidermis cells through
Contains many minute openings called stomata. evaporation.
It is transparent for light to enter the leaf.
5. Stomatal pore (stoma) 6. Guard cell

Lower epidermis contains many minute openings Found in lower epidermis
called stomata A pair surrounds each stoma - helps to regulate rate
of transpiration by opening and closing the stoma
Contain chlorophyll which are not present in other
epidermal cells.
Exam technique: guard cells control the size of
stomata (opening and closing is rejected). They
also regulate gaseous exchange(intake and release
of carbon dioxide and oxygen as well as loss of
water vapor) between leaves and environment.
How is the leaf adapted for photosynthesis
adaptation function
Waxy cuticle on upper and lower epidermis Reduces water loss through evaporation from leaves.
Transparent so that light can still enter the leaf.
Stomata present in the epidermal layers Stomata open in presence of light - allowing carbon
dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out of the
cell.
Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll in all mesophyll Chlorophyll absorbs energy from light
cells - Transfers it to chemical stores of energy in
glucose molecules
More chloroplasts in upper palisade tissue More light ENERGY can be absorbed near the upper
leaf surface
Palisade mesophyll has closely packed, long and More cells can be contained per unit area.
cylindrical cells.
Interconnecting system of air spaces in the spongy Air spaces -allow rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide
mesophyll (intercellular air spaces) and oxygen into and out of mesophyll cells.
Veins containing xylem and phloem situated close to Xylem transports water and mineral salts to
mesophyll cells. mesophyll cells. Phloem transports sucrose away
from leaf.

How do guard cells control size of stomata (all about guard cells)
Stomata -> enclosed by bean shaped guard cells
Guard cells -> only cells in epidermal tissue that contain chloroplasts.
=> they control the opening and closing of stomata thereby regulating the passage of gasses into and out of the
leaf.
1. Guard cells photosynthesise and manufacture glucose

2. Increase in glucose concentration lowers water potential of the cell sap
3. Water from neighboring cells enter the guard cell by osmosis.
4. Guard cells swell and become turgid and more curved
5. Cell wall around the stomatal pore is thicker than other parts of the cell. Hence, the cell curves around
the stoma and the stoma opens.
Refer to full explanation in chapter 1.
Stomata generally open in light and close in dark
Guard cells - help to regulate passage of gasses - between leaf and the environment.
Example: guard cells - can reduce the amount of water vapor escaping from the leaf.
Stomata - can close to reduce water loss even when the plant is in sunlight, such as extremely hot days.
In such situations - excess evaporation of water - causes guard cells to become flaccid, thus stomatal pore
closes -> preventing excessive water loss.

How do carbon dioxide and water enter the leaf
1. In daylight when photosynthesis occurs -> CO2 in the leaf is rapidly used up.
Carbon dioxide concentration in leaf becomes lower than in the atmospheric air - diffusion gradient exists
Thus, carbon dioxide diffuses from surrounding air through stomata into the intercellular air spaces in the leaf.
2. The surfaces of the mesophyll cells are always covered by a thin film of moisture.
This is so that CO2 can dissolve in it. CO2 dissolves into the thin film of moisture on the mesophyll cells.
3. Dissolved CO2 then diffuses from cell to cell until it reaches cells.
How do xylem transport water and mineral salts to the leaf

1. Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts to the leaf from the roots
2. Once out of the veins, water and mineral salts -move from cell to cell right through the mesophyll of leaf
- Veins in the leaf form fine branches, which end

among the mesophyll cells.
- Veins contain xylem and phloem, which together
make up a vascular bundle

Once green cells - receive essential raw materials such as CO2 and water, they can manufacture food by
photosynthesis.
Phloem then transports sugars made in the leaf to other parts of the plant in the form of sucrose.
Function of phloem and xylem

Transport or vascular tissues
Xylem:
- Conducting water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the stem and leaves
- Providing mechanical support for the plant
Exam definition: xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts from roots to aerial parts of the plant. It
also provides mechanical support for the plant.
Xylem, how is a xylem vessel adapted for its function
● - It is a structure made up of many dead cells without cytoplasm or cross-walls.

- Each vessel is a long, hollow tube stretching from root to leaf.
-> This reduces resistance to water flowing through the inner walls of xylem vessels
● - Strengthened by deposits of a substance called lignin

- Lignin- may be deposited in the form of rings, spirals, or the whole vessel is lignified except in regions
called pits.
-> Lignin on cell walls strengthen vessel walls so that xylem vessels may provide mechanical support
to the plant and prevent collapse of the vessel.
Phloem, how is phloem adapted for its function
Exam definition: phloem transports sucrose and amino acids between leaves and other parts of the plant.
● - Consists mainly of sieve tubes and companion cells.

- Each sieve tube - consists of a column of elongated, thin-walled living cells called sieve tube cells or
sieve tube elements.
- A sieve tube is made of sieve tube cells that are joined end to end to form a column with sieve plates
in between.
- ‘Cross walls’ - separating cells - have a lot of minute pores. They look like a sieve and are called sieve
plates.
- Phloem sieve tube elements have very little protoplasm and are arranged to form a continuous
column

- * Mature sieve tube cell - only has a thin layer of cytoplasm inside the cell that is connected to cells
above and below through holes in the sieve plates.
- no vacuole, nucleus, and most organelles.
-> pores in sieve plates allow rapid and smooth flow of manufactured food substances from the
leaves to other parts of the plant through the sieve tubes.
● - Each sieve tube cell - also has a companion cell beside it that provides nutrients + helps the sieve
tube cell to transport manufactured food.
- Each companion cell - narrow thin walled cell with many mitochondria, cytoplasm and a nucleus.
-> The companion cell -> carries out metabolic processes needed to keep the sieve tube cell alive.
-> Numerous mitochondria in the companion cells -> allow faster rate of respiration => release more
energy for companion cells to transport and load sieve tubes with sugar from mesophyll cells by
active transport.

Vascular tissues in stems
1. Within the vascular bundle - xylem is located closer inside.

Phloem lies outside xylem with tissue called cambium between them
2. Stem - covered by a layer of cells called the epidermis.
Epidermal cells -protected by a waxy, waterproof cuticle that greatly reduces evaporation of water from the
stem.
Vascular tissues in leaves

Vascular bundles - found along the spongy mesophyll
Within vascular bundle - xylem is closer to the upper surface of leaf and phloem closer to the lower surface of
the leaf
Vascular tissues in roots

1. Epidermis of the root is the outermost layer of cells. It bears root hairs
2. Each root hair - long narrow extension growing out of an epidermal cell.
Long and narrow extension of root hair increases SA to V ratio of root hair cell.
Rate of absorption of water and mineral salts is increased thru this adaptation

What is photosynthesis
Where could plants obtain carbon and energy from?

Carbon - air
Energy - light
In photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy from light to make glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This
process releases oxygen.
Equation for photosynthesis:
note* have to state light

ENERGY instead of light
How can we study photosynthesis
Basic knowledge explanation action to take
glucose is first formed from carbon ● simplest energy-rich not applicable

dioxide during photosynthesis organic molecules ->
carbohydrates
● Simplest stable form of
carbohydrates = glucose
presence of starch in leaves ● when glucose formed more test for starch using iodine solution
suggests that photosynthesis has quickly than it is used up
taken place -> excess glucose is
converted to starch for
storage
● However - starch formation
does not indicate
photosynthesis has taken
place.
○ -> starch can be
formed even in
roots or
underground
storage organs of
plants.
destarching (removal of starch) ● ensures starch is absent in ● put plants in dark room for
must be carried out on plants leaves before experiment two days
before experiments. ● All starch present in leaves ● In darkness,
- after the experiment - photosynthesis stops and
must have been formed enzymes in leaves convert
during photosynthesis starch to sucrose, which is
transported to other parts
of the plant.

How to prepare the leaf for test for presence of starch
1. Remove a green leaf from a plant that has been exposed to light for a few hours
2. Immediately put the leaf in boiling water for 2 min to denature the enzymes in the leaf and stop
chemical reactions in the leaf
3. Put the boiled leaf in a boiling tube containing alcohol/ethanol to decolourise the leaf. Place the boiling
tube -> in the beaker of hot water. Leaf has to be decolourised so the color of iodine can be clearly
observed. Alcohol will remove green pigment chlorophyll from the leaf. The Leaves will become
colorless/white.
4. Leaf is now very brittle. Gently remove the leaf and put it back into hot water. This softens the leaf and
makes it more permeable to iodine solution.
5. Remove the leaf and spread it evenly on white tile. Add a few drops of iodine solution to the leaf.
How can we show that photosynthesis has taken place?

By testing for presence of starch in leaves
Equation for photosynthesis shows that glucose is the carbohydrate that is produced.
However, in experiments on photosynthesis, we often test for starch to show that photosynthesis has taken
place.
- This is because glucose is always present in all leaves.
- However excess glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted to starch and stored in leaves
- Thus, if starch is absent at the beginning of the experiment but present at the end of experiment, it
shows that photosynthesis has taken place.
How do plants absorb light

Chlorophyll - pigment in plants that absorb light ENERGY.
Green color in leaves is due to the presence of chlorophyll.
What gas is given off during photosynthesis.

Plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen
What conditions are essential for photosynthesis

Light, carbon dioxide, and chlorophyll are essential for photosynthesis.
Suitable temperature and sufficient water is also needed.
Photosynthesis depends on enzyme reactions in chloroplasts. Thus, suitable (optimal) temperature is required
for photosynthesis to take place.

What happens during photosynthesis
Exam Definition: photosynthesis is the process by which plants synthesize carbohydrates (eg;glucose) from
water and carbon dioxide. Water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials for photosynthesis. Oxygen is
released during the process.
During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs light energy and transfers it to chemical stores of energy as
carbohydrates (eg: glucose) which are synthesized from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is released as a by
-product.
remember to state light ENERGY instead

Balanced equation for photosynthesis:
remember to state light ENERGY instead

Rate of photosynthesis affected by external factors:
- light intensity
- Concentration of carbon dioxide
- Temperature
- Photosynthesis ->
- without enough light plant
enzyme dependent.
cannot photosynthesize - even if there is plenty of - increasing temperature
very fast, even if there is light, plant photosynthesis to optimum temperature
plenty of water and CO2 if it does not have sufficient -> increases rate of
- Increasing light intensity carbon dioxide photosynthesis.
increases rate of - Increasing carbon dioxide - Increasing temperature
photosynthesis until a increases rate of beyond optimum
constant rate is reached photosynthesis until temperature ->
- When more light supplied to constant rate is reached decreases rate of
plant, amount of energy for - When there is more CO2 photosynthesis because
photosynthesis increases available to plant - it can of enzyme desaturation
and this increases the rate produce more glucose.
of photosynthesis

Limiting factors in photosynthesis
Limiting factor is any factor that directly affects the rate of chemical reaction.
Rate of reaction can be increased only if the value of the limiting factor is increased.
Temp. remains constant, and CO2 Increasing temperature - while

Beyond point A - light - no longer concentration of env. Raised to keeping CO2 concentration
the limiting factor since rate of 0.13%. constant.
photosynthesis remains constant Indicates CO2 concentration is the -> The temperature of the
even though light intensity limiting factor in graph 1. surrounding area is the limiting
increases. [co2 is an important limiting factor factor in graph 2.
Either temp. Or CO2 concentration since atmospheric carbon dioxide
becomes the limiting factor. remains constant at around 0.01%]
What happens to glucose that is formed during photosynthesis

-> either used immediately or stored in the plant.
1. Glucose is used immediately. ● Cellular respiration to provide energy for

cellular activities
● To form cellulose of cell walls
2. a) In daylight - rate of photosynthesis - so great

that glucose is formed faster than it can be
Important: photosynthesis stops: starch is converted removed.
back into glucose. -> Excess glucose is converted to starch
b) In darkness, photosynthesis stops - starch is

converted back into glucose.
3. Glucose is converted to sucrose ● Is transported to other parts of plant or to

storage organs [seeds, stem tubers, root
tubers] via phloem
● Converted to other forms of storage
compounds at the storage organs, depending
on plant
● May be converted back into glucose for
respiration
● Component of nectar in flowers - attract
insects for pollination.
4. Glucose is converted to amino acids in leaves. Excess is transported to other parts of plant:
● For synthesis of new protoplasm
● For storage as proteins
Used to form proteins.

-> used for synthesis of new protoplasm in leaves.
5. Glucose forms fats ● For storage

● Used in cellular respiration
● For synthesis of new protoplasm.

Why is photosynthesis important
Photosynthesis makes chemical energy available to animals and other organisms

Sunlight - ultimate source of energy for living organisms
-> during photosynthesis -> chlorophyll absorbs light energy and transfers it to chemical stores of energy in
carbohydrate molecules.
Fats, proteins, other organic compounds -> formed from carbohydrates.
-> all these substances eventually become food for other organisms.
All organisms - thus obtain chemical energy directly / indirectly from plants, because plants are producers of
food chains.
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide and provides oxygen

-> photosynthesis removes CO2 from air - and at same time - produces oxygen.
Oxygen released is used by living organisms - in respiration - to release energy for cell activities.
Process of photosynthesis - maintains constant level of O2 and CO2 in atmosphere.
Energy stored in fossil fuels comes from photosynthesis

All energy in fossil fuels [coal, oil, gas] -> Comes from the sun, captured through photosynthesis.
Burning of fossil fuels -> releases energy -> which we use in our daily life - such as cooking, generating
electricity in our homes.
How can we study movement of substances in plants?
How can we study the path water takes through the plant
- let’s investigate 12.10
How can we study the path food substances take through a plant
definition: translocation is the transport of manufactured food substances, such as sugars(sucrose) and
amino acids, from the leaves to the other parts of the plant via phloem
It is bi-directional. Food substances can move either down the phloem tissues of the shoots to the top roots,
or up the phloem tissues of shoots to the leaves/flower buds.
Ringing experiment
Ring of bark with the phloem - removed from the stem of a woody plant.
After some time - stem immediately above the cut swells up.
- phloem removed - food substances from leaves cannot reach the stem below the cut region.
- They accumulate above the cut region, causing it to swell up.

Using aphids in translocation studies
Insects - aphids - feed on plant juices
Long mouthpart(stylet) - penetrates the leaf of the stem.
Paid can be anesthetized with CO2 while it is feeding.
Body of the aphid is cut off - leaving only feeding stylet in plant tissue.
Liquid - will exude from the cut end of the stylet. Liquid shows that it contains sucrose and amino acids.
When the stem is sectioned and examined under microscope - feeding style of aphid is inserted into the
phloem in the tube. This shows that translocation of sugars and amino acids occur in the phloem.
Using isotopes in translocation studies

Carbon -14 -> radioactive carbon isotope. Its presence can be detected by an X-ray photographic film.
Leaf is provided with carbon dioxide containing radioactive carbon -14.
When photosynthesis occurs -> sugars formed will contain radioactive carbon. (sucrose when it is being
transported contains radioactive carbon)
Stem is then cut - a section of it is exposed onto X-ray photographic film.
Found that radioactive substances are present in the phloem, since radioactive substances cause X-ray film
to darken.
How does water enter a plant

Entry of water into a plant
1. Each root hair -> narrow extension of an

epidermal cell.
-> grows between the soil particles - coming into
close contact with the soil solution surrounding it.
2. The thin film of liquid surrounding each soil
particle is a dilute solution of mineral salts.
3. Cell sap in root hair cell -> relatively

concentrated solution of sugars and various
salts.
-> thus, cell sap has lower WP than soil solution
Cell sap and soil solution - separated by the Partially
permeable cell membrane of root hair cells.
Water enters root hair by osmosis
4. Entry of water - dilutes cell sap in the root

hair cell.
Cell sap of root hair cell (cell A) - now has higher WP
than that of next cell (cell B).
-> water passes by osmosis from root hair cell into
inner cell
5. Similarly - water passes from cell B to the

next cell (cell C).
Process of osmosis continues until water enters
xylem vessels and moves up the plant.

How do root hairs absorb ions or mineral salts
-> active transport - concentration of ions in soil solution - lower than that in root hair cell sap.
- Root hairs - have to absorb ions against concentration gradient - by active transport.
- Energy for this process comes from cellular respiration in the root hair cell
-> by diffusion - when concentration of certain ions in soil solution is higher than that in root hair cell.
How is the root hair cell adapted to its function of absorption?

- root hair is a long and narrow extension of the root hair cell. Increases SA to F ratio - increases rate of
absorption of water and mineral salts by root hair cell.
- Cell membrane - prevents cell sap from leaking out. Cell sap - also contains sugars, amino acids, and
salts. Allows cell sap to maintain lower WP than soil solution. Results in water entering root hair by
osmosis
- Root hair cell - contains many mitochondria. Aerobic respiration - in mitochondria - releases energy for
active transport of ions into the cell.

How does water move up a plant
Main force that moves water up a plant is known as transpirational pull - created from a process known as
transpiration.
What is transpiration?
Not all water absorbed - used by leaves of plant
Some water was removed when it evaporated from the aerial parts of the plant.
definition: transpiration is the loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of the plant, mainly through the
stomata of the leaves.
How is transpiration involved in moving water against gravity
Evaporation of water - from leaves - removes water from xylem vessels.

- results in suction force which pulls water up the xylem vessels.
- Suction force due to transpiration is known as transportational pull.
- It is the main force in drawing water and mineral salts up the plant
Why is rate of water uptake calculated not necessarily equal to rate of water lost thru transpiration
Water molecules taken in by transpirational pull will not all be lost through the stomata during transpiration.
Some water molecules will be used for other processes such as photosynthesis and maintaining cell turgor.

1. A thin film of moisture surrounds the
mesophyll cells.
-> water evaporates from this thin film -> to form
water vapor in the Intercellular air spaces
2. Water vapor -> diffuses through
stomata(higher concentration) -> to the drier
air outside the leaf (lower concentration). This
is transpiration
3. As water evaporates from thin film of moisture
-> more water moves out from mesophyll
cells via osmosis to replenish it.
-> as water is lost from mesophyll cells -> WP of cell
sap decreases -> become lower than that of their
neighboring mesophyll cells
4. Mesophyll cells -> draw water from cells
deeper inside leaf by osmosis
5. Cells deeper inside the leaf -> draw water
from xylem by osmosis.
-> creates a suction force which pulls a whole column
of water up the xylem vessels. Known as
transpirational pull.
transpiration occurs mainly through stomata -> linked to gas exchange between plant and env.
In daylight - stomata open to allow CO2 to diffuse into the leaf for photosynthesis. Oxygen and water vapor ->
more concentrated in intercellular air spaces - diffuse out of leaf through stomata.
Why is transpiration inevitable?

In daylight, photosynthesis occurs. Stomata open to allow diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaves + oxygen to
diffuse out of the leaves.
Since concentration of water vapor is high in the intercellular air spaces compared to the external environment,
water vapor will also diffuse out of the leaves, which results in transpiration.
Importance of transpiration
Although excessive transpiration is harmful to plant - transpiration has certain uses:
● Transpirational pull is a major suction force for moving water and mineral salts up the xylem from the
roots to the stem and leaves (aerial parts of the plant)
● Evaporation of water from surface of cells in leaves - cools the plant - preventing it from being
scorched by hot sun
● Water transported to leaves - can be used in photosynthesis - to keep cells turgid - and to replace
water lost by cells. Turgid cells - keep leaves spread out widely to trap light for photosynthesis.

How to measure rate of transpiration under different conditions
Potometer -> used to measure rate of absorption of water by plant.

Assuming rate of water absorption is directly proportional to rate of transpiration -> potometer can then be
used to measure rate of transpiration.
Shoots that are used in a potometer - must be cut under water.
Cut end - kept immersed in water for a few hours before use. Allows shoots to adjust to the conditions of the
potometer.
Potometer can also be used to determine effects of diff. Environmental conditions on rate of transpiration:
- investigate effect of temperature - can compare rate of transpiration in room with an air conditioner,
where temp. Can be controlled
- Investigate effect of wind speed -> compare rate of transpiration in room with ceiling fan switched on
and switched off
- Investigate effect of light intensity - compare rate of transpiration in dark room with table lamp at
various distances from plant.
Factors that affect rate of transpiration

Transpiration - involves evaporation. Any factor that affects the rate of evaporation will affect the rate of
transpiration.
1. Wind or air movement

Affects concentration of water vapor in the air around the stomata.
Stronger wind: -> water vapor that diffuses out of the stomata is blown away -> steeper concentration
gradient of water vapor inside and outside the leaf -> higher rate of transpiration.
Still air: -> water vapor accumulates outside the leaf -> decreased concentration gradient of water vapor ->
lower rate of transpiration.
2. Temperature of air
Assuming other factors remain constant -> rise in temperature of surroundings - increase rate of evaporation
of water from cell surface.
Rate of transpiration is higher and higher temperatures
Increasing temperature -> causes water from thin film of moisture to evaporate faster -> more water vapor
accumulates in the intercellular air spaces in the leaf.
Concentration gradient of water vapor between intercellular air spaces and the surrounding air is steeper.
Water vapor thus diffuses out from the stomata faster.
3. Light
Light - affects the size of stomata on leaves.
Therefore it will affect the rate of transpiration.
In the presence of light - stomata open and become wider. This increases rate of transpiration
In darkness, stomata close(reduce in size) - so less water is lost from the leaf.
4. Humidity of the air

Affects water vapor concentration gradient between leaf and surrounding air.
Low humidity: less water vapor in surrounding air. Steeper concentration gradient - higher rate of
transpiration.
High humidity: decreased water vapor concentration gradient -> lower rate of transpiration.
Plants living in dry condition - special structures that help them control transpiration rate.

Marram grass - sunken stomata that lie in grooves in the upper surface of leaves.
These grooves - contain many tiny hairs - that trap water vapor diffusing out of the stomata.
- increases the humidity around stomata and so reduces the rate of transpiration.
Wilting
Turgor pressure in leaf mesophyll cells -> help to support the leaf and keep it firm.
Enables it to spread out widely to absorb light for photosynthesis.
In strong light, hot and dry weather - when rate of transpiration exceeds rate of absorption of water by roots
-> cells lose their turgor.
They become flaccid and the plant wilts [refer to chapter 1 cells explanation]
Wilting also occurs in soft stems of some plants -> Balsam.
Cells of the stem lose water.
Advantages of wilting
When the leaf folds up due to wilting -> SA that is exposed to light is reduced.
Reduced exposed SA of leaf -> reduce the exposure of stomata to the atmosphere as guard cells become
flaccid and reduce significantly in size -> reduces the rate of water loss through stomata.
Excessive loss of water - causes guard cells to become flaccid and the stomata to close.
Rate of transpiration is reduced
Disadvantages of wilting
Stomata are closed - the amount of CO2 entering the leaf through diffusion is also reduced.
CO2 becomes a limiting factor and the rate of photosynthesis is decreased.
Folding of leaf - can also reduce exposed SA to light.
Also reduces the rate of photosynthesis.
Calculating rate of transpiration
Rate of transpiration (g/h) = loss in mass(g) / time taken (h)
Other information which i found particularly useful
Sodium hydroxide solution: alkaline solution which reacts with CO2 (acidic gas) hence removing CO2 from air
Hydrogen carbonate indicator: PH indicator which changes color with respect to PH of a solution.
Dissociation
CO2 + H20 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+
Carbon-dioxide
CO2 dissolves in water to produce carbonic acid - which increases concentration of H+ ions in solution.
PH - indication of concentration of H+ in the solution

PH = -Log[H+]

Higher PH - lower the H+ (alkaline)
Lower PH - higher the H+ (acidic)
When rate of P > rate of R, more CO2 taken in than given out
At The rate of R > P, more CO2 is given off than taken in.

Nutrition in Humans
Definition: nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food and energy for growth, repair and
maintenance of the body.
In humans -> nutrition consists of following processes:
● Feeding or ingestion -> food is taken into the body
● Digestion -> large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed
into the body cells.
● Absorption -> nutrients move from the small intestine into the bloodstream.
● Assimilation -> nutrients are used by cells to provide energy or to make new cytoplasm for growth
● Egestion -> undigested matter is removed from the body.
Human digestive system

Human digestive system -> consists of the gut or alimentary canal and organs (liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
associated with it.
Alimentary canal > 9 meter long tube -> extends from mouth to the anus, with most of its length coiled up in the
abdomen or abdominal cavity.
Alimentary canal -> makes up a large part of the organ system for nutrition.
Mouth and buccal cavity

Food enters the body through the mouth -> which leads
into the buccal cavity.
Buccal cavity -> inside mouth and beginning of
alimentary canal.
In mouth there are:
● Teeth -> break up large pieces of food into
smaller pieces. This increases the SA to V ratio of food to
enzymes so that enzymes can act on food more
efficiently.
● Salivary glands -> secrete saliva into mouth
● Tongue -> mixes food with saliva and moves food
to the back of mouth during swallowing.
Pharynx
-> part of the alimentary canal -> connects buccal cavity
to oesophagus and larynx (voice box).
=> also leads to trachea (windpipe)

Oesophagus
-> narrow, muscular tube
Passes through thorax (chest) and joins mouth to stomach
Walls of oesophagus -> contains 2 layers of muscles.

Muscles are present along the whole gut from the oesophagus to rectum.
2 layers of muscles are:

● Longitudinal muscles on outer side of gut wall
● Circular muscles on inner side of gut wall
Both sets of muscles -> produce long, slow contractions.
These contractions -> move food along gut via peristalsis.
Peristalsis
Definition: peristalsis is the rhythmic, wavelike muscular contractions in the walls of the alimentary canal.
-> enables food to be mixed with digestive juices, and also pushes or propels food along the gut.
When circular muscles contract -> they constrict the lumen.

When longitudinal muscles contract -> they shorten and widen the lumen.
Circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles.
-> means that when one set of muscles contracts, the other set relaxes.
● When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax. Wall of the gut constricts, and the gut
becomes narrow and longer. Food is squeezed and pushed forwards.
● When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax. Gut dilates, becomes wider and shorter.
Widen the lumen for food to enter.
Stomach
-> distensible muscular bag -> with thick and well developed muscular walls.
-> lies to the left side of the abdominal cavity
-> Partly covered by the liver.
Inner surface of stomach wall -> numerous pits -> walls of which are lined with gastric glands.
These glands -> secrete gastric juice which plays an important role in digestion.

Small intestine
-> consists of U-shaped duodenum (first part of small intestine) and much coiled ileum.
-> small intestine is about 6m long
Small intestine -> carries out most digestive processes.

Lining of walls of small intestine -> contain glands -> secrete digestive enzymes.
With these enzymes and enzymes from the pancreas, food is digested.
Water and nutrients from food we eat -> absorbed in the small intestine.
Large intestine
-> shorter but much broader than the small intestine.
Small intestine -> opens into the large intestine in the right side of the abdominal cavity.
Large intestine -> about 1.5m long and consists of colon, rectum (short muscular tube) and anus.
Feces (undigested matter) -> stored temporarily in rectum

When rectum contracts -> feces are expelled thru anus.
Main function of colon -> absorb about 90% of remaining water and mineral salts from undigested food material.
Organs and glands associated with the gut
Liver and gallbladder

Liver -> largest gland in body
-> dark red in color and its upper surface touches the diaphragm and the lower surface is in contact with the
stomach and small intestine.
=> attached to lower surface of liver are 3 blood vessels:
● Hepatic portal vein
● Hepatic vein
● Hepatic artery
Liver cells -> produce and secrete bile, an alkaline greenish yellow liquid containing bile salts.
=> does not contain enzymes -> so it cannot chemically digest food but it aids in physical digestion of fats.
Bile -> stored temporarily in gallbladder.

Gall bladder -> greenish yellow bag attached to liver.
When gallbladder contracts -> bile flows into duodenum via bile duct.

Pancreas
-> gland lying in the loop of the duodenum
-> connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic duct.
Bile duct -> joins pancreatic duct just before pancreatic duct opens into the duodenum.
Pancreas -> produce pancreatic juices which contain digestive enzymes amylase, lipase, and protease.
Pancreas also secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon -> play an important role in the control of the blood
sugar level in the body.
Digestion in humans
Definition: digestion is the process whereby large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells.
Digestion involves 2 processes -> physical digestion, and chemical digestion
Physical digestion -> involves mechanical break up of food into small particles.
This occurs:
● In the mouth -> when you chew food by action of the teeth and tongue
● In the stomach -> where continual contractions and relaxations of the muscles in the stomach wall cause
a churning action. Breaks up the food particles and mixes them with digestive enzymes.
● In the small intestine -> where fats are broken up into small fat molecules by bile salts.
Physical digestion -> increases SA to V ratio of the ingested food so that digestive enzymes can act on food
more efficiently.
Chemical digestion -> breaking down the large molecules in food, such as proteins, starch and fats into small
soluble molecules that can be absorbed.
Processes that take place in the mouth

1. Food in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to secrete saliva.
2. Saliva is mixed with food to soften it
3. Saliva -> contains an enzyme called salivary amylase -> which digests starch to maltose
4. Optimum pH for salivary amylase -> pH 7 -> at which enzyme is most active
5. Chewing breaks food up into smaller pieces. Increases the surface area to volume ratio for salivary
amylase to work on.
6. Tongue -> rolls food into small, slippery, round masses or boli (singular: bolus)
7. Boli -> swallowed and passed down into the oesophagus -> via pharynx
8. Peristalsis -> in walls of oesophagus -> pushes each bolus of food down into the stomach.

Processes that take place in the stomach
● Presence of food in the stomach -> stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juices into the
stomach cavity.
● Peristalsis in the stomach wall -> churns and breaks up the food. Peristalsis ->also mixes the food well
with gastric juice.
● Gastric juice -> in the stomach contains hydrochloric acid. (pH 2), mucus, and enzyme pepsin, which is a
protease.
○ Dilute hydrochloric acid:
■ Stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it.
■ Provides a low pH environment within stomach -> about pH 2 -> which is optimum pH for
enzyme protease to digest proteins
■ Kill certain potentially harmful microorganisms in food
● Protease digests proteins into polypeptides
Proteases
Proteins -> polypeptides

● Mucus layer -> protects the stomach wall against being digested by enzymes it produces. Mucus -> also
moistens the food to allow easy movement within the stomach
● Food -> normally remains in the stomach -> for about 3-4 hours. Partly digested food -> becomes
liquified, forming chyme.
● Chyme -> passes in small amounts into the duodenum when pyloric sphincter relaxes and opens.
Food stays in stomach for a few hours
Without a stomach -> a person may not feel hungry.
Processes that take place in the small intestine

Chyme -> enters duodenum.
It stimulates:
● Pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice -> passes through the pancreatic duct into the
duodenum. Pancreatic juice -> contains enzymes pancreatic amylase, protease and pancreatic lipase.
● Gall bladder to release bile. Bile passes through the bile duct into duodenum. Bile -> does not contain
enzymes so it cannot digest food, but bile salts speed up the digestion of fats.
● Epithelial cells -> in the small intestine -> to produce enzymes maltase, protease, lipase.
Food now comes into contact with pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice.
All 3 fluids are alkaline. The alkalis:
● Neutralize the acidic chyme
● Provide a suitable alkaline medium (pH 8) for the action of the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes.

Digestion of different foods
Carbohydrate digestion
Food we eat -> may contain carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, cellulose.
Carbohydrates > digested by carbohydrases such as amylase and maltase.
● Carbohydrate digestion -> begins in mouth. Salivary amylase in the mouth digests starch into maltose.
Only little starch can be digested because food does not remain long in the mouth.
● No digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the stomach -> no carbohydrases there.
● When carbohydrates enter the small intestine -> they are fully digested into simple sugars. For instance
-> starch is digested by pancreatic amylase into maltose -> which is further digested by maltase into
glucose.
End products of carbohydrate digestion -> simple sugars which can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Cellulose -> not digested at all in humans.
Protein digestion
Proteins are digested by proteases:
● Some protein digestion begins in the stomach -> where stomach protease digests proteins to
polypeptides.
● Undigested proteins that enter the small intestine -> digested by intestinal protease to polypeptides.
● polypeptide produced -> further digested to amino acids by intestinal proteases.
End products of protein digestion -> amino acids -> which can be absorbed.
Fat digestion
Bile - produced by liver and stored in gallbladder -> released into duodenum.
In the small intestine -> bile salts emulsify fats.
They lower the surface tension of the fats -> they reduce the attractive forces between the fat molecules.
=> causes fats to break up into tiny fat droplets suspended in water -> forming an emulsion.
Note -> this is just a physical break up, no chemical digestion of fat molecules has occurred.
Emulsification -> increases surface area to volume ratio of fats -> speeding up their digestion by lipase.
Emulsified fats -> digested by lipases (pancreatic and intestinal lipase) -> to fatty acids and glycerol.
Thus, end products of fat digestion are fatty acids and glycerol.
lipase
Fats -> fatty acid + glycerol

Summary table
Region of digestion Secretion source enzyme(s) Action
Mouth saliva Salivary glands Salivary amylase Starch -> maltose
stomach Gastric juice Gastric glands protease Proteins -> polypeptides
Small intestine bile liver - Bile salts emulsify fats
Pancreatic pancreas Protease Proteins -> polypeptides

juice Pancreatic amylase Starch -> maltose
lipase Fats -> fatty acids + glycerol
Intestinal Epithelial cells Lipase Fats -> fatty acids + glycerol

enzymes Protease Polypeptides -> amino
maltase acids
Maltose -> glucose
Absorption
Definition: absorption is the process whereby digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells.
Products of digestion such as simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol -> are absorbed throughout
the small intestine -> especially along the ileum.
Absorbed nutrients diffuse from the cells of the small intestine into the bloodstream.
Water and mineral salts -> absorbed by the small intestine and the colon.
Small intestine -> absorbs most of the water that enters the alimentary canal.
From the small intestine, about 1-1.5 liters of water pass into the large intestine daily -> and the colon absorbs
about 90% of that amount.
How is small intestine adapted for absorption

● Inner surface of the ileum is folded extensively and has numerous minute finger-like projections called
villi (singular villus) to increase surface area to volume ratio of food to cells for absorption.
● Epithelium or wall of the villus is only one cell thick -> provide a short diffusion distance for nutrients to
pass through.
● Cells of the epithelium -> have many microvilli to further increase surface area to volume ratio of food to
small intestine.
● Each villus also has many blood capillaries that allow blood to transport absorbed glucose and amino
acids in order to maintain a diffusion gradient.
● Each villus contains a lacteal to transport the absorbed fats away and maintain a steep diffusion
gradient.
● The epithelial cells contain many mitochondria to provide energy for active transport of nutrients into
the villi.

How does absorption take place in the intestines
● Glucose and amino acids -> absorbed by diffusion into blood capillaries of the villi.
● Glucose and amino acids -> absorbed by active transport. This happens when there is a lower
concentration of these digested food substances in the lumen of the small intestine than in the blood
capillaries.
● Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelium. Here, they combine to form minute fat globules that
enter the lacteals.
What happens to undigested and unabsorbed matter

Undigested and unabsorbed matter -> stored temporarily in rectum -> before it is discharged as feces through
the anus.
Removal of undigested matter from the body is called egestion or defecation.
Later on, add, bile salts are not affected by boiling or by high temperatures.

What happens to the absorbed nutrients
definition: process whereby some of the absorbed nutrients are converted into new cytoplasm or used to
provide energy.
How are glucose and amino acids transported and utilized

After absorption -> blood in the villi is now rich in nutrients.
Blood capillaries -> unite to form larger blood vessels -> which in turn unite to form a large vein -> the hepatic
portal vein.
=> transports nutrients from the small intestine to the liver.
In the liver > most of the absorbed sugars are converted to glycogen and stored.
some glucose -> transported by blood leaving leaver and distributed around the body.
● All cells -> use glucose as a source of energy. Glucose -> is assimilated -> then broken down during
tissue respiration to release energy -> for vital activities of the cells.
● Excess glucose -> returned to liver -> stored as glycogen. Hormone called insulin -> produced by islets
of Langerhans in Pancreas -> stimulates liver cells -> to convert excess glucose into glycogen.
● When the body needs energy -> the liver converts stored glycogen back into glucose. Glucose -> then
transported by blood to cells.
● amino acids -> that enter cells -> are converted into new cytoplasm -> used for growth and repair of
worn out parts of the body.
● amino acids -> also used to form enzymes and hormones.
● excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver.
How are fats transported and utilized

Fats -> absorbed into lymphatic capillaries.
Lymphatic capillaries -> join to form larger lymphatic vessels -> which discharge fats into bloodstream.
Blood -> carries fat to all parts of body -> especially -> Liver.
here -> fats are converted into forms that can either be broken down or stored.
● under normal conditions -> when there is sufficient supply of glucose -> fats are not broken down.
Instead -> fats are used to build protoplasm, example in cell membranes.
● when glucose is short in supply -> during fasting -> fats broken down to provide energy needed for vital
activities of the body.
● excess fats -> stored in special tissues -> adipose tissues -> which can be found beneath skin and
around heart and kidneys.
○ Adipose tissues -> protect these organs by acting as shock absorbers.

Functions of the liver
-> liver -> largest organ in the human body.
damaged liver -> may cause many problems.
production of bile
The liver plays an important role in fat digestion.
=> helps in digestion of fats by secreting bile.
bile -> stored temporarily in gall bladder before use.
Deamination of Amino Acids

excess amino acids -> transported to the liver.
Their amino groups -> are removed -> and converted into urea. This is deamination
definition: deamination is the process by which amino groups are removed from amino acids and converted
to urea.
urea -> removed by body in urine.

Remains of deaminated amino acids -> converted to glucose in the liver.
Any excess glucose -> formed in this way is converted to glycogen.
Regulation of blood glucose concentration

liver -> key role in carbohydrate metabolism -> by keeping amount of glucose in blood constant -> especially
after a heavy meal or during fasting.
Pancreas -> contain special groups of cells known as islets of Langerhans -> secrete the hormone insulin and
glucagon into the bloodstream.
Both insulin and glucagon -> help to regulate level of glucose in blood.
Copy down the answer key from worksheet 5.4 on this topic
Breakdown of hormones
Hormones -> after they have served their purpose -> are broken down in the liver
Detoxification
harmful substances -> absorbed into blood from the gut.
These substances - made harmless by liver cells.
process of converting harmful substances -> into harmless ones known as detoxification.
Alcohol -> example of harmful substance broken down by liver.

Alcohol -> can cause damage to digestive system -> slow down brain functions.

Liver cells -> contain an enzyme which breaks down alcohol -> to compounds that can be used in respiration
-> providing energy for cell activities.

Ultimate Biology Revision Notes For O-Level

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Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

What are cells?

What do cells do?

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

- Too small to be seen by the naked eye

Longitudinal section cross section/transverse section

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

Golgi body (golgi apparatus)

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

1. Vesicles transport substances within the cell

4. Secretory vesicles - fuse with the cell membrane.

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

How are cells adapted to their function?

3. Root hair cell

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Concentration gradient and its relation to diffusion

Definition: Concentration gradient: difference in

● The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate

Diffusion explanation: (describe q)

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

1. Concentration gradient - already discussed above*

- Diffusion in lungs and root hair cells

Note: solute can also diffuse*

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Such cells - have long narrow protrusions / folds in their membranes.

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

What is Water Potential and how is it related to osmosis?

1. Water potential gradient

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

What happens to cell in solution with same water potential

-> no change in size or shape

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Importance of Turgor in Plants:

Plasmolysis - causes cells to become flaccid and limp

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Requires energy from respiration

Where does active transport occur

Human body: Plants:

[in the form of ions]

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Osmosis to outside the cell:

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

● sucrose(cane sugar) hsa formula 𝐶12𝐻22𝑂22(ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1)

Single sugars [monosaccharide]

Common single sugars - glucose and fructose

Single sugar occurrence

glucose Found in plants and animals

fructose Common in plants, but rare in animals.

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

maltose(malt sugar) -> occurs in germinating grains.

Sucrose molecule - made up of 1 glucose and 1 fructose molecule joined together

Glucose + fructose -> sucrose

Ultimate Biology O level notes Tanmay Garg (Scss)

Procedure for liquid:

1. Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the sample in a test tube

Solution remained blue No reducing sugar

Solution turned from blue to green precipitate Traces of reducing sugar