BIOLOGY – Module 7

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Lesson 1 Cell discovery and theory

 History of the Cell Theory
o A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all
living organicism
 1665, Robert Hooke, English
 Late 1600s, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch
o Cell Theory: 3+1 principles
1. All living things are composed of one or
more cells
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in all living organisms
3. New cells are produced from existing cells,
with cells passing copies of their genetic material on to their daughter cells.
4. Modern additions… energy flow occurs within cells; cells are the vehicle of heredity
(DNA); cells have the same basic chemical make-up.
 Microscope Technologies
o Optical microscopes: uses visible light and lenses to magnify an object
 Total magnification = (len1 mag) X (len2 mag)
 Maximum mag without blurring is around 1000x.
o Non-optical microscopes:
 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): electrons are transmitted through a specimen
to a fluorescent screen
 Magnify up to 500,000x
 Dead specimen, sliced very thin and stained with heavy metals
 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): directed electrons over the surface of the
specimen
 3D images of cells
 Only nonliving, preserved cells and tissues
 Scanning Tunneling Electron Microscope (STM): bringing the charged tip of a probe
extremely close to the specimen
 3D images, as small as atoms
 Live specimen
 Why are cells so small?
o By remaining small, cells have a higher ratio of surface area to volume. This helps with the
efficiency of the cell's nutrition absorption and waste expulsion processes.
o Small cell size maximizes the ability of diffusion and motor proteins to transport nutrients and
waste products.
o The need for signaling proteins to move throughout the cell also limits cell size.
 Why do cells come in many different shapes?
o Cells are of different shape, size, and structure according to the function they need to perform.
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 Basic Cell Types
o All cells have plasma membrane.
o Two basic cell types:
 Prokaryotic cells: simpler and smaller
 Have no nucleus, but genetic material is localized
 No membrane-bound organelles
 Most unicellular organisms, including bacteria
 Eukaryotic cells: larger and more complex
 Have nucleus (enclosed DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles
 Eukaryotic cells have developed specific functions, which has led to cell diversity,
and thus more diverse organisms.
 Plants, animals, fungi, and protists
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Lesson 2 The plasma membrane

 Structure of the Plasma Membrane
o Most of the molecules in the plasma membrane are
lipids.
o A phospholipid is a lipid molecule that has a glycerol
backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate-
containing group.
 The phosphate group make the head polar…
attracted to water
 The two fatty acid tails are nonpolar… repelled
by water
o The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid
bilayer, in which two layers of phospholipids are
arranged tail-to-tail.

 Water-soluble substances will NOT move easily through the plasma membrane… to
separate the environment inside the cell from the environment outside the cell.
o Other components of plasma membrane:
 Nonpolar cholesterol helps to prevent the fatty-acid tails of the phospholipid bilayer
from sticking together.
 The transport proteins move needed substances or waste materials through the plasma
membrane and therefore contribute to the selective permeability of plasma membrane.
 The carbohydrate attached to proteins define the cell’s characteristics and help cells
identify chemical signal.
o The fluid mosaic model: describes the cell membrane as a tapestry of several types of
molecules (phospholipids, cholesterols, and proteins) that are constantly moving. This
movement helps the cell membrane maintain its role as a barrier between the inside and
outside of the cell environments.
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 Functions of the Plasma Membrane
o One of the structures that is primarily responsible for homeostasis is the plasma membrane.
 Allows nutrient into the cell and allow waste and other products to leave the cell.
 Selective permeability is a property of the plasma membrane that allows it to control
what substances enters and leaves the cell.
 Allows oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, ions, nutrients and waste to pass in & out.

 ATP Synthase
o ATP synthase is a protein that catalyzes the formation of
the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
using adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
inorganic phosphate (Pi).

 ADP + Pi + 2H+out ⇌ ATP + H2O + 2H+in

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Lesson 3 Cellular Transport

 Diffusion (passive transport, no energy is required)
o The concentration of a solution is the mass of solute in a given volume of solution.
o The random Brownian motion causes diffusion, which
is the net movement of particles from an area where
they are many particles of a substance to an area where
there are fewer particles of the substance… until
dynamic equilibrium is achieved.
 Three main factors affect the diffusion rate:
concentration, temperature, and pressure.
o After a substance has diffused completely through a
space, removing its concentration gradient, molecules will still move around in the space, but
there will be no net movement of the number of molecules from one area to another, a state
known as dynamic equilibrium.
o Diffusion across the plasma membrane
 The lipid bilayer nature of the plasma membrane prevents just any molecules to pass
across.
 Simple diffusion (for Hydrophobic molecules)
 Small nonpolar molecules like small hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and oxygen
can diffuse with relative ease in the direction of their concentration gradient.
 Facilitated diffusion (for Hydrophilic molecules)
 Polar molecules such as glucose (other sugars) and water pass slowly.
 Transport proteins provide passage to move other ions and small molecules
across plasma membrane.
o Transport/Channel proteins provide a hydrophilic tunnel.
o Carrier proteins change shape and allow certain solutes to move across.
o Aquaporins are involved in the transport of water molecules.
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Table 1: Facilitated and Simple Diffusion – differences and similarities

Facilitated diffusion Simple diffusion

A type of passive transport. Substances move from an area or region of higher concentration to an area or region of
lower concentration. Does not directly require chemical energy, e.g. ATP or GTP

Transport proteins required Transport proteins not required

Rate is generally faster but affected by factors such as Rate is generally slower but more straightforward as it does
temperature and types of membrane proteins involved, not rely upon the binding capacity of membrane proteins
and thus, may be affected by membrane protein with substances for transport
inhibitors.

Polar molecules Small nonpolar molecules (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide)

(e.g. glucose and amino acids), larger ions (e.g. sodium diffusing easily across the plasma membrane
ions and chloride ions), and large nonpolar molecules
(e.g. retinol) employ facilitated diffusion via membrane
proteins across the plasma membrane
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o Osmosis
 The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.
 Osmoregulation is to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water content.
 If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plant cell loses water and
hence turgor pressure by plasmolysis: pressure decreases to the point where the
protoplasm of the cell peels away from the cell wall, leaving gaps between the cell wall
and the membrane and making the plant cell shrink and crumple.
 If a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the cell walls prevent the cells from
expanding, even under tremendous osmotic pressure.

Hypertonic Solution Isotonic Solution Hypotonic Solution

higher concentration of in which the concentrations of lower solute concentration
solute solute are equal
the net movement of water water enters and leaves the cell at the net movement of water is
is out of the cell the same rate into the cell
Cell shrivels Cell no change Cell swell, may even burst
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 Active transport
o Active transport moves substances from lower concentration region to high concentration
region… with the aid of transport proteins (pumps) and energy (ATP) needed.
 Animal cells use sodium-potassium pump
 Plant cells use proton pump
o The Na+/K+ ATPase pump uses energy to transport 3 Na+ ions out of the cell while moving 2 K+
ions into the cell

 Transport of large particles

o Endocytosis… In this process, the cell membrane engulfs the substance by pinching inward,
forming a vesicle around the substance, which is
brought into the cell.
 Phagocytosis- “cellular eating” -
Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell
engulfs large particles or whole cells, either
as a defense mechanism or as a means to
obtain food.
 Pinocytosis - “cellular drinking” - Pinocytosis is a method of active transport across the
cell membrane in which the cell takes in
extracellular fluids.
o Exocytosis… in which a substance has been
packaged within a vesicle by the Golgi body. The
plasma membrane of the vesicle then fuses with the
cell membrane and its contents are expelled.
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Lesson 4 Structure and Organelles
 Cell Structures

o o Cytoplasm: is the portion of the cell

outside the nucleus.
 Prokaryotic cell performs all chemical processes directly in the cell’s cytoplasm.
 Eukaryotic cell performs these chemical processes within membrane-bound organelles
in its cytoplasm.
o Cytoskeleton: is a network of protein filaments that helps the cell to maintain its shape. It is
also involved in movement.
 Microfilaments: thin protein
threads that help give the cell
shape and enable the entire cell or
parts of the cell to move.
 Microtubules: provide the
framework for movement inside
the cell and whole cell movement.
 Some eukaryotic cell
surfaces have cilia and
flagella that project outside
the plasma membrane that aids in locomotion and feeding
 Centrioles: formed by a group of microtubules and are important for cell division.
o Plant cell wall and prokaryote cell wall: an inflexible barrier that surrounds the cell, protects
the cell, maintains the cell’s shape, and gives the cell support.
 Most cell walls are made from fibers of carbohydrates and proteins.
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o Each type of organelle within a cell has a unique structure and function.
 Cellular control
 Nucleus
 Nucleolus
 DNA
 Manufacturing proteins
 Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Cellular energy
 Mitochondria
 chloroplasts
 Processing and storing molecules
 Golgi apparatus
 Vacuoles
 Vesicles
 lysosomes

o The nucleus contains most of the

cell’s DNA, which stores information
used to make proteins for cell
growth, function, and reproduction.
 Nucleolus is where the
assembly of ribosomes
begins.
 The nucleus is surrounded by
a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope.
 Nuclear pores allow larger-
sized substances to move int
and out of the nucleus.
 Chromatin is a complex DNA attached to protein and spread throughout the nucleus.
 When a cell divides, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.
 Nucleus contains the instructions to make proteins: enzymes, which control the
activities of the cell.

o Ribosome is the sites of protein synthesis.

 Smallest, most numerous organelle (not
membrane bound)
 The DNA instructions leave the nucleus and
arrive at a ribosome for the making of a
protein.
 Many ribosomes are found embedded in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Some are found free floating in the
cytoplasm.
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o Protein synthesis is process of producing proteins using information coded by DNA, located in
the nucleus of a cell. Two processes are performed to convert the information in DNA into
proteins by cells.
 First, in a process called transcription, the coding region of a gene is copied to a single-
stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) version of the double-stranded DNA. This is
accomplished by RNA polymerase, a large enzyme that catalyzes the linkage of
nucleotides into a RNA chain using DNA as a template. The RNA is further processed into
messenger RNA (mRNA) before being transported to the cytoplasm.
 After processing, the mRNA is transported through nuclear pores to the cytoplasm,
where translation machinery (i.e. the ribosome, eukaryotic initiation factors eIF4E and
eIF4G, and poly(A)-binding protein) carry out the second process, translation, during
which the ribosomes assemble amino acids in the order dictated by the mRNA
sequence.
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o Endomembrane system is a network of membranes (internal) that makes and transport

materials.
 It carries out a variety of functions such as:
 Synthesis of proteins and their transport
 Metabolism and movement of lipids
 The detoxification of poison
 Comprises different parts or components of a typical eukaryotic cell.
 The Nuclear Envelope
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Endosomes
 Transport Vesicles
 The Plasma Membrane
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o The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the most extensive membrane system of folded sacs and
interconnected channels that are continuous with the nuclear membrane  serves as the site
for protein and lipid synthesis.
 Rough ER (ribosome studded)
 Synthesis of membrane proteins
 Synthesis of secretory proteins packaged in vesicles
 Smooth ER (no ribosomes)
 Synthesis of membrane lipids
 Detoxification of drugs.

o Golgi apparatus is a flattened

stack of membranes that
modifies, sorts, and packages
proteins for storage in the cell
or secretion outside the cell.
 Transport vesicles
arrive to Golgi carrying
proteins.
 Here they are
processed (modified) –
then packaged for
other destinations

o Vesicles – Carrier Organelles

 Lysosome is a vesicle that contains hydrolytic enzymes for the breakdown of excess or
worn-out cellular substances. The membrane and the enzymes are made by RER and
Golgi.
 Clean-up organelles that have outlived their usefulness.
 Digest of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules.
 Contain internal enzymes.
 Vacuole is a membrane-bound vesicle for the temporary storage of food, enzymes, and
other materials.
 Few in animal cells
 Plant cells have a large central vacuole which plays a role in “osmotic regulation”

o Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate

most of the chemical energy (from sugar) needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored ATP.
o Plants and some other eukaryotic cells contain chloroplasts that convert light energy into
chemical energy through photosynthesis process.
 One of the main distinctions between plant cells and animal cells
o Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own genetic information in the form of small DNA
modules.
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Animal Cell versus Plant Cell comparison chart

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose)

Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)

Vacuole One or more small vacuoles (much One, large central vacuole taking up to
smaller than plant cells). 90% of cell volume.

Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower plant forms (e.g.
chlamydomonas)

Chloroplast Absent Plant cells have chloroplasts to make

their own food.

Ribosomes Present Present

Mitochondria Present Present

Plastids Absent Present

Endoplasmic Present Present

Reticulum

Golgi Apparatus Present Present

Plasma Membrane Only cell membrane Cell wall and a cell membrane

Microtubules/ Present Present

Microfilaments

Flagella Present in some cells (e.g. Present in some cells (e.g. sperm of
mammalian sperm cells) bryophytes and pteridophytes, cycads
and Ginkgo)

Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. Lysosomes usually not evident.

Nucleus Present Present

Cilia Present Most plant cells do not contain cilla.

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Key Concepts:
 The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure
and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells.
 Prokaryotic cells have genetic material that is not contained in a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells contain a
nucleus in which their genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus contains nearly all the cell’s DNA and the coded instructions for making proteins and other
important molecules.
 Proteins are assembled on ribosomes.
 One type of endoplasmic reticulum makes membranes and secretory proteins, The other type of ER
makes lipid and helps to detoxify or remove harmful substances.
 The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic
reticulum for storage or secretion outside of cell.
 Mitochondria convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient
for the cell to use.
 Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy.
 The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that helps the cell to maintain its shape. The
cytoskeleton is also involved in movement of materials within and outside the cell.
 All cells have cell membrane. The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also
provides protection and support. Some cells also have cell walls. Cell walls provides additional support
and protection.
 Diffusion causes many substances to move across a cell membrane but does not require the cell to use
energy.
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
 Cells in multicellular organisms develop in different ways to perform particular functions within the
organism.
 The levels of organization in a multicellular organism are individual cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems.