BIOENERGETICS

Structures and Functions of

Cells
CEL
L
Cell Principle
• All living things are made up of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of life
• All cells came from the division of pre-
existing cells
 Plant Stem

Amoeba proteus

Bacteria
Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
• Do not have a true nucleus
• Do not have membrane-bound
organelles
Eukaryotic Cell
• With organelles bounded by membranes
• With true nucleus
7
ACTIVITY
1. Choose one organelle that characterize your
group.
2. Draw the organelle and present it in front of the
class.
3. Explain why you chose that particular organelle to
represent your group.
Cell Membrane
Nucleus
•Directs cell activities
•Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
•Contains genetic material - DNA
Nuclear Membrane
•Allows the entry and exit of materials into
and from the nucleus.
Chromosomes
•Contains instructions/ genetic
information
Nucleolus
•Inside the nucleus which builds the
RNA
Cytoplasm
•Gel-like material
•Contains the organelles
•For prokaryotes, contains the genetic
material
Mitochondria
• Produces energy through chemical
reactions – breaking down fats &
carbohydrates
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Moves materials around in
cell
• Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
• Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface
Ribosomes
• Formed in the
nucleolus
• Migrates out of the
nucleus via the nuclear
pore
Golgi Bodies
• Protein 'packaging plant'
• Move materials within the
cell
• Move materials out of the
cell
Lysosome
• Digestive 'plant' for proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates
• Transports undigested
material to cell membrane for
removal
• Cell breaks down if lysosome
explodes
Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs for
storage, digestion, and waste
removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain shape
Chloroplast
• Usually found in plant cells
• Contains green chlorophyll
• Where photosynthesis takes
place
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Autotrophic Process: Plants and plant-like organisms
make their energy (glucose) from sunlight.
• Stored as carbohydrate in their bodies.
• 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Why is Photosynthesis important?
• Makes organic molecules (glucose) out of
inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water).
• It begins all food chains/webs. Thus all life is
supported by this process.
• It also makes oxygen gas!!
Photosynthesis
-starts to ecological food webs!
Photosynthesis
• means "putting together with light.“
• Plants use sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide
into glucose. Glucose is a kind of sugar.
• Plants use glucose as food for energy and as a
building block for growing.
• Autotrophs make glucose and heterotrophs are
consumers of it.
 How do we know that plants make
carbohydrates from just carbon dioxide
water and light energy?
Experiments!
For example:
Jan Baptisa van Helmont (1648) planted a willow
branch weighing 5 pounds into 200 pounds of soil and
then after 4 years the tree weighed 169 lbs. and the soil
was still nearly 200 lbs.
Photosynthesis

sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
absorbed by chlorophyll
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

As can be seen from the equation for photosynthesis, the

wood, bark, and root came from water and carbon
dioxide.
Plant leaves have many types of cells!
Plant Cells
 The photograph below
is an elodea leaf X 400.
Individual cells are clearly
visible. The tiny green
structures within the cells
are chloroplast this is where
photosynthesis happens.
 Plants
•Leaves are green because
they contain the pigment:

Chlorophyll
Leaves have a large
surface area to absorb as much
light as possible
Chloroplasts
make the oxygen too!
Stoma
This opening how plants exchange gases!
Check it!
Can you name the two important
gases that go in and out of the
leaves?

Why are the stomata located

on the underside of leaves?
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Absorbing Light Energy to make chemical energy:
• glucose!
• Pigments: Absorb different colors of white light (ROY
G BIV)
• Main pigment: Chlorophyll a
• Accessory pigments: Chlorophyll b and Carotenoids
• These pigments absorb all wavelengths (light) BUT
green!
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
•Why do we see green?
• Green color from white light reflected
NOT absorbed
• Chloroplast: organelle responsible for
photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll: located within Chloroplast
• Green pigment
 Visible light is only a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (all forms of light).
• LIGHT behaves as if it were composed of "units" or
"packets" of energy that travel in waves. These packets are
photons.
• The wavelength of light determines its color.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
•2 Phases
• Light-dependent reaction
• Light-independent reaction

• Light-dependent: converts light energy into chemical

energy; produces ATP molecules to be used to fuel light-
independent reaction
• Light-independent: uses ATP produced to make simple
sugars.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-dependent reaction (LIGHT Reaction)
• Requires light
• Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
• Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light
• Light excites electron (e-)
• Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to an electron transport chain
• Electron transport chain: series of proteins in thylakoid membrane
• Bucket brigade
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-dependent reaction (LIGHT Reaction)
• Energy lost along electron transport chain
• Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP

• NADPH produced from e- transport chain

• Stores energy until transfer to stroma
• Plays important role in light-independent reaction

• Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2

Oxygen and Sugar!
 Sun

Light energy transfers to chlorophyll.

• At each step along the

transport chain, the
electrons lose energy. Chlorophyll passes energy down through the
electron transport chain.

Energized electrons provide energy that

to ADP
splits bonds P
H2O
forming
H NADP+
+ ATP
oxygen
released
NADPH

for the use in

light-independent reactions
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
•Light-independent reaction
• Does not require light
• Calvin Cycle
• Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
• Requires CO2
• Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run
• Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen
EQUATION FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
WATER OXYGEN
6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY C6H12O6 + 6O2
CARBON DIOXIDE GLUCOSE
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What affects photosynthesis?
• Light intensity: as light increases, rate of photosynthesis
increases
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What affects photosynthesis?
Carbon Dioxide: As
CO2 increases, rate of
photosynthesis
increases
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What affects photosynthesis?
• Temperature:
• Temperature Low
Rate of photosynthesis low
• Temperature Increases
Rate of photosynthesis increases
• If temperature too hot, rate drops
What Is ATP?
• Energy used by all Cells
• Adenosine Triphosphate

• Organic molecule containing high-

energy Phosphate bonds
Copyright Cmassengale
Chemical Structure of ATP
Adenine Base

3 Phosphates Ribose Sugar

Copyright Cmassengale
What Does ATP Do for You?

It supplies YOU with

ENERGY!

Copyright Cmassengale
How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

By breaking the
high- energy bonds
between the last
two phosphates in
ATP

Copyright Cmassengale
What is the Process Called?
HYDROLYSIS
(Adding H2O)
H2O
How Does That Happen?
An Enzyme!

Copyright Cmassengale
How is ATP Re-Made?
The reverse of the previous process
occurs.

Another Enzyme is
used!

ATP Synthetase
The ADP-ATP Cycle
ATP
ATP-ase Synthetase

Copyright Cmassengale
When is ATP Made in the
Body?
During a Process
called Cellular
Respiration that
takes place in
both Plants &
Animals

Copyright Cmassengale
Cellular Respiration
• Includes pathways that require oxygen
• Glucose is oxidized and O2 is reduced
• Glucose breakdown is therefore an
oxidation-reduction reaction
• Breakdown of one glucose results in 36
to 38 ATP molecules

Copyright Cmassengale
Overall Equation for Cellular
Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2

YIELDS

6CO2 + 6H20 + e- + 36-38ATP’s

What Type of Process is
Cellular Respiration?
• An Oxidation-Reduction Process or REDOX Reaction
• Oxidation of GLUCOSE --> CO2 + H2O (e- removed
from C6H12O6)
• Reduction O2 to H2O (e- passed to O2)

Copyright Cmassengale
What Carries the Electrons?
• NAD+ (nicotinadenine
dinucleotide) acts as the
energy carrier
• NAD+ is a coenzyme
• It’s Reduced to NADH
when it picks up two
electrons and one
hydrogen ion

Copyright Cmassengale
Are There Any Other Electron
Carriers?
• YES! Another
Coenzyme!
• FAD+ (Flavin
adenine
dinucleotide)
• Reduced to FADH2
Other Cellular Respiration Facts
• Metabolic Pathway that breaks down
carbohydrates
• Process is Exergonic as High-energy
Glucose is broken into CO2 and H2O
• Process is also Catabolic because larger
Glucose breaks into smaller molecules

Copyright Cmassengale
What are the Stages of Cellular
Respiration?

Copyright Cmassengale
What are the Stages of Cellular
Respiration?

• Glycolysis
• The Krebs Cycle
• The Electron Transport Chain

Copyright Cmassengale
Diagram of the Process
Occurs
across
Cristae

Occurs in
Cytoplasm

Occurs in
Matrix
Glycolysis Summary
• Takes place in the Cytoplasm
• Anaerobic (Doesn’t Use Oxygen)

• Requires input of 2 ATP

• Glucose split into two molecules

of Pyruvate or Pyruvic Acid
Copyright Cmassengale
Glycolysis Summary

• Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP

• Pyruvate is oxidized to Acetyl CoA
and CO2 is removed

Copyright Cmassengale
Fermentation
• Occurs when O2 NOT present (anaerobic)
• Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle cells
(makes muscles tired)
• Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast
(produces ethanol)
• Nets only 2 ATP
Copyright Cmassengale
A Little Krebs Cycle History
• Discovered by Hans Krebs
in 1937
• He received the Nobel
Prize in physiology or
medicine in 1953 for his
discovery
• Forced to leave Germany
prior to WWII because he
was Jewish
Krebs Cycle Summary
• Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
• Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO 2
and produce one ATP per cycle
• Turns twice per glucose molecule
• Produces two ATP
• Takes place in matrix of mitochondria

Copyright Cmassengale
Krebs Cycle Summary
• Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces
3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
• Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the
Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2, 4CO2,
and 2ATP

Copyright Cmassengale
Krebs Cycle

ATP

Copyright Cmassengale
NETS: 3NADH, 1ATP, 1FADH2, & 2CO2
Electron Transport Chain Summary

• 34 ATP Produced
• H2O Produced
• Occurs Across Inner Mitochondrial membrane
• Uses coenzymes NAD+ and FAD+ to accept e-
from glucose
• NADH = 3 ATP’s
• FADH2 = 2 ATP’s
Copyright Cmassengale
PERPETUATION OF
LIFE
The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
G C

A T

T A

1 nm

G C
3.4 nm
C G

A T

C G

T A

T A

A T

A T

G C
0.34 nm
A T

Figure 16.7a, c (a) Key features of DNA structure (c) Space-filling model
1962: Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine
Watson, J.D. and F.H. Crick, “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure
for Deoxynucleic Acids”. Nature 171 (1953), p. 738.

James D. Francis H.Maurice H. F.

Watson Crick Wilkins

What about?
Rosalind Franklin
The Structure of DNA
• DNA is composed of four nucleotides, each
containing: adenine, cytosine, thymine, or
guanine.
• The amounts of A = T, G = C, and purines =
pyrimidines [Chargaff’s Rule].
• DNA is a double-stranded helix with
antiparallel strands [Watson and Crick].
• Nucleotides in each strand are linked by 5’-
3’ phosphodiester bonds
• Bases on opposite strands are linked by
hydrogen bonding: A with T, and G with C.
The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a
Template Strand
• The relationship between structure and
function is manifest in the double helix
• Since the two strands of DNA are
complementary each strand acts as a template
for building a new strand in replication
DNA replication
• The parent molecule unwinds, and two
new daughter strands are built based
on base-pairing rules
T
A T A T A A T A T A T
C G C G C G C G C G C G
T A T A T A T A T A T A
A T A T A T A T A T A T
G C G C G C C G C G C
G

(a) The parent molecule has two
complementary strands of DNA.
Each base is paired by hydrogen
bonding with its specific partner,
A with T and G with C.
(b) The first step in replication is
separation of the two DNA
strands.
(c) Each parental strand now
serves as a template that
determines the order of
nucleotides along a new,
complementary strand.
(d) The nucleotides are connected
to form the sugar-phosphate
backbones of the new strands.
Each “daughter” DNA
molecule consists of one parental
strand and one new strand.
DNA Replication is
“Semi-conservative”
• Each 2-stranded daughter
molecule is only half new
• One original strand was
used as a template to
make the new strand
DNA Replication
• The copying of DNA is remarkable in
its speed and accuracy
• Involves unwinding the double helix
and synthesizing two new strands.
• More than a dozen enzymes and
other proteins participate in DNA
replication
• The replication of a DNA molecule
begins at special sites called origins
of replication, where the two
strands are separated
Origins of Replication
• A eukaryotic chromosome may have hundreds or
even thousands of replication origins
Origin of replication Parental (template) strand
0.25 µm
Daughter (new) strand

1
Replication begins at specific sites
where the two parental strands
separate and form replication
bubbles. Bubble Replication fork

2 The bubbles expand laterally, as

DNA replication proceeds in both
directions.

3 Eventually, the replication

bubbles fuse, and synthesis of
the daughter strands is
complete. Two daughter DNA molecules

(a) In eukaryotes, DNA replication begins at many sites along the giant (b) In this micrograph, three replication
DNA molecule of each chromosome. bubbles are visible along the DNA of
a cultured Chinese hamster cell (TEM).
The Genetic Code
• Codons: 3 base code for the production of a specific amino
acid, sequence of three of the four different nucleotides
• Since there are 4 bases and 3 positions in each codon, there
are 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 possible codons
• 64 codons but only 20 amino acids, therefore most have
more than 1 codon
• 3 of the 64 codons are used as STOP signals; they are found
at the end of every gene and mark the end of the protein
• One codon is used as a START signal: it is at the start of every
protein
• Universal: in all living organisms
WHAT IS
YOUR
SUPER
POWER?
Are these things possible???

YES!!!
GENETIC
ENGINEERING
What is genetic engineering?

 Manipulating an organism’s genome to

 alter microbes, plants, and animals for our benefit
 correct genetic defects in humans
Recombinant DNA Technology
DNA Fingerprinting
Polymerase chain Reaction
Gene therapy
Biotechnology

The use of microorganisms, cells,

or cell components to make a
product
EVALUATION
-“The Hunger Games,” the Capitol (a term used to refer to what
we would call the government) produced genetically enhanced
birds called jabberjays to spy on rebels. Unexpectedly, these
birds bred with mockingbirds, creating a new hybrid bird called
the mockingjay. The Capitol did not intend for this to happen,
and the bird became a symbol of rebellion.
What lessons can we draw about genetic engineering from
these examples? Could a scenario like this, where a genetically
engineered organism hybridizes with a wild animal or plant,
happen in the real world? Why or why not?