Unit 1 Biology

Key Science Skills

Designing & planning investigations

1. Construct a research question & aim that suits your methodology
2. Identify variables
3. Formulate a hypothesis
4. Design a repeatable, reproducible & valid method
5. Follow ethical & safety questions

Constructing a research question & aim

Research question should be
● Testable
● Specific
● Achievable
E.G. Does the amount of water affect the germination rate of golden nuggets pumpkin seeds?

Aim
● Use the word “to”

Variables

Independent variable
● The factor we manipulate or that is changed

Dependent variable
● The factor affected by changing IV
● Factor we measure

Controlled variables
● Factors that remain the same
● Factors beside the IV that might affect the DV

Hypothesis
● Is a testable statement
● Describe how IV will affect DV

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Sampling groups

Sample
● Subset of the larger population being studied
● Representative describes a sample that accurately represents the characteristics of the larger
population

Population
● A set of similar objects or individuals that are studied in a scientific investigation

Unbiased
● Describes a sample or measurement that is unaffected by scientists expectations

Random sampling
● Computer generated
● May not give accurate representation

Systematic sampling
● Involves taking samples at regular intervals along environmental gradient

Stratified sampling
● When a population has clearly defined zones or characteristics & you wish to sample proportionately
from each cone you may wish to use stratified sampling

Ethics
● Ethics in the experiment (honesty, work load, risk exposure, disposal of waste)
● Ethics of experiment (treatment of participants)

Data

Primary
● You’ve collected

Collecting data
● Primary v secondary
● Raw v transformed
● Use log book to record any observations

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 Transforming
● Numerical variables → Line or scatter plot
● Categorical variables → Bar chart or pie graph

Analysing data & method

● Determine whether your hypothesis is supported or rejected
● Reflect on your data to decide if method is repeatable, reproducible & valid

Chapter 2

Biomacromolecules
● There are four classes
○ Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates & nucleic acid
○ These are all organic molecules

Organic Molecules Inorganic molecules

● Contain carbon ● Generally do not contain carbon

● Also contain hydrogen OR
● Sometimes contain ● Do contain carbon but not also hydrogen
○ Oxygen ● Are a small molecules
○ Nitrogen ● Are not arranged in ‘ring or chain’
○ Phosphorus ● E.G. H2O
● Arranged in a ‘ring or chain’
● Are a large molecule
● Found in all living things
● E.G. Carbohydrates → Glucose

● 3 of 4 are polynomials (protein, Carbs & nucleic acid)

● Monomer = subunit
● Polymer = Many subunits bonded together

Basics of life

Cell theory
1. All living things are made cells
2. Cells are the smallest and most basic unit of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

Both

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

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 ● Mitosis & Meiosis ● Binary fission ● Unicellular
● Membrane bound ● Smaller (~1-5μm) ● Ribosomes
organelles ● One circular chromosome ● Cytoplasm
● Multicellular & additional plasmids ● Cell membrane
● Larger (~10-100 μm) ● Most have cell wall ● ATP as their energy
● More than 1 linear strand source
of DNA packaged in a ● Use the same chemical
chromosome in a nucleus building blocks
● Includes animals, plants,
fungus & some bacteria

Cell size
● Cells must constantly exchange material with the external environment rely on an optimal surface area
to volume ratio

ATP/ADP Cycle
● The main energy source in cells in glucose converted into a useable form of energy - ATP
● Hydrolysis occurs to break off the 3rd phosphate
● ATP is unstable in nature (would rather be ADP)
● Exergonic - release energy, coupled with endergonic
reaction - takes energy

Energy transfers

Photosynthesis
● 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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 ● Carbon Dioxide + water → Oxygen + Glucose
● The reactants of photosynthesis are CO2 & H2O
● The products are C6H12O6 & O2
○ This can then be used to by plants and animals for cellular respiration
● Only visible light can be used by plants & algae as an energy source

● Energy Requiring → Anabolic, endergonic, endothermic

● Energy releasing → Catabolic, exergonic, exothermic

● Takes place in specialised plant organelles called chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll

Chloroplasts
● Organelle with double membrane, found in photoautotrophs
● Contains chlorophyll - green pigment that absorbs blue & red light

Grana
● Stacks of flattened membranes
● Contains chlorophyll in the thylakoids

Stroma
● Fluid-filled space between grana

Stages of photosynthesis
● Complex reactions in which sunlight is converted into chemical energy

Light dependent stage

● Occurs in chloroplasts on the thylakoid membranes
● Input light and water
What happens
● Water is split, breaking these bonds release energy, oxygen is produced

Light independent stage

● Occurs in stroma of chloroplasts
● Inputs: ATP & CO 2
What happens
● CO2 is taken up, in a series of steps including carbon fixation, CO2 is broken down to produce glucose,
ATP is used in process, water is a by product
● Outputs: Glucose & water

Cellular respiration
● Series of the reactions in the cells of heterotrophs & autotrophs to convert chemical energy from
glucose into ATP
● Glucose + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy
● C6H126O2 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 30-32 ATP
● Occurs in multiple stages in both the cytosol & mitochondria

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Aerobic respiration
There are three stages
1. Glycolysis in cytosol
2. Krebs cycle in matrix of mitochondria
3. Electron transport on inner membrane of mitochondria

Glycolysis
● Occurs in cytosol
● Anerobic (no oxygen)
● Breaking glucose in half into two pyruvate
● Pyruvate moves to mitochondria
● Small amount of energy is released
The energy released is stored in ‘energy carrier’ molecules:
● 2 ATP
● 2 NADH - this is another type of ‘energy carrier’ molecule which will ‘deliver’ electrons & hydrogen ions
to the electron transport chain
Inputs: Glucose, 2 ADP & 2Pi
Outputs: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP & 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle
● Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
● Oxygen is required
● Pyruvate is broken down during the krebs cycles, producing
○ 6 molecules of carbon dioxide
○ A small amount of energy is stored in ‘energy carrier’ molecules
○ 2 ATP
○ 6 NADH & 2 FADH2 which will ‘deliver’ more
electrons & hydrogen ions to electron transport
chain
Inputs: 2 Pyruvate, oxygen
Outputs: 6 Carbon dioxide, 2 ATP & 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2

Electron transport chain

Purpose: To move electrons and H+ across the inner mitochondrial
membranes to generate the most Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
● Occurs on folded inner membrane of mitochondria
● Oxygen is required
● Electrons and H+ from ‘energy carrier’ molecules from
Krebs cycle & glycolysis give energy to produce ATP (26
or 28 are produced)
● Some of the H+ will combine with oxygen to make water
Inputs: Energy carrier molecules inputting ions & electrons, oxygen
Outputs: Water, 26-28 ATP

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Plant structures

Stromata
● Pores in leaves that allow carbon dioxide to enter & oxygen to leave
● Presence of vessels to bring water to leaves (xylem) and remove sugar (phloem)

Roots
● Extensive root system to supply water
● Presence of root hairs to create a large surface area for absorption of water

Chapter 3

Plasma membrane

● Surrounds all cells - cell membrane

Some of the functions of the plasma membrane

include:

Protecting and enclosing the cell Giving shape to the cell

Maintain internal condition of cell, different from Allowing transport of materials in & out of the cell
external environment

Semi-permanent or selectively permanent Made of phospholipids

Plasma membrane has a ‘train track’ appearance Structure is a phospholipid bilayer

Protein channels, carb chain, integral protein Fluid mosaic model

Diffusion
The Net movement of a substance from a region with a high concentration to a region with a low concentration

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Osmosis
● The diffusion of water from a place with a high concentration of water to a place with a low
concentration of water
● Net diffusion of free water molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a region with a low
solute concentration to a region with a high solute concentration

Facilitated diffusion
The passive net movement of a substance from a region with a high concentration to a region with a low
concentration through a membrane via a specific protein channel

Channel Proteins
Basically form a hydrophilic pore in the plasma membrane, which allows a substance to pass through it and
thus enter/leave the cell

Carrier proteins
Undergoes a conformational change (shape change) when a substance binds to it, this shape change moves
the substance into/out of the cell

Tonicity

Hypotonic
Having a lower solute concentration than the cell contents water will move from High concentration (outside
cell) to low concentration (inside cell)

Isotonic
● Having an equal solute concentration to that of the cell
● No net movement

Hypertonic
Water will move from High concentration (inside cell) to low concentration (outside cell)

Active transport
● Cell does use energy
● Net movement of substances into or out of a cell against the concentration gradient
● Energy is required in the form of ATP
● Involves a carrier protein or “pump”
● E.G. uptake of glucose into cells

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Bulk transport
● Allows solid particles to cross membrane
● membrane surrounds particle and pinches off to form a membrane bound sac called a vesicle
○ Into cell = endocytosis Out of cell = exocytosis

Chapter 4

Cells to systems
Cells are organised into tissues to carry out functions that can’t be performed by single cells alone. Tissues are
further organised into organs, which function together to make systems.

Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems → Organism

Animal tissues

Muscle tissue Tissues that can contract to exert a force. The three
major types are skeletal, cardiac & smooth muscle
tissue.

Nervous tissue Tissues which detect stimuli & transmit electrical

signals.

Connective tissue Tissues that connect & support other tissues & organ
structures of the body

Epithelial tissue Tissues which compose the external & internal layers
of the body. These tissues assist in protection,
secretion & absorption.

Animal Organs
● Some of the major organs in humans are brain, heart, kidneys, lung and liver

Animal systems

Digestive Breaks down and processes food to be used by the body. Eliminates food waste
that is not digested.

Excretory Removes waste substances from the blood via exertion. Also assists in the
control of water balance in the body.

Endocrine Responsible for the production & secretion of hormones which control & regulate
bodily processes.

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 Skeletal Provides an internal structure to support the body. Works in tandem with the
muscular system to enable movement of the body.

Muscular Responsible for contractions in skeletal muscle, heart & other contractions
throughout the body.

Integumentary Protects internal body structures from the external environment.

Nervous Detects and processes sensory information to activate responses in the body.

Respiratory Responsible for removing carbon dioxide from the body & delivering oxygen to
the blood via respiration

Blood circulatory Delivers oxygen & other nutrients to the tissues of the body via blood.

Immune Defends the body against investigation. Contains the lymphatic system

Reproductive Males- Regulates the production of sperm & certain hormones

Females- Regulates the production of egg cells, certain hormones, ovulation &
nurturing offspring during development.

Organisation of plants

Parenchyma cells Responsible for photosynthesis & other metabolic activity. The major cells of
plants

Sclerenchyma cells Provide support to the plant

Collenchyma cells Provide support to the plant

Xylem cells Cells of the xylem which are responsible for the transport of water
throughout the plants

Phloem cells Cells of the phloem which are responsible for the transport of sugars & other
nutrients throughout the plant

Vascular tissues
● Conducting tissues that transport water & nutrients within a plant
● An encompassing term for the xylem tissue & phloem tissue

Plant Vascular System

Vascular plants contain vascular tissues, which transport water from the roots to the leaves of a plant & glucose
and nutrients throughout the plant

Water is involved in
● Metabolic reactions like photosynthesis
● Transporting nutrients & waste around the plant

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 ● Preventing plants from overheating through evaporation
● Ensuring cells have the right tonicity
● Preventing wilting and/or damage from dehydration in the plant

Types of vascular tissue

Xylem: Tubes that transport water in one direction from the roots to leaves of the plant
Phloem: Tubes that transport sugar & other nutrients around the plant in both directions

Water & Nutrient movement

● Water and essential nutrients are absorbed from the ground water and soil by the roots
● The nutrients & water travel up the xylem to the leaves, where water is used during photosynthesis
● The product of photosynthesis are transported throughout the rest of the plant in the phloem

Transpiration
● The evaporation of water from leaves and movement of liquids up the xylem

Capillary action
● When a liquid, such as water, flows in narrow tubes due to the adhesion of liquid to the surface of the
tubes
Capillary action helps the transpiration process

Regulating transpiration
● Plants lose more water in hot, dry and windy environmental conditions as a part of transpiration
● Water loss via transpiration can lead to wilting, drying up or the eventual death of the plant

Factors affecting transpiration rate

Temperature At a high temperatures, more water evaporates from leaves

Light In high light conditions stomata can open to increase the amount of CO2
absorbed for photosynthesis, further increasing the amount of water lost

Humidity At any temperature, air has a max amount of water vapour that can remain
dissolved within it, as the humidity increases less water can evaporate

Wind On calm days, the water released from stomata stays near the leaf, creating a
humid layer of air on the leaf surface. On windy days this humid layer is blown
away encouraging water vapour to exit the leaf.

Water availability When availability is high the roots absorb more water. The plant can afford to
increase the rate of transpiration and lose more water

Guard cells regulate transpiration

To increase
● Actively pump potassium ions into guard cells greatly increasing the concentration of solutes

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 ● Water then diffuses into the guard cells via osmosis which causes the vacuoles to increase in size and
each guard cell becomes turgid
● Turgid guard cells are shaped like beans which leaves the stomata open
To decrease
● Actively pump potassium ions out of guard cells
● Water then diffuses out of the vacuole & guard cells
● Each guard cell becomes flaccid, closing the stomata
Translocation: Movement of nutrition created in leaves to other areas of the plant. Tends to take place in the
phloem from a source to sink. Translocation of glucose in phloem can be broken into four shapes.
1. Sugars made in leaves
2. Move by diffusion into phloem
3. Water moves into phloem by osmosis
4. As sugar & speed & used cone drops water moves water moves back to xylem by osmosis

Digestive system

Definitions

Digestion
Process of breaking down a substance into its basic components

Digestive system
The collection of specialised tissues & organs responsible for the digestion of food & absorption of nutrients

Chemical digestion
The breakdown of food into smaller molecules by digestive enzymes

Physical digestion
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces by processes such as chewing & peristalsis

Purpose
To obtain the organic molecules we need to survive, digestive system is required to break down the food we eat
into manageable units that we can absorb into cells and utilise

Carbohydrates Provide a source of immediate energy

Lipids Energy storage in animals

Proteins Structural components of cells, cell receptors, signaling, enzymes

Vitamins While required in much smaller amount many vitamins are used to make enzymes

Minerals While required in much smaller amount many vitamins are used in many structural
components of organisms.

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Steps of digestion

1. Ingestion For vertebrates such as humans, the teeth, saliva and tongue play an important role
in ingestion.

2. Digestion Occurs along the digestive tract where the soft mass travels from the mouth into the
body of the organism & continues to be broken down both physically and chemically.

3. Absorption Once food macromolecules are broken down into smaller molecules, they are
absorbed across the plasma membrane of cells in the digestive tract. It is here when
the energy from food is ready to be used.

4. Elimination The final step is the elimination of undigested food content that has travelled along the
digestive tract & has not been absorbed. Undigested food is eliminated from the body
as faeces

Organs involved

Oral cavity ● The beginning of the digestive system & the site of ingestion
● Teeth mechanically breakdown food into smaller pieces
● Digestive amylase enzymes in saliva start the breakdown of carbohydrates &
lipase enzymes in the mouth start the breakdown of fats

Salivary gland ● Glands that produce & release saliva into the mouth & oesophagus

Oesophagus ● Hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach which food travels down
after being swallowed
● saliva continues to mix with the food
● move contraction known as peristalsis

Stomach ● Temporary storage tank where food is missed by muscular movements known
as turning
● protease enzymes are secreted by the stomach and begin the digestion of
protein material
● digestive juices are released by the stomach membrane which creates an
acidic environment

Liver ● Liver is the site of bile production

● bile is important in the physical breakdown of fat, smaller fat particles are
more readily broken down

Gallbladder ● after being produced the liver bile is stored and further concentrated in the
gallbladder before it is released into the small intestines

Pancreas ● Digestive enzymes are produced in the pancreas and are released when food
reaches the first part of the small intestine
● pancreas also regulates blood sugar level and is responsible for secreting
bicarbonate which neutralizes acids in chyme

Small intestine ● absorbed food

● enzymes produced in small intestine enzymes produced from the pancreas
and bile from the gallbladder aid the breakdown

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 ● cell lining the small intestines absorb nutrients and certain waste products of
digestion and delivered them to circulatory system

Large intestine ● The final absorption of water vitamins and minerals occurs in a large intestines
which is made up of the cecum colon and rectum
● Junction between the small and large intestines is called the cecum
● has water is reabsorbed from undigested food it becomes more solid and
compact eventually turning into c c's ready for excretion

Appendix ● This at the junction between the small and large intestines is believed to play a
role in immune function

Rectum ● Final area of large intestines that stores faeces for elimination

Anus ● End of digestive tract where faeces are expelled from the body

Malfunctions of digestion
Coeliac Disease
● Refers to a condition in which the villi of the small intestine are damaged by the body's own immune
system when it mistakenly responds to the presence of gluten a protein found in wheat barley oats and
Rye
● damage to small intestinal villi is known as villous atrophy which reduces the surface area of the small
intestines impacting nutrient absorption which can lead to metabolic issues and gastrointestinal
problems

Enzymes
● Enzymes are biological molecules that speed up reactions in living organisms

● Have specialised functions

● Are specific to substrate
● Are reusable
● Speed up both anabolic (synthesis) and catabolic
(breakdown)

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Factors affecting enzyme function
● Heat
● Strong acid
● Strong base
Denaturation: Bonds holding the proteins in its tertiary structure are broken, irreversibly so.

Chapter 5

Homeostasis
● The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment in the body despite changes in the external
environment
● For example
○ Temperature
○ pH levels
○ blood sugar levels
○ fluid balance

Homeostatic mechanisms
● Homeostatic process can be explained using the stimulus response model and feedback Loops

Stimulus response model

● A model that describes how a system responds to a stimulus
Stimulus: Change in the external or internal environment of an organism
Receptor: detects the stimulus and transferred the signal to the modulator
Modulator: processes the information and send signals back out to the effector
Effector: is generally a molecule that can bring about a response
Response: is any change in the function of the target cell/organ as a result of the initial stimulus

Receptors
● Thermoreceptors
● Nociceptors
● Baroreceptors
● Chemoreceptors
● Photoreceptors

Positive feedback system

● A stimulus-response process in which the response
increases the stimulus

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Negative feedback system

● Stimulus response process in

which the response counters the stimulus

Regulation of blood glucose

Unused glucose
● Glucose get stored as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscle cells when blood glucose levels fall
glycogen gets broken down back into glucose and re-enters the bloodstream

Glucose transport around the body

● Glucose is transported in the blood plasma around the body
● when we talk about the concentration of glucose in the body we refer to this as blood glucose level
● normal blood glucose level in humans is roughly 4.0mmol/l & 7.8mmol/l
● If it goes to high a person becomes hyperglycemic
● if it goes to low a person becomes hypoglycemic

Regulating blood glucose levels

● Homeostasis maintains constant blood glucose levels by releasing insulin to lower blood glucose
levels and glucagon to increase blood glucose levels
● process occurs via negative feedback according to the stimulus response model

Islets of Langerhans
● Located in the pancreas consists of glucagon secreting alpha cells and insulin-secreting Beta cells

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Malfunctions in Homeostasis

What is type 1 diabetes and causes

● Autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system recognises beta cells in the pancreas as
non-self and attacks them using Autoantibodies
● As a result of this people with type 1 diabetes produce very little or no insulin which means their blood
glucose levels are left unregulated
● additionally the neighbouring Alpha cells are also impaired and can no longer function properly

Symptoms

Hyperglycemia
● Increased urination and excessive thirst
● excessive hunger and lethargy
● weight loss

Hypoglycemia
● inject too much insulin
● exercise too much
● don't consume enough glucose
this can cause the individual to feel weak and dizzy and can even result in their losing consciousness or die if
glucose levels aren't corrected quickly

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