1.1.

Animal and Plant cells p: 2- 6

Cell

• Is functional and structural basic unit of life

• Very small in size, less than 1 mm in diameter

• Plant and animal cells contain tiny subcellular structures called

organelles
• Each organelle has specific function and structure
A Typical animal cell Diagram
Animal Cell Plant Cell
 Cell membrane p: 3 phosphate
“head”

• Also called plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane

• Thin membrane of phospholipid bilayer
• with embedded proteins that encloses the cytoplasm
lipid “tail”
• in both animal and plant cells

• Functions:
1. Holds the cell together and giving its shape
2. Protects and supports the cell
3. Controls* the movement of substance into and out of the cell

• It is selectively permeable*:
 Oxygen , water and small molecules can enter
Cells waste products are allowed to leave
Toxin substances are prevented from entering
Cell wall (p: 3)
• A fully permeable thick and tough/rigid outer layer , outside the cell
membrane.
• Found plant cells, fungi and most bacteria.
• Absent in animal cells*

• Functions
- Protects and Provide extra support
- It is fully permeable that allows substances to pass freely
Cytoplasm p: 3
• A clear , jellylike substance that fills the empty space in cell
• It consists of :
1. Organelles: tiny subcellular structures suspended in the cytoplasm
2. Water with various salts, sugars and other substances dissolved in it
3. Lipid and proteins used to build cell structures (membranes)
4. Enzymes that control metabolic reactions(energy production,
formation of new cellular structures)
5. Glycogen granules, lipid droplets and food reserves found in
cytoplasm of animal cells only ,absent in plant cell*
Cytoplasm p: 3
• Functions:
1. Maintains the pressure of the cell,(cell doesn't shrink or burst).
2. Provide a place where most cell reactions occur(oxidation,
assimilation.. )
• The part that contains the organic molecules (nutrients) and ions in
solution is called; cytosol
Questions page 3
1. State two main functions of the cell membrane .

2. What is the function of the cell wall, and where is it found ?

 Questions page 3

3. Describe the cytoplasm.

Structure of Animal and Plant cell (p: 3)
Organelles
• Tiny subcellular structures suspended in the cytoplasm
• Each organelle has specific structure and specific function
• The largest organelle in most cell is the nucleus

• Organelles:
Nucleus, mitochondria,, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus, (both )
Large vacuole and chloroplast, (mostly Plant cells )
lysosomes (mainly Animal cells)

• The nucleus and cytoplasm collectively are called protoplasm

1. Organelle: Nucleus
• A relatively large, round structure within the cytoplasm
• Surrounded by nuclear envelope :a lipid bilayer controls the exchange of
substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm through small openings called
nuclear pores
• Contain chromosomes: thread like structures made up of DNA and proteins

Functions:
1. Is the information and control center of each cell
2. Determine the cell type
3. Control much of the cell’s behavior
4. Controls the type and quantity of proteins produced
5. Regulates the reactions that happen inside the cell
6. Controls cell’s division (mitosis - meiosis)
2 Organelle :Mitochondria (p:4)
• Small membrane bound organelles in all eukaryotic
(exception :mature human RBC) Absent in prokaryotic*

• Have internal membranes (working surfaces) that are:

1. Folded thus increasing surface area for chemical rxn
2.Contain enzymes that control cellular respiration

Number of mitochondria in a cell depends on activity

Active cells (Muscle) have greater number of mitochondria than in less active
(skin)

Functions:
Power house of the cell: Produce energy from energy rich molecules(sugar)through
cellular respiration /aerobic respiration
Questions page 4
4. a. What is the function of the mitochondria ? G

b. Explain the importance of the internal membrane system if the

mitochondria .
Questions page 4
c. Outline the relationship between the number of mitochondria in a cell and
its relative activity.

5. List some organelles that are present in animal and plant cells.
Questions page 4
6. Which structures inside the nucleus carry the genetic material ?
 nucleus endoplasmic
reticulum
protein
DNA on its way! TO:

RNA vesicle TO:

TO:

vesicle
ribosomes

TO:

protein finished
protein

Golgi
apparatus
Making Proteins
 3. Organelle: Lysosomes
• Small, round, membrane -bound organelles
• Found in almost all animal cells
• Rarely found in plant cell*
• Vesicles derived from Golgi apparatus that contain hydrolytic digestive
enzymes
• Function
1. Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones (protein, lipid,
carbohydrates) to be used by cell
2. Digest worn out cellular parts
3. Transports undigested material to the cell membrane for removal
4. Organelle :Ribosomes (p: 4)
• Main site for protein synthesis (Translation phase ) in the cells
• The smallest and most numerous organelles found in all types of cells
• Are a complex assemblies of protein and RNA
• Found in 2 forms:
1. Floating freely in cytoplasm
2. Attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Interconnected network of tubes and passageways
continuous with the nuclear membrane
• Found in all Eukaryotes Absent in prokaryotes*

• Functions:
1. Participate in lipid and proteins synthesis
2. Forms a cell transport system inside the cell .
Vesicles : carry partially processed proteins and lipid to Golgi
apparatus

• There are 2 types of ER

1. SER: smooth endoplasmic reticulum that lack ribosomes
for lipid synthesis
2. RER: Rough endoplasmic reticulum that is rich in
ribosomes for protein
Golgi Apparatus = Golgi body = Golgi complex
• A stalk of flattened sacs and vesicles
• Found in both plant and animal cells
• Functions
1. Complete the processing of partially
processed proteins and lipids from ER
2. Package the final product in golgi
vesicles to be transported to target
inside the cell or secreted into external
environment
Questions page 5
7. What is the function of ribosomes?

8. What is the function of Golgi apparatus ?

Questions page 5
7. What are lysosomes ?

8. What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

 Vacuoles P:5
• Store substances:
Store water , food, and other material
Store product synthesized inside the cell and can’t be shipped out
Store waste that can’t be eliminated directly

• Maintain the shape of a plant cell

- If the vacuole if full: cell is firm & rigid (outward pressure on cytoplasm& Cell wall)
- If vacuole is low(low water content) , entire plant may die.
Plant cells: - one large central vacuole
- Contain cell sap: a dilute liquid( water, amino acids, glucose , salts & pigments

Animal cell: several small vacuoles called vesicles or none

 Chloroplast p:5
• A green disc like organelle found in most plants and algae, absent in animal cell
-Plant root cells don’t have chloroplast (not exposed to sunlight)
• Larger than a mitochondrion with more complex system of membranes

• Function: Convert sunlight energy into chemical energy used in photosynthesis

• Chloroplast has:
• Thylakoids: hollow, saclike disks contain chlorophyll
• Chloroplast envelop: double membrane envelop
- Thylakoid membrane system: a third inner membrane system
- Stroma: semifluid aqueous solution
Chloroplast
Chloroplast are types of plastids
Plastid are:
• Small organelles found in cytoplasm of plant cells
• Function: Center for special metabolic activities
• Some plastids contains pigments
Chlorophyll: green pigments found in chloroplasts

• Some plastids contain no pigments

• Leucoplasts: colorless plastid that are involved in storage of starch
and oil,
Questions page 6
11. Name the green pigment present in chloroplasts, and state briefly its
function .
Chlorophyll , traps energy of sunlight needed for photosynthesis

12. Draw a typical animal cell and label its main structures, including the
organelles.
Questions page 6
13. What is the function of the vacuole ?
Page 6
Comparing plant cells and animal cells
 Plant Cell
Animal Cell

• No cell wall • Cell wall

• No Chloroplast • Cell membrane • Chloroplast

• Have many small vacuoles • Nucleus • Have large central

called vesicles vacuole
• Cytoplasm
• Irregular in shape • Plastids containing
• Mitochondria starch granules
• Smaller in size
• Golgi apparatus • Regular in shape
• Has lysosome
• Ribosome • Larger in size

ER • No lysosome
Questions page 6
13. a. Draw and label a diagram of a typical plant cell .
 Questions page 6
b. State which part of the plant cell
i. Makes food for the plant by photosynthesis Chloroplast
ii. Releases energy from food mitochondria
iii. Controls what goes into and out of the plant cell Cell membrane
iv. Stores the cell’s genetic information nucleus
v. Contains cell sap vacuole
vi. Is a rigid and tough outer layer that protects the outside of the cell
Cell wall
Questions page 6
13 c. List two structural and one functional differences between plant and
animal cell .
1.2 Cell Biology and Microscopy p: 7 -12

Microscope an instrument used

to view and study objects that
too small to be seen by aided
eyes
Questions page 8
16. Explain the function of the following parts off the light microscope :
a. Objectives :
help produce a greatly magnified image of the specimen
a. Stage :
holds and supports the microscope slide
c. Arm :
connects the upper part of the microscope to the base and is the best
place to grip the microscope when carrying it.
d. Coarse focus knob :
general focusing
 Microscope
Light microscope Electron microscope

- Uses ordinary beam of light - Uses beams of electrons

- magnify up to 1000 times - magnify up to 500,000 times
- Low resolution - High resolution

Magnification : how much an object enlarged or scaled up

Resolution: the ability to distinguish fine details

Photomicrograph: is the photograph of the specimen image seen across a mircoscope

Questions page 9
17. What is an electron microscope ?

18. Distinguish between magnification and resolution .

Proper use and care of a light microscope:
• Hold microscope upright
• Place on flat surface, clean lenses with only lens paper to avoid the
damaging of the lens.
• Prepare thin specimen to let light pass through easily.
• Make sure the 4x lens (lowest objective) is locked into position
before placing slide.
• Secure the slide in position using the stage clips.
• Use fine adjustment focusing knob to focus on specimen to get a clear
image
• To view at higher magnification rotate nosepiece until selected
objective
Questions page 9
19. How should a microscope be carried ?

20. Why should the large focusing knob be turned slowly ?

 Specimen Preparation

Specimen is any organism, a part of an organism or a nonliving material used

for scientific examination.

Types of specimen

Sections Epidermal Squashes Smears stained microscopic

strips slides
 Stained microscopic slides
Treatment of a microscopic slide with certain dyes or stains to increase
contrast that allows a clearer view.
Commonly used dyes

methylene blue Iodine solution

to stain nuclei of animal cell to stain nuclei of plant cell

Questions page 10
21. What is the function of iodine solution and methylene blue solution
in preparing specimens for viewing under the microscope?

22. Name some examples of specimen types that can be used for study
under a microscope.
Biological drawing P 11
Questions page 11
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1.3 Cell Division and Specialization p: 12- 17
Cell division
A process where the cell divides to
give rise to 2 or more daughter cells.

Importance of cell division:

1. Formation of an organism
2. Growth of organism
3. Repair and replacement of worn out
or damaged cells in an organism.
1.3 Cell Division and Specialization
In plants: Cell division occur in meristems
Meristem:
• A plant tissue containing
undifferentiated cells
• Is an actively dividing area
• Found in plant zones were growth can
take place: Plant root and Shoot tip

Shoot meristem leaves

Root meristem Root growth

 1.3 Cell Division and Specialization
In animals:
Cell division occurs in tissues that requires frequent renewal and growth
example: - epithelial tissues (skin)
- bone marrow
- Production of gametes (sperms in males, ovum/egg in females)

In bacteria and single celled organism:

Cell division is a form of reproduction :
Binary fission in bacterium
Page 13 Questions
25. State three reasons why cell division is important to living organisms.
 1.3 Cell Division and Specialization
Compare cell division in plant and Animal cells

-Cell divides when its fully

grown

-Cellular organelles
(mitochondria, chloroplast )
divide to be equally
distributed between daughter
cells

-In plants: The cell wall

prevent the cytoplasm from
pinching off in the middle (no
cytokinesis)
-A cell wall(plate forms
between the 2 daughter cells )
+ a large vacuole develops
 Cell Specialization
Cell specialization:
• is the differentiation of cells as they develop, depending on their
location in the body and role within the organism.
• Specialized cells have special characteristics that make them well
adapted to their functions.

Example 1: Liver cells

are adapted to break down toxic substances, this requires lot of energy.
So, they have numerous mitochondria.
2
3
Example 7: Xylem vessels
- dead and hollow; no nucleus, no cytoplasm , no cell membrane
-Has cell wall rich in hard substance called lignin to support above ground plant parts.

Xylem Role: Provide support + Transport water and ions from roots to all parts
Example 8: Root hair cells
-Present above root tip in close contact with soil particles.
- Have tiny, tubelike outgrowth to increase surface area of water and
minerals absorption from soil.
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