Chinchilla Notes

Y3 Biology Notes 2019

Chapter 1: Cells ................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2: Transport ....................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3: Nutrients ......................................................................................... 19
Chapter 4: Enzymes .......................................................................................... 25
Chapter 5: Human Nutrition ........................................................................... 29
Chapter 6: Plant Nutrition ............................................................................... 36
Chapter 7: Plant Transport ............................................................................. 42
Chapter 8: Human Transport.......................................................................... 48
Chapter 9: Respiratory System ....................................................................... 57
Chapter 10: Excretory System ......................................................................... 64
Chapter 11: Homeostasis .................................................................................. 68

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Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 1: Cells

Chapter Overview
This introductory chapter goes in-depth into the anatomy of a cell, starting with
how it is studied. You will then learn about organelles that form the protoplasm
and endomembrane system, which will lay the foundation of understanding future
systems of the human body.

1.1 Cytology
A branch of biology that involves the structure of animal and plant cells, using
microscopes and employing the technique of cell fractionation

Microscopes
Light Microscope Scanning Transmission
Electron Electron Microscope
Microscope
Mechanism Visible light → Electron beam Electron beam →
sample → glass → scan the very thin slice of
lenses, which surface of the sample to study its
refract light and sample to study internal ultra-
magnify image it structure
Quality Resolution Much higher resolution that does not
decreases as decrease as magnification increases
magnification until to a very large degree
increases
Key Words
Magnification: Ratio of image to
real size/size of image divided by
size of object
Resolution: Clarity of image
Note: Commonly used unit, (μm)
10−6 m – micrometre

1.2 Modern Cell Theory

• All organisms are composed of cells
• All cells are produced by the division of pre-existing cells
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Chinchilla Notes

• All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside cells
• The cell activity refers to the activities of subcellular structures within it

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Both have outside boundary including plasma membrane
Both carry out all functions of life
Both contain DNA
Contains DNA in ring form without Contains DNA with proteins as
protein chromatin
DNA is free in the cytoplasm DNA is enclosed within a nuclear
membrane
Mitochondria absent Mitochondria present

1.3 Organelles

This section will categorise organelles into those that constitute the protoplasm,
the endomembrane system and others.

1.3.1 Protoplasm
• Organelles: Cell surface membrane, Cytoplasm and Nucleus
1.3.1.1 Cytoplasm

• Function: Semi-fluid, jelly-like cytosol 1 containing organelles and other

subcellular structures

Note: Cytoplasm vs Cytosol

• Cytoplasm refers to all cellular matter within the cell membrane excluding
the nucleus, while the cytosol refers to the parts of the cell not held by
organelles
• Thus, cytosol is a subset of cytoplasm

1.3.1.2 Nucleus
• Components: Nucleolus2, Nucleoplasm, Nuclear Envelope

1
Cytosol – A water-based solution found within cells
2
Nucleolus – Plural: Nucleoli

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Chinchilla Notes

• Functions:
o Controls cell activities and chemical reactions like cell growth, division
and repair
o Contains most of the DNA, which contains information used by
ribosomes to make structural and secretory proteins, as well as
enzymes

Nuclear Envelope
• Functions:
o Regulates passage of molecules like
mRNA in and out of the nucleus
through nuclear pores
o Separates chemical reactions in
nucleus from those in cytoplasm

Nucleoplasm
• Structure: Jelly-like material where nucleotides and enzymes are dissolved
• Function: Contains nuclear lamina, protein fibres that support the nucleus
and determines its shape

Nucleolus
• Functions: Produces ribosome subunits by using rRNA and proteins which
in turn synthesize proteins
1.3.1.3 Cell Surface Membrane
• Components:
o Lipids → phospholipids and cholesterol
o Proteins → intrinsic and extrinsic
o Carbohydrates → glycolipids and glycoproteins3
• Functions: Partial permeability4 controls substances entering or leaving the
cell
o Non-polar5 and hydrophobic substances and gases can pass through
o Polar substances such as charged particles can pass through transport
proteins

3
Glycolipids and glycoproteins – Carbohydrates bonded to lipids and proteins respectively
4
Do not write semi-permeable
5
Polarity – for a molecule to have a difference in electronegativity (You will learn more in Chemistry)

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Chinchilla Notes

• Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model

o The molecules of the membrane are in
constant motion (Fluid)
o There is a mosaic-like distribution of protein
molecules embedded in phospholipid bilayer
(Mosaic)
o This results in a dynamic, ever-changing
structure

Phospholipids
• Structure: Glycerol6 head with 2 hydrocarbon tails (fatty acids7) and 1
phosphate group
o The glycerol is connected to the hydrocarbon tails and phosphate group
via ester linkage
o Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails → amphipathic8

*Memorise the chemical formula of the hydrophilic head and ester linkage

Fatty Acids
• Saturated Fatty Acids – all carbons in
hydrocarbon tail are connected by
single bonds
• Unsaturated Fatty Acids → one or more
double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon tail, creating kinks

6
Glycerol – An alcohol with 3 carbons and 3 hydroxyl groups
7
Fatty Acid – A long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at the end
8
Amphipathic – To have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

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Chinchilla Notes

Unsaturated Fatty Acids Saturated Fatty Acids

Liquid at room temperature Solid at room temperature
Found in plant and animal fats Found in most animal fats

Cholesterol
• Structure:
o Comprised of a sterol and an
alcohol
o Has a carbon skeleton with four
fused rings
• Functions:
o Plays a role in maintaining fluidity of cell membrane
o Precursor from which other steroids are synthesized
Phospholipid Bilayer
Cholesterol and phospholipids collectively form the bulk of the cell-surface
membrane, the phospholipid bilayer
• Formation:
o Due to watery internal and external environments of the cell
o Phospholipids spontaneously align to form a double-layer membrane, with
polar ends on the outside and non-polar tails inside
• Features:
o Mixture of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
▪ More unsaturated fatty acids 9 and shorter fatty acid tails increase
fluidity, allowing the membrane to function
o Contains cholesterol, which maintain fluidity
▪ Warm temperatures – cholesterol restrains movement of phospholipids
▪ Cool temperatures – cholesterol maintains fluidity by preventing tight
packing of phospholipids

*Learn how to draw the phospholipid bilayer, including

cholesterol and showing variety of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids

9
Recall how unsaturated fatty acids solidify at lower temperature than saturated fatty acids

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Chinchilla Notes

Membrane Proteins
Embedded and attached to the phospholipid bilayer are membrane proteins,
which perform various functions. They can be classified as extrinsic or intrinsic.
• Structure: A collage of different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix10 of
the phospholipid bilayer
• Functions:
o Hormone Binding Sites (E.g. Insulin Receptor)
o Immobilized Enzymes
o Channels (Passive Transport) and Pumps (Active Transport)
o Cell Adhesion (tight joints between groups of cells in tissues and organs)
o Cell Communication (e.g. Receptors for neurotransmitters)
Peripheral/Extrinsic Proteins
• Structure:
o Attached to inner or outer membrane surface, never flipping from one side
to the other
o Slide around membrane very quickly and sometimes collide
• Function:
o Maintain cell shape and cell motility11
• Examples:
o Enzymes that catalyse reactions in the cytoplasm
o Glycoproteins which stick out from the surface of the membrane like
antennae and play a role in cell recognition12

Integral/Intrinsic Proteins
• Structure:
o Transmembrane proteins 13 penetrate the hydrophobic core and
completely span the membrane
o Have hydrophobic regions comprised of stretches of nonpolar amino acids
coiled into a structure called alpha helices
• Function:
o Keep the membrane stable with weak hydrogen bonds
• Examples:

10
Fluid Matrix – Tissue between cells where specialized organelles are embedded
11
Motility – The ability to move independently
12
Some act as antigens, which activates production of antibodies if a virus is detected
13
Transmembrane Proteins – Not all intrinsic proteins are transmembrane proteins

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Chinchilla Notes

o Channel and carrier proteins14

1.3.2 Endomembrane System
Another set of organelles collectively form the endomembrane system, which can
be seen as a “production line” for cells to produce various substances such as
enzymes. We will first cover the organelles in this system, then its mechanism.

• Components: Nuclear envelope, Bound Ribosome, Endoplasmic Reticulum,

Golgi apparatus, vesicles and the plasma membrane
• Function:
o Regulates protein traffic
o Performs metabolic functions within cell

1.3.2.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Structure: 2 subunits – smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
o Rough ER has bound ribosomes attached to the outer surface, which can
synthesize proteins in cell, attached to nuclear envelope
• Function:
o Rough ER transport proteins made by ribosomes to Golgi apparatus for
secretion out of the cell and produces membrane phospholipids
o Smooth ER contains enzymes that synthesize lipids15, detoxify poison and
drugs16, and calcium pumps17 that store calcium in its lumen18 and release
it when stimulated

1.3.2.2 Bound Ribosome

• Structure: Made of mRNA and proteins and attached to RER
• Function: Makes proteins to be inserted into membranes19, packaged within
organelles20 and secreted outside the cell21
Note: Free ribosomes have the same structure but are suspended within the
cytoplasm, making proteins functioning within the cell

14
Carrier and Channel Proteins are elaborated on in Chapter 2
15
Rich amounts in gonads and adrenal glands
16
Rich amounts in liver cells
17
Rich amounts in muscle cells
18
Lumen – Inside space of a tubular structure
19
E.g. Carrier Proteins
20
E.g. Lysosomes
21
E.g. Hormones and Enzymes

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Chinchilla Notes

1.3.2.3 Golgi Apparatus22

• Functions: Chemically modifies substances made by ER
o Stores and packages these substances in vesicles for secretion out of cell
o Produces macromolecules

1.3.2.4 Vesicles
• Structure: Tiny spherical spaces enclosed by a membrane
• Types:
o Secretory vesicle – from Golgi apparatus, contains material to be released
from cell
o Lysosome – found in Amoeba and human macrophages23 that fuse with,
break down, engulf and ingest large molecules at low pH during
phagocytosis
▪ Large molecules – worn-out organelles within cell produce molecules
to be recycled during autophagy24 or bacteria

Mechanism of Endomembrane System

1. After DNA is transcripted 25 into messenger RNA (mRNA), it exits the
nucleus through the pores in the nuclear envelope
2. The RNA is then translated to form phospholipid proteins by bound ribosomes
while the RER itself makes phospholipids
3. Vesicles transport substances within the cell,
while small vesicles containing substances
made by the ER are pinched off
4. Vesicles fuse with Golgi apparatus and
release contents. Substances made by the ER
may be modified inside the Golgi apparatus,
then packaged into secretory vesicles
5. Secretory vesicles are pinched off the Golgi
apparatus and move to fuse with the cell
surface membrane
6. Secretory vesicles fuse with cell surface
membrane and release their contents outside the cell via exocytosis26

22
Golgi Apparatus – Remember to capitalize Golgi
23
Macrophage – A type of White Blood Cell
24
Autophagy – A catabolic mechanism involving self-degradation of dysfunctional components
25
Elaborated on in Year 4 Chapter 6 - Genetics
26
Elaborated on in Chapter 2

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Chinchilla Notes

1.3.3 Miscellaneous Organelles

These organelles are just not part of the cytoplasm or endomembrane system.

1.3.3.1 Vacuole
• Structure: Enclosed by a partially permeable membrane (tonoplast)
• Function: Stores water and food in animals, cell sap in plants
o Cell sap contains dissolved substances like sugars, mineral salts and
amino acids

While chloroplasts27, cell wall28, mitochondria29 and centrioles30 are technically

part of this chapter, I have decided to relocate them to others where they are more
relevant. Check the footnotes! However, I will still compare chloroplasts and
mitochondria here for consolidation.

Similarities between Mitochondria and Chloroplast

• Bound by double membrane
• Transform energy
• Have their own DNA and ribosomes
• Can reproduce within the cell

1.4 Animal Cell vs Plant Cell

Animal Cell
Cell wall absent
Small temporary vacuoles present
No chloroplast
Cholesterol in plasma membrane
Centrioles present
Stores glycogen
Plant Cell
Cell wall present
Large central vacuole present
Chloroplasts often present
No cholesterol in plasma membrane
Centrioles absent
Stores starch

1.5 Organisation of Cells

In summary, here is a section on how organelles are organised within a cell, and
how cells are organised in an organism.

27
Found in Chapter 6, Plant Nutrition
28
Found in Chapter 7, Plant Transport
29
Found in Chapter 9, Respiratory System
30
Found in Year 4 Chapter 3, Mitosis

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Chinchilla Notes

1.5.1 Organisation of Organelles in Cells

Manufacture (Key Word – Synthesize)

Nucleus DNA, RNA, Ribosomal Subunits
Ribosomes Polypeptides
Rough ER Membrane proteins, secretory proteins, hydrolytic enzymes,
transport vesicles
Smooth ER Lipids, carbohydrates (in liver cells)
Golgi Lysosomes, transport vesicles
apparatus • Modifies, temporarily stores and transports
macromolecules
Breakdown (Key Word – Digest)
Lysosomes Nutrients, bacteria, damaged organelles
• Destroys certain cells during embryonic development
Vacuoles and Unspecified in notes
Vesicles
Energy Processing (Key Word – Convert)
Chloroplasts Light energy → chemical energy (e.g. sugars)
Mitochondria Chemical energy of food → chemical energy of ATP
Support (Movement and Communication)
Cytoskeleton • Maintains cell shape, anchors organelles and facilitates
(E.g. flagella their movement
and • Allows cell movement
centrioles) • Mechanical transmission of signals from exterior to
interior of cell
Cell Wall • Maintains cell shape and skeletal support
• Provides external surface protection
• Binds cells to one another and other tissues

1.5.2 Organisation of Cells in Organisms

• Organelles are specialized structures that constitute cells
• Cells of the same function form simple tissues, while cells of different
functions form complex tissues
• Tissues work together to perform a specialized function as an organ
• Organs with related roles form and organ system
• Organ systems combine to form an organism

1.5.3 Surface Area to Volume Ratio in Cells

Here are some principles that determine the size of cells.

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Chinchilla Notes

• As the size of an organism increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases
• Cells cannot be too large as their volume increases faster than their surface
area, and the cell cannot transport nutrients in and wastes our fast enough
• Cells cannot be too small as the organelles will not be able to fit and function
correctly

Sample Questions
Q: Why is it better to use iodine to observe plant cells and methylene blue to
observe animal cells? [2]
A: Iodine can be used to stain plant cells as it binds to the starch granules in the
cytoplasm and nucleus. For animal cells, methylene blue stains the nucleic acids
as it binds well to DNA and RNA, as they have a negative charge. This allows
the nucleus to be clearly seen under the microscope.

Q: What are the differences between a cell wall and cell surface membrane of an
animal cell? [3]
A: Firstly, cell wall is made of cellulose while cell surface membrane is made of
phospholipid bilayer. Secondly, cell wall is fully permeable while cell surface
membrane is partially permeable. Finally, cell wall is rigid with a fixed shape
while cell surface membrane is flexible to change shape as needed.

Q: Why can the plant’s cell surface membrane not be observed under normal
conditions? [2]
A: The cell membrane is thin and transparent and is pressed against the interior
of the cell wall.

Q: Describe the endomembrane system in a phagocytic cell. [6]

A:
1. After DNA is transcripted into mRNA, it exits the nucleus through the pores
in the nuclear envelope
2. The RNA is then translated to form proteins by the ribosomes attached to the
ER
3. Vesicles transport substances within the cell, while small vesicles containing
substances made by the ER are pinched off
4. Vesicles then fuse with the Golgi apparatus and release their contents. The
substances made by the ER are modified inside the Golgi apparatus

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Chinchilla Notes

5. Lysosomes containing the modified substances are pinched off the Golgi
apparatus
6. The lysosome fuses with a phagosome (phagocytic vesicle) where microbes
are broken down at low pH
7. Digestive enzymes in the lysosome digest the microbes and the products are
absorbed by the cell

Q: Explain with examples how the inability of animals to synthesize organic food
results in the need for two tissues unique to animals. [2]
A: Firstly, intestinal epithelium is required to enable motility and coordinated
digestive and absorptive functions in the digestive system. Secondly, glandular
tissues in the epithelium of the stomach and small intestines secrete enzymes for
digesting food.

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Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 2: Transport

Chapter Overview
This chapter covers how different substances rely on different ways to be
transported, such as through diffusion, osmosis, active transport and facilitated
diffusion. The link to Chapter 1 lies in the description of channel and carrier
proteins, as well as the process of exocytosis, which is part of the endomembrane
system.

2.1 Diffusion
• Definition: Diffusion is the passive net movement of molecules or ions from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down the
concentration gradient
• Factors increasing rate of diffusion
o Smaller particles
o Thinner membranes and shorter distance between two regions → shorter
diffusion pathway
o Larger surface area
o Higher temperature → particles have more kinetic energy
o Higher solution concentration → steeper concentration gradient

2.2 Osmosis
Osmosis is a subset of diffusion that only involves movement of water molecules
• Definition: Osmosis is the passive net movement of water molecules from a
region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential across a
partially-permeable membrane
• In U tube experiment, the side with initially higher concentration of sugar
eventually has a higher level than the other side, as water molecules pass down
concentration gradient
from the lower
concentration of sugar to
the higher concentration,
while the larger sugar
molecules cannot pass
through the pores in the
partially-permeable
membrane

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Chinchilla Notes

2.2.1 Water Potential and Tonicity

Water potential and tonicity are two concepts that dictate the effects of osmosis
• Definition: Water potential is the measure of the tendency of water to move
from one place to another
• Definition: Tonicity is the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose
water

2.2.2 Effects of Osmosis on Plant and Animal Cells

There is a template answer to describe the effects of osmosis on plant and animal
cells. Use the table to fill the blanks in appropriately.

Solution Type Plant Cells Animal Cells

Template Description: In a solution with ___ water potential, the cytoplasm has
a ___ water potential than the outside system, causing water to diffuse ___ the
cell via osmosis through the partially permeable cell surface membrane. As
water ___ the cell, the cell ___
Isotonic (solute No concentration gradient – no net movement of water,
concentration = Plant cell is flaccid
cell cytoplasm)
Hypertonic Low, higher, out of, vacuole Low, higher, out of,
(solute decreases in size, while the shrinks in size, causing
concentration > cytoplasm and cell membrane little spikes to appear on
cell cytoplasm) shrink away from the cell wall the cell surface membrane
during plasmolysis through crenation
Hypotonic High, lower, into, vacuole High, lower, into, swells
(solute increases in size and pushes as it does not have a cell
concentration < cell contents against inelastic wall and eventually
31
cell cytoplasm) cell wall, making cell turgid bursts
Ideal Condition Hypotonic Isotonic

31
The pressure exerted by the inelastic cell wall to prevent the cell from over-expanding is called turgor
pressure, which prevents further entry of water

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Chinchilla Notes

*Learn how to draw diagrams of the effects of different tonicities on plant and animal cells

2.3 Facilitated Diffusion

Sometimes, molecules need a little help from carrier and channel proteins to pass
through membranes like the phospholipid bilayer. They can be seen as boats that
shuttle these molecules across an uncrossable river.
• Definition: The spontaneous passage of molecules and ions, bound to specific
carrier proteins across a biological membrane down the concentration
gradient
• Involves large (e.g. amino acids, sugar), polar (e.g. water) or strongly
charged molecules (Na+, Ca2+, K+ which cannot dissolve in phospholipid
bilayer
2.3.1 Channel Proteins
• Function: Open up pores along the membrane to allow entry or exit of
substances and are lined with polar groups which allow charged ions to pass
through
o Channel proteins are specific to only one type of ion
2.3.2 Carrier Proteins
• Function: Allow diffusion of larger polar molecules like sugars and amino
acids across the partially permeable membrane
o A molecule attaches to the carrier protein at its binding site, causing the
carrier protein to change shape, allowing the molecule to pass through the
membrane
There are two types of carrier proteins, simply distinguished by what triggers the
conformational change in the protein.
• In Facilitated Diffusion: Substrate attachment brings about conformational
change in protein
• In Active Transport: ATP32 brings about the conformational change in the
protein
2.4 Active Transport
• Definition: The movement of materials through a plasma membrane against a
concentration gradient, with energy from ATP molecules

32
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – an important source of energy in organisms

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Chinchilla Notes

• Found in cells that have many mitochondria or have a high rate of respiration
• Factors:
o Temperature
o Oxygen concentration
o Presence of poisons such as cyanide
• Involved in:
o Absorption of amino acids in the small intestine
o Absorption of mineral salts by plant roots
o Excretion of urea by the kidney

2.5 Summary
Passive vs Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion
Reach equilibrium when concentrations are equal
Do not require energy from ATP
Can occur in either direction Faster in one direction
Rate depends on conc. gradient, similar Specific molecules diffuse
molecules diffuse at similar rate faster
Overall Comparsion
Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport
Passive processes – no respiratory energy is required Requires ATP
Involve movement of substances down concentration Against conc.
gradient gradient
Refers to any Refers only Refers to large or Refers to molecules
substance to water as strongly charged that need to be
regardless of solvent molecules that cannot transported against
state molecules dissolve in the the concentration
phospholipid bilayer gradient
- Requires p.p. Requires channel or Requires ATP and
membrane carrier proteins carrier protein
2.6 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Sometimes, larger amounts of substances need to be taken up or released by cells,
resulting in the need for endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Definition: Exocytosis and endocytosis Active processes where the cell can
transport large quantities of material, into (endocytosis) or out of (exocytosis)
the cell with ATP

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Chinchilla Notes

2.6.1 Endocytosis
• Process - Cellular uptake of macromolecules and participate substances by
localised regions of plasma membrane the surround the substance and pinch
off to form an intracellular vesicle
• Examples of Endocytosis
o Phagocytosis (E.g. Macrophages and bacteria)33
o Pinocytosis (E.g. Uptake of nutrients by egg cells from follicles)34
o Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis (E.g. Cholesterol and iron bound to RBC)
- vesicles form from regions of cell membrane that contain specific
receptor molecules, which bind with specific target molecules called
ligands
2.6.2 Exocytosis
• Process – Recap to Chapter 1
• Examples of Exocytosis
o Secretion of insulin from Islets of Langerhans/glandular tissues in
Pancreatic Cells35

33
Recap to Chapter 1 in lysosomes
34
The same process as phagocytosis, but referring to liquids instead of solids
35
Elaborated in Chapter 5

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Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 3: Nutrients

Chapter Overview
This chapter describes the substances that allow organisms to carry out all
functions of life. You will learn about carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, as
well as some ways to test for the presence these substances experimentally.

3.1 Introduction to Nutrients

• Function: Provides energy for respiration, cell division, growth and repair
• Types of Nutrients
o Inorganic (no carbon) – water, mineral salts
o Organic nutrients (contain carbon) – carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins

3.2 Water (3.2.1 Functions of Water in Plants and Animals)

Plants Animals
Transport Mineral salts from roots to
Digested products from
leaves via xylem, food ileum36 to rest of body,
substances from leaves to rest
excretory products from cells
of plant to kidneys and hormones from
glands to body
Required Chemical reactions (as a Respiration38,
For medium), respiration, digestion photosynthesis39
(provides energy via
hydrolysis37)
Component Sweat (regulates body temp.), Cell sap – provides turgidity
In protoplasm, joint lubrication, for plant cells which keeps
tissue fluid and blood plant upright
3.2.2 Structural Features of Water
• Polar Covalent bonding – Electrons are shared unequally due to
electronegativity difference between oxygen and hydrogen
o Relevance – universal solvent for polar substances40

36
Ileum – A section of the small intestine, elaborated in Chapter 5
37
Covered later in the chapter
38
To be elaborated in Chapter 9
39
To be elaborated in Chapter 6
40
Polar substances include water and sugars, while non-polar substances include halogens and oils. Some
amino acids are polar while others are non-polar

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Chinchilla Notes

• Van der Waals Interactions – Very weak attractions between molecules or

parts of molecules caused by localized charge fluctuations
o Relevance – Causes water droplets to form due to surface tension41
• High latent heat of vaporization – Large amounts of heat are transferred upon
evaporation
o Relevance – Allows effective heat removal from body via sweating

3.3 Macromolecules
Macromolecules constitute the majority of nutrient groups found in organisms.
In this segment, we will look at carbohydrates, proteins and lipids 42 and find out
how to test their presence.
• Macromolecules include carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids
• Macromolecules are also called polymers and consist of covalently bonded
monomers
Here are two reactions that involve the synthesis and breakdown of polymers,
summarizing those involving the macromolecules covered.

Synthesis - Condensation Breakdown – Hydrolysis

Definition The process by which The process by which
monomers bind together polymers are disassembled
through the loss of a water into monomers using a water
molecule to form a polymer molecule
Both catalysed by enzymes
Carbohydrates Involves breaking and formation of glycosidic bonds
E.g. Starch → Maltose (by amylase) → Glucose (by maltase)
Lipids Involves breaking and formation of 3 bonds between fatty
acid chains and glycerol head → 3 H2O produced
Catalysed by enzyme lipase
Proteins Involves breaking and formation of peptide bonds between
amino acids
E.g. Proteins → Polypeptides (by pepsin) → amino acids (by
erepsin43)
Other enzymes: peptidases, trypsin

41
Important in transport of water in plants – Elaborated in Chapter 8
42
While lipids share many traits as polymers, their classification as polymers is debated. For simplicity, I
include them under macromolecules
43
Elaborated in Chapter 5

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Chinchilla Notes

3.3.1 Carbohydrates

• Functions: Primary source of energy for cellular activities – breaking down 1g

of carbohydrates releases 16kJ of energy
o Forms nucleic acids (E.g. deoxyribose sugar in DNA), amino acids and fats,
cellulose in cell walls
o Synthesizes lubricants like mucus
• Chemical Structure: Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
o Broken down by enzymes maltase and amylase

3.3.1.1 Types of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Overview Simple Combination of Complex
carbohydrates, two carbohydrates, many
single molecules monosaccharides molecules
Examples Glucose, Maltose (glu + glu) Starch45, glycogen46
Galactose and Sucrose (glu + fru) (store energy),
Fructose Lactose (glu + gal) Cellulose47 and
44
(C6H12O6) Chitin48 (structural
carbohydrates)

*At minimum, note the shapes of the various monosaccharides pictured above

3.3.1.2 Test for Carbohydrates

Test for Starch

1. Add 1-2 drops of iodine solution to 2cm3 of sample solution
2. Observe colour change

44
All three of the monosaccharides have the same chemical formula, just a different arrangement of atoms
45
Starch – long, straight chains of glucose molecules with only a few branches, stores energy in plant cells
46
Glycogen – highly branched, comprised of glucose molecules, stores carbohydrates in animals
47
Cellulose – straight chain of glucose molecules, structural carbohydrate in plant cell walls
48
Chitin – contains glucose molecules, component in exoskeletons of animals

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Chinchilla Notes

Observation Conclusion
Negative Yellowish-brown coloration Absent
Positive Blue-black coloration Present

Test for Reducing Sugars49

1. To 2cm3 of sample solution, add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution

2. Shake to mix
3. Place in boiling water bath
4. Observe formation of precipitate

Observation Conclusion
Negative Remains blue on heating Absent
Positive Green precipitate formed on heating Present in small
amount
Positive Yellow precipitate formed on heating Present in moderate
amount
Positive Orange-red precipitate formed on heating Present in large
amount

3.3.1 Lipids

• Lipids do not form polymers and are hydrophobic as they are non-polar
• Functions: Efficient source of energy, breaking down 1g of fats releases 32 kJ
of energy
o Insulating material beneath skin that prevents excessive heat loss
o Insolubility with water helps to reduce water loss from skin surfaces when
oils are secreted from glands in skin
o Component in cell membranes and hormones
o Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K
o Cushions organs
• Chemical Structure: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
• E.g. Steroids, phospholipids50 and triglycerides51

3.3.2.1 Test for Lipids

1. Add 1 drop of sample to clean, dry test tube
2. Add 2cm3 of ethanol to test tube and shake mixture thoroughly. Observe.
49
Sucrose is NOT a reducing sugar, but can be broken down via acid or sucrase. All other mono and
disaccharides learnt can be assumed to be reducing
50
Covered in Chapter 1
51
Triglycerides – Otherwise known as fats, they have a similar chemical structure to phospholipids, only that
they have 3 fatty acid tails instead of 2, and have no phosphate group

22
Chinchilla Notes

3. Add 2cm3 of water to mixture. Observe.

Observation Conclusion
Negative Clear mixture obtained in ethanol Absent
Mixture remains clear when water is added
Positive Clear mixture obtained in ethanol Present
Mixture becomes cloudy white emulsion when water
is added and shaken

3.3.3 Proteins
• Functions: Essential for growth and repair of worn-out body cells
o Synthesizes enzymes and hormones
o Forms antibodies produced by white blood cells
o Maintains fluid and pH balance52
• Chemical Structure: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, sometimes
sulphur (differentiated by an R group)
o Peptide bonds between amino acids
• Deficiency Symptom – kwashiorkor – swollen stomach, cracked and scaly
skin

3.3.3.1 Structural Levels of Proteins

• Primary – linear sequence of amino acids composing of a polypeptide chain

• Secondary – alpha helix or beta pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds
• Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary structures, producing a ball-like
or globular molecule
• Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner, held
together by heme groups53

52
Proteins should not be broken down for energy as it is extremely inefficient
53
One component in heme groups is iron ions

23
Chinchilla Notes

3.3.3.2 Breakdown of Proteins

This section will differentiate between two ways in which proteins are broken
down – denaturation and hydrolysis54.

Denaturation
• Proteins can be denatured by heat, chemicals of unsuitable pH by breaking the
weak bonds linking the coils together
• Once this is done, the protein loses its 3D shape, involving the loss of the
function of the protein. This is usually irreversible55

Application of Hydrolysis
• To be absorbed by the body, proteins must be digested into polypeptides then
into amino acids by hydrolysis, as proteins molecules are too large to pass
through living cell surface membranes (Refer to Chapter 5)
• The resulting amino acids are simpler, smaller and soluble in water,
allowing them to diffuse through living membranes via facilitated diffusion to
be absorbed
• Once inside the cell, the amino acids can be linked up again to form proteins
within the cell
*Hydrolysis is NOT denaturation, as denaturation only involves a conformational
change while hydrolysis involves breaking down a substance into simpler forms

3.3.3.3. Test for Proteins

1. Add 2cm3 of sample solution to clean test tube
2. Add half amount of sodium hydroxide to solution and shake
3. Add 1% copper (II) sulphate drop by drop, shaking after every drop
4. Observe for colour change

Observation Conclusion
Negative Mixture remains blue Absent
Positive Violet coloration observed Present

Note: For food tests involving solid samples, first prepare by masking, mixing
with distilled water, shaking, filtering and decanting, using the filtrate for the test

54
Hydrolysis is NOT denaturation, as denaturation only involves a conformational change in shape while
hydrolysis involves breaking down a substance into simpler forms
55
Elaborated on in Chapter 4

24
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 4: Enzymes

Chapter Overview
Last chapter, we learnt about proteins. In this chapter, we learn about a special
type of protein, called enzymes, which were also cited to be involved in
hydrolytic and condensation reactions in Chapter 3. They will continue to be
prevalent, especially in Chapter 5, the Human Digestive System.

4.1 Introduction to Enzymes

• Definition: Enzymes are proteins which act as biological catalysts, speeding
up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. They remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction

4.2 Characteristics of Enzymes

This chapter is centred around characteristics of enzymes, not examples of them,

since there is an abundance of instances in which they can be found in the syllabus.

4.2.1 Enzymes Speed Up Biochemical Reactions

• Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy56, Ea, but does
not change the free energy57 difference between the reactant and product, ΔG

4.2.2 Enzymes are Required in Minute Amounts

• Enzymes are not used up in the reaction and can be reused – a small number
of enzymes can catalyse a large number of substrates

Enzyme Concentration vs Rate of Reaction

• As enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate increases, as when there are
more enzymes, they collide and bind with substrate more frequently

56
Activation energy – the energy required for a reaction to occur
57
Free energy – the thermodynamic energy available for substances to do work

25
Chinchilla Notes

• When not all enzymes have a substrate tor react with, the substrate becomes
the limiting factor and the rate of reaction levels off

Enzyme Substrate Concentration vs Rate of Reaction

• As substrate concentration increases,
reaction rate increases, as when there are
more substrates, they collide and bind with
enzymes more frequently
• When the enzymes become saturated58,
they become the limiting factor and the
rate of reaction levels off

4.2.3 Enzymes are Highly Specific in the Reactions They Catalyse

Lock and Key Hypothesis
• The lock-and-key hypothesis explains how enzymes catalyse biochemical
reactions
• Substrate molecule (key) binds to active site of enzyme molecule (lock) →
enzyme-substrate complex formed → enzyme processes substrate →
catalyses biochemical reactions → new
product formed → product released from
active site → enzyme free to bind with other
substrate molecules again

Induced Fit Hypothesis

• Unlike the Lock and Key Hypothesis, induced fit hypothesis is on the basis
that some enzymes and active sites are physically flexible structures
• The active site may thus not initially be the same complementary shape as
the substrate, but may have a small conformational change when the
substrate binds to the active site → allows substrate to fit more snugly

*Learn how to draw the induced fit and lock and key hypothesis

4.2.4 Enzymes are Limited by Temperature and pH

Condition Effect
Template Answer: Condition → ___ energy → enzyme and substrate
molecules collide ___ → ___ substrates bind to enzyme’s active site → ___
rate of r.

58
Saturated – When all enzymes are occupied by substrate molecules

26
Chinchilla Notes

Temp. Increases to Optimal Temp. More → more frequently → more

→ higher
Temp. is Lower than Optimal Temp. Lower → less frequently → fewer
→ lower
Template Answer: Condition → intramolecular hydrogen bonds which
stabilize secondary and tertiary structures in enzymes are disrupted → 3D
enzyme loses precise shape → active site is altered and enzymes is denatured
→ can no longer bond with substrate → rate of r. decreases sharply until all
enzymes are denatured
Temp. Exceeds Optimal Temp.
pH is not within Optimal pH Range59

Note: Optimal temperature is about 37℃, rate of reaction is doubled for every
rise of 10oC until the optimum temperature is reached. Enzymes are more
sensitive to pH than temperature. pH denaturation is reversible within a range.

4.2.5 Reactions Catalysed by Enzymes are Sometimes Reversible

Reason does not need to be known

4.3 Enzyme Inhibitors

• Function: Inhibitors interfere with enzyme catalysed reactions (e.g. cyanide,
cadmium, mercury and carbon dioxide)
• Types of Enzyme Inhibitors:
o Irreversible inhibitors: Inhibitor is permanently bound and enzyme is
permanently inhibited
o Reversible inhibitors: Inhibitor can leave the enzyme and restore the
enzyme to its uninhibited state
o Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of the enzyme → excludes
substrates from active site of enzyme. They have close structural
resemblance to substrate molecule and their effect can be lessened by
increasing substrate concentration
o Non-competitive inhibitors bind to other parts of the enzyme,
conforming the configuration of the enzyme and its active site →
substrate unable to bind to active site of enzyme. They have no structural
resemblance to substrate
molecule and the effect cannot
be lessened by increasing
substrate concentration

59
Optimal pH Range varies from enzyme to enzyme. E.g. Salivary amylase has a neutral optimal pH range in
the mouth, while pepsin has an acidic optimal pH range in the stomach

27
Chinchilla Notes

4.4 Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions

These refer to the two different types of reactions that enzymes catalyse.
• Anabolic Reactions: Simpler substances are combined to form a more
complex substance, during which energy is used
• Catabolic Reactions: A more complex substance is broken down to form
simpler substances, during which energy is released

Sample Questions
Q: It has been found that fresh pineapple contains and enzyme that can be used
to make meat more tender. Explain why the pineapple should be placed on the
meat a few hours before, rather than during cooking. Also suggest how the
enzyme tenderises the meat. [4]
A: The protease found in the pineapple would have the active site altered and
denatured at high temperature, rendering it unable to break down proteins in the
meat for a tenderising effect. This also provides sufficient time for enzymes in
the pineapple to digest the meat proteins into smaller polypeptides. The enzyme,
protease, allows the large and insoluble proteins in the meat to bind to its active
site, forming an enzyme substrate complex and allowing the enzyme to process
the proteins and break down the polypeptide chains in the meat into small and
soluble amino acids, making the meat more tender and easier to chew.
Q: Can protease be used to wash a silk shirt? Why?
A: No. Silk is made of animal proteins which will be broken down by the protease.
Hence, silk shirts are usually dry cleaned.

28
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 5: Human Nutrition

Chapter Overview
This is the first organ system you come across in the Upper Secondary Syllabus
and focuses heavily on the role of enzymes. In this chapter, you will learn the
various organs that constitute this system, their roles and how they work together
to break down the food we eat.

5.1 Types of Digestion

• Mechanical digestion
o Breaking up food into small particles mechanically
• Chemical digestion
o Breaking down large molecules like starch, proteins and fats into smaller
soluble substances with the use of hydrolytic reactions catalysed by
enzymes
• These two forms of digestion breaks down large, insoluble molecules into
smaller, soluble substances that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and
transported to cells

5.2 Organs of the Digestive System

In this section, you will learn about the various organs that constitute the system,
especially their functions and complementary structures, such as secretory glands.
Together, they perform 7 functions – ingestion, transport, secretion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion.

5.2.1 Mouth
Roles Ingestion, Secretion, Digestion
Anatomy pH 7, Teeth, Salivary Glands, Tongue, Epiglottis, Saliva
Mechanical • Teeth break up food by chewing, cutting and grinding food
Digestion into smaller pieces, creating higher SA:V ratio for salivary
amylase and mucin to act on
• Tongue pushes bolus60 to back to mouth for swallowing into
the oesophagus via the pharynx
• Epiglottis is a flap that prevents food from entering windpipe

60
Bolus – a ball of partially digested food

29
Chinchilla Notes

Chemical • Salivary amylase in saliva – Starch → maltose

Digestion
(Enzymes)
Other • Salivary glands secrete saliva with mucin soften food
Functions
and Info
5.2.2 Oesophagus
Roles Transport
Anatomy Narrow muscular tube with outer longitudinal and inner circular
smooth muscles
Other • Transports food to the stomach by gravity and peristalsis
Functions • Definition: Peristalsis is the rhythmic wavelike contractions
and Info of smooth muscles in gut walls61
• The two smooth muscles work antagonistically
o C. muscle contracts, l. muscle relaxes, constricting
wall of gut, squeezing and pushing food forward
(zone A)
o L. muscle relaxes, c.
muscle contracts,
dilating gut wall,
widening lumen for
food to enter (zone
B)

5.2.3 Stomach
Roles Secretion, Digestion
AnatomypH 2, Distensible muscular bag, smooth muscles, gastric glands,
gastric juice, pyloric sphincter
Mechanical • Smooth muscles chyme62, grinding food with digestive juices
Digestion and breaking down food into smaller pieces
Chemical • Pepsin in gastric juice – Proteins → polypeptides
Digestion • Renin in gastric juice – Soluble caseinogen → insoluble
(Enzymes) casein63 (curdling)
Other • Gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid, which provides
Functions slightly acidic medium suitable for renin and pepsin
and Info

61
Peristalsis is not just seen in the oesophagus, but in the small and large intestines as well
62
Chyme – The liquefied acidic mixture of food in the stomach
63
Allows pepsin to act on milk proteins

30
Chinchilla Notes

o Activates inactive prorenin and pepsinogen when

stimulated by food64
o Kills germs and bacteria due to high acidity
o Denatures salivary amylase, stopping its action
• Mucus protects the stomach walls from corrosion by
hydrochloric acid or being broken down by pepsin
• Pyloric sphincter – muscular valve connecting stomach to
small intestine, allowing chyme to enter into small intestine
when relaxed
5.2.4 Small Intestine
The small intestine contains 3 parts – duodenum, jejunum and ileum. There will
be a section for each
5.2.4.1 Duodenum

Roles Transport, Secretion, Digestion

Anatomy pH 6.5, intestinal glands, intestinal juice
Mechanical • Bile, a yellow-green liquid secreted by the liver and stored in
Digestion the gall bladder, contains bile salts and pigments
o Breaks down large fat molecules into smaller fat
globules, increasing SA:V ratio for lipase to act
Chemical In Pancreatic Juice
Digestion • Pancreatic amylase – starch → maltose
(Enzymes) • Pancreatic lipase – fats → fatty acids and glycerol
• Trypsin – proteins → polypeptides
Intestinal Juice
• Maltase, Sucrase and Lactase – glucose, maltose and lactose
→ monosaccharides65
• Intestinal Lipase – fats → fatty acids and glycerol
• Erepsin – polypeptides → amino acids
Other • Entrance of chyme stimulates gall bladder to release bile,
Functions pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice, secretion of alkaline
and Info bicarbonate buffer and intestinal glands to secrete intestinal
juice
o This would neutralize the acidic chyme and provide a
condition suitable for enzymes secreted

64
Renin and pepsin are stored in inactive forms as they digest proteins, and could destroy the stomach lining
65
Recap to Chapter 3 for the monosaccharides that form disaccharides

31
Chinchilla Notes

5.2.4.1 Jejunum and Ileum

Roles Transport, Absorption

Anatomy pH 6.5, villi, intestinal epithelium
Absorption Jejunum – Ca, Mg, Fe, Sugar, amino acids, vitamins etc.
Ileum – Na, K, bile acids etc.

Passive Diffusion – Water, water-soluble substances (e.g. urea,

glycerol) and small lipids via transmembrane protein channel
Facilitated Diffusion – Fructose via transmembrane carrier
protein
Active Transport – Minerals, some sugars, most amino acids

Blood capillaries – amino acids, simple sugars

• Transported via hepatic portal vein to liver
Lymphatic system – fatty acids and glycerol66
Other Adaptations to improve absorption of nutrients
Functions • Many folds and ridges of the small intestine walls (villi and
and Info microvilli, minute finger-like projections)
• Long part of digestive system to increase surface area for
absorption
• Thin membrane,
which is one-cell
thick → faster
diffusion
• Dense capillary
network close to
epithelium to carry
away absorbed
food particles quickly. They also help maintain
concentration gradient of nutrients between ileum and blood
capillaries to aid diffusion
*Learn to draw the lacteal and villi

66
To be elaborated in Chapter 8

32
Chinchilla Notes

5.2.5 Large Intestine

Roles Transport, Absorption, Egestion

Anatomy Rectum, Anus (no need to memorise parts of colon)
Absorption • Water and mineral salts from undigested food
• Na, Vitamin K, K, Cl- broken down by bacteria before being
absorbed
Other Adaptations to improve absorption of nutrients
Functions • Many folds and ridges of the small intestine walls (villi and
and Info microvilli, minute finger-like projections)
• Faeces, mainly consisting of undigested matter, especially
cellulose is stored temporarily in the rectum and expelled
through the anus when it contracts

5.2.5 Liver
The liver, along with salivary glands, pancreas and gall bladder, is considered an
accessory organ. The information under ‘assimilation’ is not just for the liver, but
for all nutrients absorbed, converting them into a form to be used by the body.

Roles Assimilation
Assimilation Glucose
• Excess converted to glycogen, stored in liver, converted
back into glucose when body needs energy and blood sugar
is low
• Further excess stored as fats in adipose tissue
• Used in cellular respiration
Fats
• Partially stored in adipose tissue
• Used in synthesis of cell membrane or stored under skin to
store energy and provide insulation
• Used in cellular respiration if glucose and glycogen is used
Amino Acids
• Used to synthesize proteins, enzymes and hormones for
growth and development
• Excess amino acids broken down and deaminated in liver to
form urea and glucose
Functions 1. Regulates blood glucose concentration67

67
Elaborated on in Chapter 11

33
Chinchilla Notes

2. Produces bile
3. Stores iron by breaking down haemoglobin from destroyed
RBCs to be stored as iron ions or used in bile pigments
4. Deaminates excess amino
acids, converting amino
groups into urea to be
excreted in urine
5. Synthesizes proteins (e.g.
albumins, globulins)
6. Regulates blood amino
acid levels in blood
7. Converts blood into
harmless substances (e.g.
ammonia to urea)
8. Produces cholesterol and
special proteins to transport fats around body
*Learn the chemical formula of amino acids and how its parts are broken
down

5.3 Gastrointestinal Disorders

• Constipation (More details under human nutrition)
o Hard, dry, infrequent stools
o Reduced by high fibre, fluid intake, exercise
• Diarrhoea
o Loose, watery, frequent stools
o Symptom of diseases or infections that infect the large intestine
walls, reducing its ability to absorb moisture from undigested food
o Can cause dehydration

Sample Questions

Q: State three different roles of the liver in relation to food assimilation.

A: 1. Liver deaminates excess amino acids and converts the carbon component
into glucose. 2. Liver synthesizes proteins like albumins to form amino acids. 3.
Liver converts excess glucose into glycogen and stores it.
Q: Why would the removal of the gall bladder lead to the inability to digest
food properly?

34
Chinchilla Notes

A: The gall bladder stores bile which emulsifies fats from large fat globules to
small fat droplets, increasing surface area to volume ratio for Pancreatic and
Intestinal lipase to act on. Without the gall bladder, there would be lower
surface area of fats for the lipase to act on, leading to incomplete digestion of
fats.

Q: Why are obsess people often treated by removing part of their small intestine
to lose weight?
A: Shortening the small intestine reduces digestion and absorption of fats into
the lymphatic vessels, helping the obese person to lose weight.

Q: How does the digestive system provide necessary conditions for digestion of
food?
A: The digestive system has specific pH to provide optimum condition for the
enzymes to function.

35
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 6: Plant Nutrition

Chapter Overview
In this chapter, we will go into greater detail on the way plants make their own
food as autotrophs 68 , via photosynthesis. We will also cover the internal and
external features of plants that enable the plant to get the raw materials required
for photosynthesis.

6.1 Photosynthesis
Note that photosynthesis is split into two parts – the light dependent and the light
independent stage.
• Reaction: 12H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O669 + 6H2O + 6O2 (with light energy and
chlorophyll)
o Light Dependent: 12H2O → 6O2 + 24H + ATP
o Light Independent: 6CO2 + 24H → C6H12O6 + 6H2O

6.1.1 Chloroplasts

• Structure:
o Double membrane outer chloroplast envelope
o Extensive system of internal membranes
called thylakoids70
o Stroma, a colourless fluid containing many
enzymes surrounding the grana71
*Learn how to draw. In diagram, draw grana as stacks of
horizontal lines. Include double membrane and stroma as well

6.1.2 Light Dependent and Independent Reactions

Light Dependent Reactions (aka Photolysis)

• Definition: Photolysis is the process during which light energy absorbed by

chlorophyll is converted to chemical energy to split water into oxygen and
hydrogen in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast
• Also produces ATP, H+ and NADPH

68
Autotroph – an organism that can make its own food
69
C6H12O6 - glucose
70
Thylakoids – have an intense green colour due to chlorophyll.
71
Grana – Multiple stacks of thylakoids (1 stack – granum)

36
Chinchilla Notes

Light Independent Reactions (aka Calvin Cycle)

• Includes reduction reactions and carbon fixation which collectively make

up the Calvin cycle
• Reduction reactions involve the transferring of an electron from one species72
to another
o In the Calvin cycle, CO2 is reduced to form glucose
• Carbon fixation is the incorporation of inorganic carbon to organic
compounds
o In the Calvin cycle, ATP and H+ ions from photolysis are used to fix carbon
dioxide to make organic molecules like carbohydrates

6.1.3 Conditions and Limiting Factors for Photosynthesis

Light: Limiting factor is intensity of light if CO2 is sufficient

• Quality/wavelength of light – determines colour of visible light

o Plants cannot absorb green light as all of it is reflected by green chlorophyll
o The best colours of light for a plant to absorb are red and blue
Carbon Dioxide: Very important limiting factor

• Not very abundant due to low concentration in the air (0.03%) and is thus
often the limiting factor for photosynthesis

Temperature: Not very significant as a limiting factor unless CO2 is abundant

• Directly correlating to enzyme function

6.1.4 Experiments Involving Photosynthesis

• Controlling variables:
o De-starch the plant by placing it in a dark room for 2 days
o Remove CO2 by using soda lime/potassium hydroxide
o Provide CO2 by using sodium hydrogen carbonate
• For iodine extraction, boil the leaf to disrupt the cell membrane and soften
the cuticle and cell wall, helping to make the cell more permeable to iodine.
• Putting the leaf in ethanol extracts the green chlorophyll and makes
coloration results more prominent

72
Not like animal species, but a chemistry term for substances composed of identical molecular entities, or
parts

37
Chinchilla Notes

6.1.5 Fate of Glucose

• Used immediately by plant cells for cellular respiration and form cellulose
cell walls
• Excess is converted into sucrose and transported to storage organs as starch
or stored as starch in leaf for respiration at night
• Used to form proteins to synthesize new protoplasm, where glucose reacts
with nitrates to form amino acids in leaf → form proteins
• Used to form fats for storage to be used in the future for cellular respiration
and for synthesis of new protoplasm

6.2.1 External Features of Leaves

Feature Structure Purpose

Vein Network • Can be parallel or • Carry water and mineral
branched depending on salts to cells in the
leaf shape lamina
• E.g. grass leaves have • Carry manufactured
parallel veins, tree leaves food from leaf cells to
have vein network other parts of plant
Lamina/Leaf • Has large surface to • Enables maximum
Blade volume ratio capture of sunlight for
• Large and thin photosynthesis
• Allows carbon dioxide to
rapidly reach the inner
cells to allow
photosynthesis
Petiole • Holds lamina away from • Allows lamina to obtain
• Absent in some leaves sufficient sunlight (kind
like grasses, which have of like what a mini
long laminae branch would do)
Arrangement • Organised around stem in • Prevents leaves from
of Leaves regular pattern blocking one another
• Singly, in pairs or from sunlight, allows
alternative arrangement optimum capture of
sunlight

38
Chinchilla Notes

6.2.2 Internal Features of Leaves

Feature Structure Purpose

Waxy • Thin layer on top of lower • Reduces water loss from leaf
Cuticle and upper epidermis
• Thick in arid (dry)
conditions
Upper and • Contain no chloroplasts • Prevent water loss
Lower (except guard cells) • Protective layer to prevent
Epidermis • Transparent unwanted substances or
organisms from entering leaf
• Transparent to allow light to
pass through to mesophyll
layers (with chloroplasts)
Palisade • Closely packed together • Maximise light absorption
Mesophyll • Only found in upper part
Layer of leaf
• High number of
chloroplasts → most
photosynthesis occurs
Spongy • Not as closely packed • Creates spaces for gases to
Mesophyll • Lower number of move in and out of leaf
Layer chloroplasts → still site of
photosynthesis
Guard • Only epidermal cells that • Close and open stomata
Cells contain chloroplasts based on requirements of
• Work in pairs plant (see below)
• Bean-shaped
• Thicker inner cell wall
Stomata • Space between pair of • Allow gaseous exchange and
guard cells transpiration

6.2.3 Stoma and Guard Cells

• Day: Stoma open to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in, water and oxygen
diffuse out, allowing photosynthesis to occur
o Increase in potassium ion concentrations in guard cell by active transport
o Increase in glucose concentrations in guard cell by light-independent stage
of photosynthesis
o Water potential lowered, water diffuses into guard cells by osmosis

39
Chinchilla Notes

o Guard cells become swollen and turgid; thicker inner cell wall of guard
cell cannot stretch while the thinner outer cell wall stretches and pulls
open to stoma
• Night: Stoma closed to reduce gases diffusing in and out of leaf/under hot
and dry conditions to prevent excessive loss of moisture
o No sunlight → no photosynthesis occurs → no glucose produced
o No high potassium ion concentrations by active transport into guard cells
→ no osmosis → water potential stays unchanged
o Guard cells remain flaccid; stoma remains closed

6.2.5 Diagrams for Reference

*Must know how to draw all three! Only

palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll and guard cells contain chloroplasts

6.3 Plant Classification

Monocots (e.g. Grasses) Dicots (e.g. Roses)

Embryo has one cotyledon
(embryonic leaf)
Leaf veins are usually parallel
Stem’s vascular bundles complexly
arranged
Fibrous root system (thin branching
roots)
Embryo has two cotyledons
(embryonic leaf)
Leaf veins are usually netlike
Stem’s vascular bundles usually
arranged in ring
Taproots (central dominant root)

• Mesophytes – adequate water (e.g. lilac)

• Hydrophytes – aquatic (e.g. elodea)

40
 Chinchilla Notes
• Halophytes – salt-tolerant (e.g. mangrove trees)
• Xerophytes – scarce water (e.g. cactus)
6.4 Mineral Nutrients
Nutrient Role
Nitrogen • Component of proteins and
(N) chlorophyll
• Required for growth of
plant and photosynthesis
• Needed in greater quantity
in young plants
Phosphorus • Component of nucleic
(P) acids, phospholipids and
ATP proteins
• Required for flowering on
plants
Potassium • Activates enzymes
(K) • Maintains water-solute
balance and affects osmosis
• Required for root and
sustaining fruit growth
Deficiency Symptoms
• Stunted growth
• Older leaves appear yellow
• Remaining foliage is often
light green
• Stems may yellow and
become spindly.
• Small leaves that may take
on a reddish-purple tint
• Leaf tips can look burnt
and older leaves become
almost black
• Reduced fruit or seed
production.
• Older leaves may look
scorched around the edges
and/or wilted
• Interveinal chlorosis
(yellowing between the leaf
veins) develops.
41
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 7: Plant Transport

Chapter Overview
In the previous chapter, we discussed how plants obtain nutrition through
photosynthesis. Plants also absorb water containing various minerals they need
to survive. This chapter will cover the various methods with which they transport
these nutrients, namely root pressure, capillary action and transpiration pull for
water and translocation for products of photosynthesis.

7.1 Transport of Water

The transport of water in plants can be easily understood in three parts – entry
into the plants via the roots (root pressure), up the stem through the xylem
(capillary pressure) and leaving the plant through the stoma in the leaves
(transpiration pull)

7.1.1 Root Pressure

Structure of Root Hair Cells

• Fine tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell which grows between soil

particles which comes into contact with a thin film of dilute mineral salts
solution which surrounds each soil particle
• Contains cell sap of a high concentration of sugars, amino acids and salts,
resulting in lower water potential than water solution → allows osmosis of
water into root hair cell
• Partially permeable cell membrane which allows water to enter cell by
osmosis
• Large central vacuole to take in water
• High numbers of mitochondria to release ATP via aerobic respiration for
active transport of mineral salt ions

Movement of Water

• From a region of higher water

potential outside the roots to lower
water potential in root hair cell via
osmosis, across partially
permeable cell membrane
• Entry of water dilutes cell sap,
causing the cell to have higher water potential, allowing water to pass through

42
Chinchilla Notes

to other regions of lower water potential – other inner cells, allowing the water
to enter the xylem vessels and up the plant

Mechanism for Root Pressure

• Root cells that surround the xylem vessel actively pump ions into the xylem
vessels, lowering the water potential in the xylem and creating a water
potential gradient
• This allows water to enter the xylem by
osmosis, creating increased pressure which
pushes the water column upwards

7.1.2 Capillary Action

Structure of Xylem

• Two types of hollow, tubular, dead cells:

o Tracheids: Smaller diameter which overlap side by side
o Xylem Vessels: Larger diameter with cells stacked on top of each other to
form a long, continuous, hollow tube
• Lack protoplasm or horizontal “end walls” which reduces resistance to water
flowing through the system
• Walls thickened with lignin, which prevents the collapse of the vessels, which
in turn collectively provide mechanical support to the plant
o Comes in the form of ring deposits, spiral bands or lignified walls
• Some types of plants have xylems with pits and pores, which prevent
formation of bubbles (embolism) which may cause spread of pathogens and
infect the plant
Function of Xylem
• Conducts water and dissolved mineral salts from roots to stems and leaves
• Provides mechanical support to the plant
Mechanism for Capillary Action
• The spontaneous movement of water up the xylem
• Occurs via two attractive forces
o Cohesion: Force of attraction between water molecules, creating surface
tension
o Adhesion: Forces of attraction between water molecules and inner
surface of capillary tube

43
Chinchilla Notes

7.1.3 Transpiration Pull

Transpiration
• Definition: The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, especially
through the stomata of the leaves
• Inside the leaf, water from the xylem continuously moves out of the mesophyll
cells to form a thin film of moisture over the surface
• The water content in this film evaporates into water vapour and moves into
intercellular air spaces and accumulates in sub-stomatal air spaces
• Water vapour diffuses from a region of higher water vapour concentration
from within the leaf to the lower water vapour concentration outside the
leaf via the stomata
Functions of Transpiration
• Creates the transpiration pull
• Evaporation of water from leaf cells removes latent heat of
• vaporisation, which cools the plant and prevents it from being scorched by
the sun
• Water transported to the leaves can be used in photosynthesis, by keeping
cells turgid that spread the leaves out to obtain more sunlight, and replace
water lost by the plant
Mechanism of Transpiration Pull
• As water evaporates from mesophyll cells, water potential of the cell sap
decreases and will absorb water by osmosis from the cells deeper inside the
leaf, in turn removing water from the xylem vessels in the leaf veins
• This results in a suction/pulling force which pulls the whole column of water
up the xylem vessel
• This is the most significant method for water transport, as 90% of water
absorbed by roots are lost through transpiration in leaves

7.1 Transport of Glucose

The transport of glucose is also achieved with

water, through the phloem.

Structure of Phloem

• Sieve tube cells – living cells, with no nucleus

or vacuole and thin cytoplasm

44
Chinchilla Notes

o Stack to form sieve tubes

o Horizontal cross walls have pores called sieve plates which increase
pressure
• Companion cells – contain cytoplasm, nucleus and many mitochondria
o Provides nutrients to sieve tube cells and facilitates transport via active
transport (given the number of mitochondria)
o Contains transport proteins to transport substances in and out of the sieve
tube
Function of Phloem
• Transports organic solutes (e.g. sucrose and amino acids) through leaves to
the whole plant, from source to sink organs (This process is called
translocation)
Mechanism of Translocation
• Sugar is loaded into sieve tube at the source 73 ,
causing relative water concentration of sieve tube
members to decrease
• This allows osmosis from surrounding cells74
• The uptake of water causes positive pressure in
the sieve tube and causes bulk flow of phloem
sap75
• When the sugars are removed from the sieve tube
at the sink76, where they are converted to starch
• Starch is insoluble in water and has no osmotic effect, allowing the xylem to
recycle the water by carrying it back to the source
7.3 Xylem vs Phloem
Xylem Phloem
Consists of dead cells Consists of living cells
Transports water and mineral salts Transports sugar and amino acids
Unidirectional transport upwards Two-directional transport
Substances from roots Substances from leaves
Transport by passive transport Transport by active transport and
diffusion

73
Source Organs – the sites of production or release of sugars (can also be storage organs during winter, not
just leaves)
74
Water is drawn out of surrounding cells and into the sieve tube
75
Phloem sap – the mixture of water and food materials
76
Sink Organs – the sites of sugar delivery

45
Chinchilla Notes

7.4 Organization of Transport System

The phloem and xylem combined form vascular tissues that are arranged
differently in the roots and the stems. For this chapter, we will only focus on
dicotyledonous plants. A lot of this is just descriptive, to guide you as you draw!
Phloem and Xylem in Roots
• Parts: Xylem, phloem, cortex77,
endodermis, piliferous layer, root
hair
• In the roots, the xylem and
phloem alternate with each other
Vascular Bundles in Stems
• Parts: Vascular bundle, pith, xylem, phloem, pith, epidermis, cortex
• In the vascular bundle, the
phloem is always more
outermost than the xylem
• The two are separated by the
cambium, which cells
sometimes divides and
differentiates to form new
xylem and phloem tissues
• The epidermis is protected by waxy waterproof cuticle which reduces water
lost by evaporation from the stem
*Must know how to draw!

7.5 Factors and Experiments with Transpiration

Factors Affecting Transpiration
Factor Effect
Relative Humidity Humidity , lower water vapour concentration
(water vapour in gradient between atmosphere and leaf, lower rate of
the air) diffusion, rate of transpiration 
Temperature Temperature , greater rate of evaporation, rate of
transpiration 
Light Light , stomata open to take in more carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis, rate of transpiration 

77
Cortex – a form of storage tissue

46
Chinchilla Notes

Wind Speed Wind speed , greater rate of removal of water vapour

from the leaves’ surface, maintains water vapour
concentration gradient rate of transpiration 
Potometer
• Used to investigate rate of transpiration by measuring rate of water
absorption (to
replenish water lost
via transpiration)
• Quantified by the
position of an air
bubble, and calculated
by the distance
travelled by the air
bubble towards the
plant divided by the time taken for it to do so
• Control – remove leaves of leafy twig to prevent transpiration

Adaptations Involving Transpiration

Cactus (Xerophyte)
• Spines instead of leaves, very thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss via
transpiration
o Thick stems with water storage tissue
o Vertical stems absorb sunlight absorb sunlight when temperatures are
relatively low
o Widely spread, shallow roots to absorb water after rain
Marram Grass (Xerophyte)
• Leaves that roll up to enclose humid atmosphere created after transpiration,
reducing water loss by trapping pockets of moist air
• Sunken stomata to further decrease rate of transpiration
Water Lily (Hydrophyte)
• Air spaces in the leaf to provide buoyancy Stomata is on upper epidermis
which is in contact with the air, along with waxy cuticle, as lower epidermis
is in contact with water
• Only small amounts of xylem due to abundance of water

47
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 8: Human Transport

Chapter Overview
Humans require a special transport system as more of substances like oxygen is
required to sustain life, compared to unicellular organisms that rely on passive
and slow processes like diffusion. In this chapter, we will cover the mechanism
of the human circulatory system. Note that all diagrams of heart are mirror image.
Misunderstanding will mess up this whole chapter!

8.1 Features of Circulatory System

• A closed system, with the heart as a muscular pump to maintain blood
circulation and blood vessels to direct blood flow
• Can involve single or double circulation
o Single circulation78: Blood passes through heart once per complete circuit
(Heart → Lungs/Gills → Rest of Body → Back to Heart)
o Double Circulation 79 : Blood passes through heart twice per complete
circuit. Once in pulmonary circuit (Heart → Lungs → Back to Heart) and
once in systemic circuit (Heart → Rest of Body → Back to Heart)
Advantages of Double Circulation
• Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix
• Blood can pass through each circuit at different pressures
o Lower pressure for pulmonary circuit that allows sufficient time for oxygen
to diffuse into blood at the lungs
o Higher pressure for systemic circuit that sends oxygen to tissues more
quickly – maintains high metabolic rate in mammals

8.2 Parts of Human Circulatory System

The human circulatory system is comprised of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
After we go through these parts, we cover how it all comes together to enable
double circulation. While these are technically under blood vessels, note that
aorta is just the main artery that carries oxygenated blood and the vena cava is the
main vein that carries deoxygenated blood.

78
Single Circulation – E.g. Fish
79
Double Circulation – E.g. Humans and other mammals

48
Chinchilla Notes

8.2.1 Structure of Heart

• Conical shape, made of cardiac muscles, four chambers – atria and ventricles
– separated by median septum to prevent deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
from mixing
o Atria – upper chambers with thinner muscular walls
o Ventricles – lower chambers with thicker muscular walls
o Thoracic cavity between chest bone and vertebral column and surrounded
by pericardium80
On the Left Diagram Below
• Semilunar valves: Found in aorta and pulmonary arch, prevent backflow of
blood into ventricles
• Atrioventricular valves81: Point downward to allow blood to flow from the
atria to ventricles, open when the pressure in the ventricle is higher than that
in the atrium to prevent backflow of blood
• Chordae tendineae: Attached to atrioventricular valves to prevent them from
everting82
On the Right Diagram Below
• Coronary artieries: Two of them, branch from aorta, supply heart muscles with
nutrients and oxygen
• Coronary veins: Remove carbon dioxide and waste products, return to the
coronary sinus83

8.2.2 Diagrams of the Heart

These are the two diagrams you will have to learn to label for exams:

80
Pericardium – A two-layered membrane with fluid to reduce friction acting on a beating heart
81
Atrioventricular valves – Tricuspid valve on right, bicuspid valve on left
82
Everting – Sort of like an umbrella in the wind
83
Coronary Sinus – a collection of veins that open to the right atrium

49
Chinchilla Notes

8.2.3 Heart Diseases

• Arteriosclerosis: The degeneration of arteries making them less elastic
• Atherosclerosis, a type of arteriosclerosis that is caused by the build-up of
fatty plaque in the artery made of cholesterol and saturated fats
o Symptoms: Lumen is narrowed, blood pressure increases
▪ Inner surface of artery becomes rough, increasing risk of blood clot
trapped in artery (thrombosis)
▪ Block or occlude the coronary artery, greatly reducing blood supply
▪ Muscle cells in parts of the heart that do not receive sufficient oxygen
and nutrients die
▪ Extensive damage can be fatal and lead to heart attack
o Causes: High consumption of saturated animal fat and cholesterol
▪ Obesity, Emotional Stress, Diabetes, Genes, Smoking
o Symptoms: Hypertension, Stroke, Heart Attack, Angina
8.2.4.1 Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle will help explain the circulation of blood throughout the
circulatory system later on, where it will be referred to by its stages.
• Timing: 0.8 seconds long with short pause, 72 beats/minute for adults
• Key Terms: Diastole refers to the relaxation of the heart chamber
o Systole refers to the contraction of the heart chamber
• Mechanism: AD + VD → AS + VD → AD + VS → Repeat
o Stage 1: Atrial Diastole + Ventricular Diastole
▪ Atria and ventricles relaxed while filling with blood
o Stage 2: Atrial Systole + Ventricular Diastole
▪ Right and left atria receive blood from vena cava and pulmonary vein
respectively → Both atria contract, forcing 20% more blood into
ventricles → Short pause
o Stage 3: Ventricular Systole + Atrial Diastole
▪ Ventricles contract, increasing blood pressure
▪ Atrioventricular valves close, preventing backflow of blood into atria,
producing a “lub” sound
▪ Pressure in ventricles higher than pressure in arteries, semi-lunar valves
in pulmonary and aortic arches forced open
▪ Blood flows from ventricles to arteries, atria relax
o Repeat: Ventricular Diastole + Atrial Diastole

50
Chinchilla Notes

▪ Pressure in ventricles decreases, semi-lunar valves close to prevent

backflow of blood into ventricles producing a “lub” sound,
atrioventricular valves open and cycle repeats
8.2.4.2 Graphing the Cardiac Cycle

*The graph shape for left and right chambers are similar, just that pressure in
left side is higher for the systemic circuit
8.2.4.3 Regulation of Cardiac Cycle
• Sinoatrial (SA) node: Acts as pacemaker in the right atrium that sends out
electrical signals to initiate the contraction of both atria every cycle,
controlling the basic heart rate
o Influenced by nervous and non-nervous system, hormones (adrenaline
increases firing rate), body temperature and exercise
• Atrioventricular (AV) node: Upon receiving signal from SA node at right
atrium, 0.1 second delay to allow atria to empty completely then sends out
another electrical signal, initiating ventricular contraction
o The second electrical signal is conducted by heart apex and ventricular
walls by specialized muscle fibres
(bundle branches and Purkinje
fibres)
• E.g. Increased demand for oxygen
for cell respiration and for getting rid
of increased level of accumulated
carbon dioxide in blood stream
during exercise is chemically sensed
by the medulla, part of the brainstem

51
Chinchilla Notes

o Medulla sends signal to cardiac nerve then SA node to increase heart rate
appropriately. After exercise, the level of carbon dioxide decreases
o Medulla sends signal to vagus nerve84 then SA node to decrease heart rate
to normal levels
8.3 Blood Vessels
Artery Capillary Vein

No valves No valves Semi-lunar valves to

prevent backflow of
blood
Blood flows under Blood flows smoothly, with Blood flows under low
great pressure, fast higher pressure at the pressure, slowly and
85
and in spurts by arteriole end than the smoothly by
86
contraction and venule end, RBC change to contractions of smooth
relaxation of bell shape and phagocytic and skeletal muscles
muscles in artery WBC can squeeze out through around the vein, and by
walls capillary walls expansion of vena cava
during inhalation
Blood is Blood is oxygenated at Blood is deoxygenated
oxygenated except arteriole end and except for pulmonary
for pulmonary deoxygenated at venule end vein
artery except in lungs
Muscular wall is One-cell-thick walls made of Thinner, less muscular
thick to withstand flattened endothelium87, and less elastic cell
high blood pressure microscopic and found wall due to lower
and elastic to allow between cells to increase rate venous pressure
the wall to stretch of diffusion, branches
and recoil to push repeatedly to increase surface
blood in spurts area and slow blood flow –
more time for diffusion

84
Cardiac and vagus nerves are cranial nerves, which mean that they transmit nerve signals directly to the
brain. You will learn more about them next year in the Nervous System
85
Arteriole – small branches in arteries leading to capillaries
86
Venule – small branches in veins leading out of capillaries
87
Endothelium – a thin membrane that lines the heart and blood vessels

52
Chinchilla Notes

8.4 Blood
Component88 Function Features
Plasma (55% Transports dissolved mineral Pale and yellow, 90% water,
of Blood) salts, soluble proteins, food 10% transported substances
and excretory products, gases
and hormones
Red Blood To carry 98% of oxygen (the To carry oxygen:
Cells/ rest is carried by plasma) • Circular, flattened,
Erythrocytes Made in bone marrow, has biconcave to increase
(5-6 lifespan of 3-4 months, SA:V ratio
• Contains haemoglobin89
3
million/mm ) destroyed by spleen and the
haemoglobin is broken down • No nucleus or
at the liver mitochondria to minimise
use of oxygen and
maximise space for
haemoglobin
• Can become elastic and
bell-shaped to squeeze
through capillaries
White Blood Short lifespan of several days, • Colourless, no
Cells (5000- produced by stem cells in haemoglobin, irregularly
3
10000/mm ) bone marrow shaped, has nucleus
To fight diseases (details on • Can change shape, move
types below) and squeeze through
capillary walls
Platelets Not true cells, lifespan of 6 • Membrane-bound
(250000- days fragments of cytoplasm
3
400000/mm ) Blood clotting (process below) from bone marrow cells

8.4.1 Blood Transfusions – Red Blood Cells

• RBCs have special proteins called antigens on
their surface membranes, as well as antibodies
• Antibodies within a bloodstream will not react
with antigens of the same RBC type but may do
so with another blood type, as the same type of
antibodies and antigens will agglutinate

88
Blood composition can be determined by using the centrifuge covered in Chapter 1
89
Haemoglobin – comprised of 4 protein globin chains centered around a heme group

53
Chinchilla Notes

*To analyse blood type compatibility, only consider the effect of the
recipient’s plasms on the donor’s RBCs
For example, since type O has no antigens, it is compatible with all blood types,
as the antibodies will have nothing to react with. Thus, O is a universal donor
8.4.2 Types of White Blood Cells
Lymphocytes Phagocytes

Large round nucleus, relatively small Lobed nucleus, relatively large

cytoplasm amount of cytoplasm
Round shape, non-granular cytoplasm Irregular shape, granular cytoplasm
Limited movement Mobile
Produces antibodies which: Approaches and ingests foreign
• Destroy bacteria but rupturing particles like bacteria, digesting them
their surface membrane intracellularly
• Clump bacteria together to be
easily engulfed by phagocytes Dead phagocytes with dead bacteria
• Neutralize toxins produced by form a fluid called pus
bacteria
8.4.3 Blood Clotting by Platelets
• Blood vessels are damaged → damaged tissues and blood platelets release
enzyme thrombokinase
• Thrombokinase converts soluble protein prothrombin in plasma into thrombin
using calcium ions
• Enzyme thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble threads of
fibrin
• Fibrin threads entangle blood cells and forms a blood clot

Overall, blood protects through clotting, phagocytosis and antibody production

Disease: Haemophilia is a hereditary disease which impairs blood clotting
mechanism

54
Chinchilla Notes

8.4.4 Immunisation
• Induces antibody production in human body by injecting dead or weakened
forms of a pathogen into bloodstream to become resistance against infections
• The immune system may also reject transplanted organs or tissues, destroyed
by lymphocytes. This can be prevented by using a genetic match, immune-
suppressive drugs for life or X-ray radiation on bone marrow and lymphatic
system
8.5 Summary of Circulatory System
Deoxygenated blood pours into right
atrium via vena cava → Enters right
atrium, right ventricle which contracts
and pumps cells through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs where diffusion of
oxygen in and carbon dioxide out
occurs → Oxygenated blood enters left
atrium through pulmonary vein, enters
left atrium and left ventricle →
Oxygenated blood is pumped to
different parts of body through aorta,
reaches organs via arteries and enters
capillaries, where dissolved food
substances and oxygen from blood diffuse into tissue fluid and metabolic waste
products and carbon dioxide diffuse from cells into tissue fluid, then blood →
deoxygenated blood carried by veins and vena cava back to right atrium and cycle
repeats
*Hepatic refers to the liver, renal refers to the kidney and pulmonary refers to the
lungs

8.6 Lymphatic System

Another part of the circulatory system, though not covered in-depth, is the
lymphatic system.
• General Mechanics: 10% of fluid90 in body enters microscopic lymph
capillaries
• Transport System: Just need to know the parts

90
Fluid has different names depending on where it is found – fluid in blood is called plasma, fluid surrounding
cells is tissue fluid and fluid in the lymphatic system is called lymph

55
Chinchilla Notes

o Lymph capillary (with valves) → lymphatic vessel (contractile with valves)

→ afferent lymph vessel → lymph node → efferent lymph vessel →
thoracic duct (left) and lymphatic duct (right) → 2 subclavian veins →
superior vena cava → right atrium
o Unidirectional, very slow flow without a pumping system, relying on
movement of skeletal muscles and valves toward the heart
• Disease: Edema, swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in body tissues
o One reason is an inadequate lymphatic system, which may be caused by
damage during cancer treatment
• Functions of Lymphatic System: Returns excess interstitial fluid to blood
circulation
o Returns plasma proteins to maintain low interstitial fluid protein
concentration and maintain osmotic pressure gradient across capillary
membrane
o Transport waste from tissue cells
o Lymph node acts as filter to trap foreign particles and kill bacteria
o Plays a role in absorption and transport of fat from small intestine

Sample Questions
Q: Suggest how increasing the number of RBCs adapts a person to living at
4000 metres
A: At 4000 metres, the air pressure and conc. of atmospheric oxygen is lower.
The body cannot obtain sufficient oxygen to maintain its metabolic rate. Thus,
the body produces more RBCs to acclimatize to the lower concentration of
oxygen. This increase means more oxygen can now be transported to the tissue
cells / unit time
Q: Suggest how training at 4000 metres could improve athlete’s performance at
sea level
A: Training at 4000m will increase the number of red blood cells in their bodies
due to acclimatization. Back at sea level, with the increase in RBCs, the athlete
will be able to transport more oxygen to the muscle tissues per unit time. Thus,
with more oxygen molecules, more energy is released during aerobic respiration
for the athlete to perform.

56
Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 9: Respiratory System

Chapter Overview
Transport of gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen was a feature in the
previous chapter about the circulatory system. In this chapter, we look at how
these gases are inspired and expired by the human body, as well as an more
comprehensive view of how these gases are transported by blood.

9.1 Introduction to Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Both involve the breakdown of food substances to produce ATP
Requires the presence of oxygen Can occur in the absence of oxygen
Releases large amounts of energy, Releases relatively small amounts of
carbon dioxide and water energy
Occurs in organisms called aerobes Occurs in organisms called anaerobes
9.2 Reactions of Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic Respiration
Respiration Alcoholic Lactic Acid Fermentation
Fermentation
Oxidises glucose Carried out by yeast91, Carried out by human muscle
molecules to involving incomplete cells when under oxygen debt
produce ATP breakdown of glucose (e.g. during vigorous exercise and
(Adenosine to produce small continuous vigorous muscle
triphosphate) amounts of ATP, used contractions)
to make alcoholic Glucose is converted to pyruvic
drinks acid, which requires 2 ATP and
produces 4 more, thus a net 2
ATP molecules are released
C6H12O6 + 6O2 C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH C6H12O6 → Ch3COOH →
→ 6CO2 + H2O + 2 CO2 Ch3CH(OH)CO2H
+ ATP
9.3 Anaerobic Respiration in Humans
• During vigorous and rapid muscle contractions, breathing and heart rates
increase to supply more oxygen to muscles
• When there is a shortage of oxygen in muscles, anaerobic respiration occurs
for a short period of time to provide energy in the absence of oxygen

91
Yeast are both aerobes and anaerobes

57
Chinchilla Notes

• Lactic acid produced in lactic acid fermentation is toxic in high concentrations,

and slowly accumulates in the muscle, causing muscle fatigue, soreness and
stiffness, forcing the body to rest
• During the period of rest, breathing rate increases and deepens to provide
sufficient oxygen to repay the oxygen debt – the lactic acid is removed from
the muscles and transported to the liver
• Some lactic acid is oxidised in the liver to release energy, which in turn is used
to convert the remaining lactic acid back to glucose, which is transported back
to the muscle and stored as glycogen
9.4 Experiments Involving Respiration
Setup Result
• Potassium hydroxide • If respiration has
in A absorbs occurred, the
atmospheric CO2 limewater in D
• Limewater in B to will turn chalky
ensure that all CO2 and have a white
has been absorbed by precipitate
A
• Indicator reflects • If high conc. Of
carbon dioxide conc. carbon dioxide is
– it is slightly acidic present, indicator
will tend towards
purple

• Glucose sol. is boiled • If anaerobic

first to kill any reaction in
respiring organisms alcoholic
• Oil ensures yeast fermentation
undergoes anaerobic occurs,
respiration limewater will
turn chalky +
white precipitate
• Milton solution acts • If respiration
as sterilising agent to occurs,
kill unwanted temperature will
microorganisms on increase as
seeds respiration is an
• Cotton wool enables exothermic
shorter thermometer process
to be used

58
Chinchilla Notes

9.5 Human Respiratory System

• Structure: Found in Thoracic Cavity92
o Path of Air: Atmosphere → external nostril → nasal passages → pharynx →
larynx (voice box) → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
o Muscles for Inspiration and Expiration of Air: Internal and external
intercostals, diaphragm, abdominal muscles
o Cilia: Hair-like structures in the mucus membrane
o Alveoli (Singular, alveolus) to increase surface area for gaseous exchange
▪ Walls of alveoli covered with layer of water to dissolve gases
▪ Once-cell-thick walls for quick and easy diffusion of gases
▪ Richly supplied with capillaries for rapid transport of gases and steep
concentration gradient, increasing rate of diffusion
• Functions:
o Gaseous exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
o Regulate blood pH (since carbon dioxide is acidic)
o Allows vocalization (speech)
o Protects Alveoli
o Filter, warm and moisten air
o Increase cross sectional area (from 2.5cm2 to almost 1 million cm2)

• Mechanism (Conditioning, Inspiration and Expiration of Air):

Inspiration (Breathing in)
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
External intercostal muscles contract,
internal intercostal muscles relax
92
Thoracic Cavity – same place where the heart is
Expiration (Breathing out)
Diaphragm relaxes and arches
upwards
External intercostal muscles relax,
internal intercostal muscles contract

59
Chinchilla Notes

Ribs move upwards and outward;
sternum moves up and forward
Volume in thoracic cavity increases
Air pressure in lungs causes it to
expand to fill up enlarged thorax,
causing air pressure to decrease
Atmospheric pressure is higher than
pressure within lungs, air enters lungs than atmospheric pressure, air forced
Ribs move downwards and inwards,
sternum moves down to original
position
Volume in thoracic cavity decreases
Lungs compressed and decrease in
volume, causing air pressure to
increase
Air pressure within lungs now higher
out

o Conditioning of air: Before reaching the lungs, air is warmed to body

temperature, moistened by mucus produced by goblet cells and filtered by
mucus and cilia
▪ When filtering, mucus and cilia trap and remove dust particles bacteria
and foreign matter
▪ The cilia move constantly to transport the layer of mucus with foreign
matter towards the pharynx to be sneezed or swallowed
9.5.1 Inspired vs Expired Air
• Inspired vs Expired Air
o Inspired air has higher oxygen conc. but lower carbon dioxide conc.
compared to expired air. They have same nitrogen conc.
o Inspired air has variable water conc. but expired air is saturated
o Inspired air has variable temp. but expired air is 37 degrees
o Inspired air has more dust particles than expired air

60
Chinchilla Notes

9.5.2 Pulmonary Function Test – Lung Capacity

• A tool called the spirometer is used to evaluate respiratory function
o Tidal air (500 cm3): Air that moves in and out of lungs with each breath
o Complemental air/Inspiratory Reserve Volume (1500 cm3): Air inspired
forcibly beyond tidal volume
o Supplemental air/Expiratory Reserve Volume (1500 cm3): Air that can be
evacuated from lungs after tidal expiration
o Residual air (1500 cm3): Air left in lungs after strenuous expiration
• Tidal air + complemental air + supplemental air = vital capacity: total
volume of air blown out be deep breath
9.5.3 Gaseous Exchange and Transport
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
Lungs • After inhalation, • After transporting carbon
concentration of dioxide from body cells, carbon
oxygen in alveoli > in dioxide in blood > in inhaled air
blood • Hydrogencarbonate ions enter
• Oxygen diffuses down RBC from blood plasma,
concentration gradient dissociating into carbon dioxide
into capillary and RBC and water in presence of an
• Oxygen combines with enzyme
haemoglobin in RBC • Carbon dioxide diffuses down
to form concentration back into blood
oxyhaemoglobin plasma and into lungs
• Transported to other • Carbon dioxide is released back
parts of body into atmosphere after exhalation
Body • After respiration of • After respiration of body cells,
Tissues body cells, oxygen is carbon dioxide in tissues > in
depleted in tissues and blood
< in blood • Carbon dioxide diffuses down
• Oxyhaemoglobin in concentration gradient into RBC
RBC dissociates into • Carbon dioxide reacts with water
haemoglobin and to form hydrogencarbonate ions,
oxygen catalysed by an enzyme
• Oxygen diffuses down • Hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse
concentration gradient out of RBC into blood plasma to
into body cells be transported back to lungs
• Haemoglobin is now
free to combine with
oxygen in the lungs
again
61
Chinchilla Notes

9.5.4 Types of Respiratory Diseases

• Chronic bronchitis: Inflammation of epithelium lining airways, causing

excessive secretion of mucus
o Paralysation of cilia, so mucus and dust are not removed → block airway
and make breathing difficult
o Persistent cough developed to clear airways in order to breathe →
increased risk of lung infection
• Emphysema: Persistent and violent coughing destroys alveoli, causing
reduced surface area for gaseous exchange
o Lungs lose elasticity and become inflated with air, making it hard to
breathe and causing wheezing and breathlessness
• Chronic Obstructive Lung/Pulmonary Diseases (COPD)
o Caused by combination of emphysema and chronic bronchitis (two
negatives DO NOT make a positive)
9.5.5 Causes of Respiratory Diseases
• Tobacco Smoke which contains several harmful chemicals:
o Nicotine
▪ Addictive drug
▪ Causes release of adrenalin → increase in heartbeat and blood
pressure
▪ Makes blood clot easily → increased risk of blood clots in blood
vessels
o Carbon monoxide
▪ Combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, decreasing
oxygen transport deficiency
▪ Increases fatty deposits along inner arterial wall → increased risk of
atherosclerosis (the one in the previous chapter)
▪ Damages lining of blood vessels → increased risk of blood clots in
blood vessels
o Tar
▪ Cancer-causing (carcinogenic) chemicals which induce uncontrolled
cell division in epithelium
▪ Paralyses cilia lining air passages → blockage of air sacs, decrease in
gas exchange efficiency and unable to remove dust particles in mucus
o Irritants (e.g. hydrogen cyanide, acrolein, formaldehyde)
▪ Increases risk of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

62
Chinchilla Notes

Sample Questions
Q: What is the adaptive significance of hyperventilation?
A: Hyperventilation reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood,
balancing the carbon dioxide and oxygen levels and maintaining constant pH in
the blood
Q: Essay - Suggest why sprinters get 80% of their energy from anaerobic
respiration and 20% from aerobic respiration, and vice versa for long distance
runners
A: Sprinters run for a short distance thus they need a lot of energy in a short period
of time but long-distance runners run for a long time and thus they need sustained
release of energy for a long period of time. Aerobic respiration is more efficient
and releases more energy compared to anaerobic respiration for the same amount
of glucose. However, there is a limit to the supply of oxygen that the body can
provide for aerobic respiration. When there is a lack of oxygen, but energy is still
required, the body switched to anaerobic respiration. During anaerobic respiration,
the body incurs an oxygen debt. When lactic acid concentrations build up in the
muscles, fatigue and muscular pains will result and the runner will not be able to
run anymore. The runner will need to rest to repay the oxygen debt and remove
lactic acid build-up in the body. For the case of the sprinter, he undergoes 80%
anaerobic respiration and 20% aerobic respiration as anaerobic respiration is able
to provide extra boost of energy to run as fast as he can during that short distance.
For the case of the long-distance runner, he undergoes 20% anaerobic respiration
and 80% aerobic respiration as he needs to minimize the production of lactic acid
by anaerobic respiration so he can continue to run for a long distance

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Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 10: Excretory System

Chapter Overview
In this chapter, we will cover the human excretory system, and how different
waste products are eventually expelled in urine. In addition, we will also touch
on the dialysis machine, and describe how it can replicate several functions of the
excretory system to treat those with kidney failure.

10.1 Introduction to the Excretory System

• Definition: Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products like
urea and excess water, as well as toxic materials are removed from an
organism’s body
• Structure: Zooming in from the full system to the kidney and nephron
10.2 Parts and Diagrams of the Excretory System

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Chinchilla Notes

o Blood Vessels
▪ Renal artery branches into many arterioles → divides into mass of blood
capillaries called the glomerulus → leaves renal corpuscle and enters
kidney tubule → unites to form venules and leaves as the renal vein
o Renal/Malpighian corpuscle
▪ Glomerulus is surrounded by Bowman’s capsule and separated by the
partially permeable basement membrane
▪ Basement membrane that wraps around glomerular blood capillaries
and has small pores to filter water and small molecules
o Proximal convoluted tube
▪ Site of selective reabsorption
▪ Has many mitochondria to provide ATP
for active transport
▪ Microvilli to increase surface area for
reabsorption
o Others: Distal convoluted tube, loop of
Henle, collecting duct

10.3 Functions of the Excretory System

Glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption and collectively produce urine
Glomerular Filtration (Ultrafiltration)
• The afferent arteriole leading into glomerulus is wider than the efferent
arteriole leading blood out to increase blood pressure in glomerulus capillaries
• This pressure forces plasma containing water and small molecules out of the
blood through the basement membrane and into Bowman’s capsule
Tubular Reabsorption (Selective Reabsorption)
• Water and essential molecules (amino acids, glucose and divalent 93 ions)
reabsorbed from kidney tubule to blood in capillaries via osmosis and active
transport respectively
Part Substances Absorbed
PCT • 80% of total filtrate (it’s called filtrate because it was
previously filtered by the basement membrane)
o All glucose and amino acids
o 85% mineral ions, 80% water
o Small proteins

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Divalent ion – an ion with charge of 2+

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Chinchilla Notes

Loop of Henle • Water

DCT • Water
• Sodium ions (Na+)
• NaCl
Collecting Duct • Water
• Residual substances – remaining water, salts and metabolic waste products
(e.g. urea, uric acid, creatinine) pass out of collecting duct into renal pelvis
as urine
• For healthy people, 100%
glucose is reabsorbed by
active transport, however for
people with diabetes, the
maximum renal threshold is
exceeded and active transport
cannot keep up to reabsorb all
the glucose and the residual is
excreted in urine (reflected in
this graph on the left)
10.4 Urine
• Urine Composition: 95% water, 5% solute. Solute includes:
o Metabolic/nitrogenous wastes
o Sodium, potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium, sulphate and
bicarbonate ions in normal concentration
• Abnormally high concentration of minerals indicates disease as less of it was
reabsorbed or a large amount of it was initially present
10.4.1 Blood vs Urine
• Urine has more sodium, potassium, urea and ammonia than blood (more
minerals and metabolic waste)
• Blood has more glucose and proteins
10.5 Dialysis
• Dialysis is required when the kidney fails and is unable to remove excess
fluids and toxins from the blood by itself
• It involves 3 treatments a week, 3-4 hours at a time
• Process: Blood drawn from artery in patient’s arm via inserted fistula, pumped
through a tubing to the dialysis machine

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Chinchilla Notes

o The tubing is bathed in a special dialysis fluid and is partially permeable94

▪ Dialysis fluid is made of essential salt and glucose solution and prevents
diffusion of salts and glucose from blood into fluid by eliminating the
concentration gradient
▪ There is no metabolic waste in dialysis fluid to maintain the
concentration gradient for faster diffusion of these wastes
o The partially permeable tubing allows small molecules and metabolic
waste products to diffuse out of tubing while larger molecules like blood
cells and platelets remain in tubing
o Filtered blood is returned to the vein in patient’s arm
o Since the vein is receiving blood at higher pressure than normal, it largens
and strengthens over time, allowing more blood to flow through into the
dialysis machine and allowing it process the blood faster
10.5.1 Exchange of Substances Between Blood and Dialysis Fluid

Note: the inside of the dialysis is a very long coiled tubing, which gives sufficient
time for sufficient diffusion of toxins out of the blood and increases surface area
to volume ratio. The dialysis fluid flows in the opposite direction to the blood
flow to maintain concentration gradient for removal of waste products.

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Partially-permeable tubing to replace the function of the basement membrane

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Chinchilla Notes

Chapter 11: Homeostasis

Chapter Overview
The excretory system in the last chapter is one of the many ways the human body
maintains a relatively constant internal environment and keeps us alive. These
mechanisms fall under homeostasis, and includes control of variables from
temperature to blood water potential.
11.1 Introduction to Homeostasis
• Definition: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal
environment within a narrow range in an organism despite significant
changes in external environment
o Aspects of this environment can include body temperature, body fluid
water potential, body fluid glucose levels and body fluid pH among others
• Mechanism: Negative feedback
o Definition: Negative feedback is a form of regulation in which
accumulation of an end product slows down the process and change in a
variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change
• The general process of homeostasis is as follows:
o Stimulus (any change in factors stated above) → detected by receptor at the
site of the organ → signal sent to control centre (brain) → effector (cell that
responds to the stimulus) → automatic corrective mechanism → once the
optimal internal environment is achieved, negative feedback is sent to the
receptor to stop the mechanism
11.2 Response to Changes in Glucose Concentration
Rise in Glucose Conc. Fall in Glucose Conc.
Stimulus Blood glucose levels rises Blood glucose levels falls
above normal levels (e.g. after below normal levels (e.g. after
consuming starch/sugar) fasting or exercise)
Receptor Beta cells of Islets of Alpha cells of Islets of
and Langerhans in pancreas Langerhans in pancreas
Effector stimulated stimulated
Automatic Islets of Langerhans secretes Islets of Langerhans secretes
Corrective more insulin which is more glucagon, which is
Mechanism transported by blood and liver transported by blood and liver
muscles → permeability of muscles → glucagon
cell surface membrane to stimulates conversion of
glucose increases → liver and stored glycogen to glucose,

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Chinchilla Notes

muscle cells convert and store which enters bloodstream

excess glucose to glycogen from the liver
Negative Blood concentration decreases Blood concentration increases
Feedback and insulin production falls → and glucagon production falls
negative feedback sent to → negative feedback sent to
Islets of Langerhans → blood Islets of Langerhans → blood
glucose concentration returns glucose concentration returns
to normal to normal
11.3 Response to Changes in Blood Water Potential
Rise in Water Potential Fall in Water Potential
Stimulus Blood water potential rises Blood water potential falls
above normal levels (e.g. below normal levels (e.g.
excessive consumption of profuse sweating)
water)
Receptor Osmoreceptors in Osmoreceptors in
and hypothalamus are stimulated hypothalamus are stimulated
Effector
Automatic Posterior pituitary gland Posterior pituitary gland
Corrective secretes less ADH (anti- secretes more ADH (anti-
Mechanism diuretic hormone) → less diuretic hormone) → increases
water is reabsorbed by kidney permeability of collecting duct
tubules → more water to water → more water
excreted → urine increases in reabsorbed by kidney tubules
volume and becomes less → less water is excreted →
concentrated urine decreases in volume and
becomes more concentrated
Negative Blood water potential falls → Blood water potential rises →
Feedback negative feedback sent to negative feedback sent to
osmoreceptors → blood water osmoreceptors → blood water
potential returns to normal potential returns to normal
11.3.1 Case Study: Osmoregulation in Bony Fish
• In marine fish, the ocean is hypertonic and easily dehydrates the fish by
losing water through gills and skin
o Thus, homeostasis reduces urine production, compensating by
drinking large amounts and supplements with active transport at gills
to remove excess salt
• In freshwater fish, the water is hypotonic to fish and easily causes the fish to
take in too much water and lose salt

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Chinchilla Notes

o Thus, homeostasis increases dilute urine production and supplements

salt with active transport at gills to take in salt
11.4 Response to Change in External Temperature
Rise in Ext. Temp. Fall in Ext. Temp.
Stimulus Blood and skin temperatures Blood and skin temperatures
rise fall
Receptor Temperature receptors detect Temperature receptors detect
and changes and send nerve changes and send nerve
Effector impulses to hypothalamus, impulses to hypothalamus,
which sends nerve impulses to which sends nerve impulses to
relevant body parts relevant body parts
Automatic • Sweat glands become • Sweat glands become
Corrective more active and sweat less active and sweat
Mechanism production increases → production decreases →
more latent heat lost less latent heat lost
when sweat evaporates when sweat evaporates
• Hair erector muscles • Hair erector muscles
relax (not a good contract (not a good
example for temperature example)
regulation) • Arterioles in skin
• Arterioles in skin dilate constrict and shunt
and shunt vessels vessels dilate → less
constrict → more blood blood flows to
flows to capillaries in capillaries in skin →
skin → greater heat loss less heat
• Metabolism rate • Metabolism rate
decreases → lower heat increases → higher heat
production production
Negative Blood and skin temperature Blood and skin temperature
Feedback fall → negative feedback sent rise → negative feedback sent
to hypothalamus → to hypothalamus →
temperature returns to normal temperature returns to normal
11.4.1 Body Temperature Regulation in Warm-Blooded Organisms
• The diagram below shows the skin structure of a human, which plays a large
role temperature regulation
• Parts: Epidermis
o Outer cornified layer is a layer of dead, dry, flat cells with protein deposits,
which are continually rubbed off and replaces

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Chinchilla Notes

o Granular layer consists of living cells that move upward from Malpighian
layer and become the cornified layer eventually
o Malpighian layer contains skin colour pigment and protects it from harmful
ultraviolet rays. It
continually divides to form
upper cell layers
• Arterioles are controlled by
nerves for vasodilation and
vasoconstriction95
• Hair follicles are hollow tubes
through the epidermis and
dermis and are controlled by
hair erector muscles which
contract to cause hair to stand and form goose bumps. It is provided with
nutrients and oxygen by hair papilla, as mass of tissue with blood capillaries
and nerves
• Sweat glands, tightly coiled tubes, are connected to the sweat pore via the
sweat duct and facilitate the removal of urea
Using these features of skin, the body can regulate heat gain and loss with the
aforementioned corrective mechanisms, along with the following:
• Heat Gain - Aerobic tissue respiration, distribution of heat via blood, eating,
shivering and exercising, conduction, convection and radiation96
• Heat Loss - Conduction, convection and radiation, faeces, urine, exhalation
of air
Sample Questions
Q: Explain the significance of maintaining core body temperature.
A: Excess heat must be removed from the body as one could die of overheating
or enzyme denaturation
Q: Why does heat production increase during exercise?
A: The body releases energy to supply muscle cells which undergo rapid
contractions and kick off metabolic processes. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
is exothermic, and an increased rate of respiration to release more energy heats
up blood circulating through the muscles, increasing body core temperature

95
Only use the terms “vasodilation” and “vasoconstriction” for arterioles in skin
96
Conduction, convection and radiation – include them in all answers regarding heat change for homeostasis

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Chinchilla Notes

Diagrams to Draw
• Chapter 1
o Animal and Plant Cell
o Phospholipid Bilayer with Cholesterol, Unsaturated and Saturated Fatty
Acids
o Ester Linkage Chemical Structure
• Chapter 2
o Effect of Hypotonic and Hypertonic Solutions on Plant and Animal Cells
• Chapter 4
o Enzyme Lock and Key Hypothesis
o Enzyme Limiting Factors Graphs
• Chapter 5
o Deamination of Amino Acids
o Small Intestine Villi with Lacteal and Blood Vessels
o Peristalsis
• Chapter 6
o Photosynthesis Limiting Factors Graphs
o Chemical Equations for Light Dependent and Independent Reactions
o Leaf Cross Section
o Guard Cells and Chloroplast
• Chapter 7
o Dicotyledonous Root and Stem
• Chapter 8
o Identify Parts of Human Heart
o RBC and WBC
o Capillary, Vein, Artery Cross Section
• Chapter 9
o Aerobic and Anaerobic Equations
• Chapter 10
o Kidney
• Chapter 11
o Skin Structure

References
• Year 3 ACS Biology Slides
• Brent Cornell. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ib.bioninja.com.au/
• Khan Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/

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