Fresnel's Equations for Reflection and

Refraction
Incident, transmitted, and reflected beams at interfaces

Reflection and transmission coefficients

The Fresnel Equations

Brewster's Angle

Total internal reflection

Power reflectance and transmittance

Phase shifts in reflection

The mysterious evanescent wave

 Reflection and transmission for
an arbitrary angle of incidence at
one (1) interface

• Only Maxwell+Boundary conditions

need. Gives Fresnels equations
Maxwell’s eqns.
r
∇ ⋅ D = ρ ext
r
∇⋅B = 0
r
r ∂B
∇× D = −
dt
r
r ∂D r
∇× H = +j
dt
Boundary conditions of EM wave

• Tangential components of the:

- E and H fields (from Gauss’ theorem)
• Normal components of
- D and B fields (from Stoke’s theorem)
r r ( 2 ) r (1)
n12 × ( E − E ) = 0
r r ( 2 ) r (1)
1 r
n12 ⋅ ( B − B ) = 0 n12 2
Definitions: Planes of Incidence and the
Interface and the polarizations
Perpendicular (“S”) Incident medium
polarization sticks out
of or into the plane of r r
incidence. ki kr
Plane of incidence Ei Er ni
(here the xy plane) is
the plane that
θi θr
contains the incident Interface
Plane of the interface (here the
yz plane) (perpendicular to page)
and reflected k- y
vectors. θt
x nt
z Et r
Parallel (“P”) kt
polarization lies
parallel to the plane of
incidence. Transmitting medium
Shorthand notation for the polarizations

Perpendicular (S)
polarization sticks up out
of the plane of incidence.

Parallel (P) polarization lies

parallel to the plane of
incidence.
 r⊥ == E
E00rr // E
E00ii
Fresnel Equations For example,
t⊥ == E
E00tt // E
E00ii
We would like to compute the fraction of a light wave reflected and
transmitted by a flat interface between two media with different refrac-
tive indices. Fresnel was the first to do this calculation.

It proceeds by
considering r r
the boundary ki kr
conditions at Ei Er ni
the interface Bi Br
for the electric
θi θr y
Interface
and magnetic
Beam geometry
fields of the z x
light waves.
for light with its
electric field per-
θt
pendicular to the
Et nt
We’ll do the plane of incidence r
perpendicular (i.e., out of the page) Bt kt
polarization
first.
Boundary Condition for the Electric
y
Field at an Interface
The Tangential Electric Field is Continuous z x

In other words:
r r
The total E-field in
ki kr
the plane of the Ei Er ni
interface is Bi θi θr Br
continuous.
Interface
Here, all E-fields are θt
in the z-direction, Et nt
which is in the plane r
of the interface (xz),
Bt kt
so:

Ei(x, y = 0, z, t) + Er(x, y = 0, z, t) = Et(x, y = 0, z, t)

Boundary Condition for the Magnetic y
Field at an Interface
z x
The Tangential Magnetic Field* is Continuous

In other words:
r r
The total B-field in
ki kr
the plane of the Ei Er ni
θi
Bi θi θi θr Br
interface is
continuous.
Interface
Here, all B-fields are θt
in the xy-plane, so Et nt
we take the r
x-components: Bt kt

–Bi(x, y=0, z, t) cos(θi) + Br(x, y=0, z, t) cos(θr) = –Bt(x, y=0, z, t) cos(θt)

*It's really the tangential B/μ, but we're using μ = μ0

Reflection and Transmission for
Perpendicularly (S) Polarized Light
Canceling the rapidly varying parts of the light wave and keeping
only the complex amplitudes:

E0i + E0 r = E0t
− B0i cos(θi ) + B0 r cos(θ r ) = − B0t cos(θt )

But B = E /(c0 / n) = nE / c0 and θ r = θi :

ni ( E0 r − E0i ) cos(θi ) = − nt E0t cos(θt )

Substituting for E0t using E0i + E0 r = E0t :

ni ( E0 r − E0i ) cos(θi ) = − nt ( E0 r + E0i ) cos(θt )

Reflection & Transmission Coefficients
for Perpendicularly Polarized Light
Rearranging ni ( E0 r − E0i ) cos(θi ) = − nt ( E0 r + E0i ) cos(θt ) yields:

E0 r [ ni cos(θi ) + nt cos(θt ) ] = E0i [ ni cos(θi ) − nt cos(θt ) ]

Solving for E0 r / E0i yields the reflection coefficient :

r⊥ = E0 r / E0i = [ ni cos(θ i ) − nt cos(θ t ) ] / [ ni cos(θ i ) + nt cos(θ t ) ]

Analogously, the transmission coefficient, E0t / E0i , is

t⊥ = E0t / E0i = 2ni cos(θ i ) / [ ni cos(θ i ) + nt cos(θ t ) ]

These equations are called the Fresnel Equations for

perpendicularly polarized light.
 Simpler expressions for r┴ and t┴
Recall the magnification at
an interface, m: θi
wi
ni
wt cos(θt ) nt
m= = wt
wi cos(θi ) θt

Also let ρ be the ratio of the refractive indices, nt / ni.

Dividing numerator and denominator of r and t by ni cos(θi):

r⊥ = [ ni cos(θi ) − nt cos(θt ) ] / [ ni cos(θi ) + nt cos(θt ) ] = [1 − ρ m ] / [1 + ρ m ]

t⊥ = 2ni cos(θi ) / [ ni cos(θi ) + nt cos(θ t ) ] = 2 / [1 + ρ m ]

1− ρm 2
r⊥ = t⊥ =
1+ ρm 1+ ρm
Fresnel Equations—Parallel electric field

r r This B-field y
ki kr points into
Ei Br the page.
x
z
Bi Er
θi θr ni
Interface
Beam geometry Note that Hecht
for light with its
electric field
θt uses a different
notation for the
parallel to the
Et nt reflected field,
plane of incidence Bt r which is
(i.e., in the page) kt confusing!
Ours is better!

Note that rtherreflected

r magnetic field must point into the screen to
achieve E × B ∝ k . The x means “into the screen.”
Reflection & Transmission Coefficients
for Parallel (P) Polarized Light

For parallel polarized light, B0i - B0r = B0t

and E0icos(θi) + E0rcos(θr) = E0tcos(θt)

Solving for E0r / E0i yields the reflection coefficient, r||:

r|| = E0 r / E0i = [ ni cos(θt ) − nt cos(θi ) ] / [ ni cos(θt ) + nt cos(θi ) ]

Analogously, the transmission coefficient, t|| = E0t / E0i, is

t|| = E0t / E0i = 2ni cos(θi ) / [ ni cos(θt ) + nt cos(θi ) ]

These equations are called the Fresnel Equations for parallel

polarized light.
Simpler expressions for r║ and t║
r|| = E0 r / E0i = [ ni cos(θt ) − nt cos(θi )] / [ ni cos(θt ) + nt cos(θi ) ]

t|| = E0t / E0i = 2ni cos(θi ) / [ ni cos(θt ) + nt cos(θi ) ]

Again, use the magnification, m, and the refractive-index ratio, ρ .

r
And again dividing numerator and denominator of r and t by ni cos(θi):

rr|| = [ m − ρ ] / [ m + ρ ]

t||t = 2 / [ m + ρ ]

m−ρ 2
r|| = tt|| =
m+ρ m+ρ
Reflection Coefficients for an Air-to-Glass
Interface
nair ≈ 1 < nglass ≈ 1.5 1.0

Reflection coefficient, r
Note that:
Brewster’s angle
.5
r||=0! r||
Total reflection at θ = 90°
for both polarizations
0
Zero reflection for parallel
polarization at Brewster's
angle (56.3° for these
-.5 r┴
values of ni and nt).

-1.0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, θi
 Condition for rII (rp)=0
θ1 + θ2 = 90°

⎛ nt ⎞
θ B = tan ⎜⎜
−1
⎟⎟
⎝ ni ⎠
Brewster’s angle

[pic from Wikipedia]

Brewster application: Sunglasses
• Polarized sunglasses use the principle of Brewster's angle to eliminate
glare from from the sun. In a large range of angles around Brewster's
angle the reflection of p-polarized light is lower than s-polarized light.

• Thus, if the sun is low in the sky mostly s-polarized light will reflect from
water. Sunglasses made up of polarizers (e.g. polaroid film) aligned to
block this light consequently block reflections from the water. To
accomplish this, sunglass makers assume people will be upright while
viewing the water and thus align the polarizers to block the polarization
which oscillates along the line connecting the sunglass ear-pieces (i.e.
Horizontal).

• Photographers use the same principle to remove reflections from water

so that they might photograph objects beneath the surface. In this case,
the polarizer filter camera attachment can be rotated to be at the
correct angle (see figure).
 Brewster angle

Polarizer aligned in ”s” direction Polarizer aligned in ”p” direction

Photographs taken of mudflats with a camera polarizer

filter rotated to two different angles. In the first picture, the
polarizer is rotated to maximize reflections, and in the
second, it is rotated 90° to minimize reflections - almost all
reflected sunlight is eliminated
[pic from Wikipedia]
Reflection Coefficients for a Glass-to-Air
Interface
1.0
nglass ≈ 1.5 > nair ≈ 1 Critical
angle

Reflection coefficient, r
.5 r┴
Note that:
Total internal
reflection
Total internal reflection
0
above the critical angle
Brewster’s
θcrit ≡ sin-1(nt /ni) angle
-.5

(The sine in Snell's Law Critical r||

can't be > 1!): angle
-1.0
0° 30° 60° 90°
sin(θcrit) = nt /ni sin(90°)
Incidence angle, θi
 Relation between θB and θC
• Note tanθB=sinθC, tanθ>sinθ ⇒ θC>θB

θB θc θi
 ⎛ ε c ⎞
Transmittance (T)
2
I = ⎜ n 0 0 ⎟ E0
⎝ 2 ⎠
I t At A = Area
T ≡ Transmitted Power / Incident Power =
I i Ai

Compute the θi
wi
ratio of the ni At wt cos(θt )
nt
= = =m
beam areas: 1D beam wt
Ai wi cos(θi )
expansion θt

The beam expands in one dimension on refraction. 2

E0t
= t2
⎛ ε 0 c0 ⎞ 2 E0i
2
n E
I t At ⎜⎝ t 2 ⎟⎠ 0t ⎡ wt ⎤ nt E0t wt nt 2 cos(θ t )
2

T= = ⎢ ⎥ = = t
I i Ai ⎛ ε 0 c0 ⎞ 2
⎣ wi ⎦ ni E0i wi ni cos(θi )
2
n
⎜ i 2 ⎟ 0i E
⎝ ⎠

⎡ ( nt cos (θt ) ) ⎤ 2
⇒ T =⎢ ⎥t = ρ mt
2 The Transmittance is also

⎢⎣ ( ni cos (θi ) ) ⎥⎦
called the Transmissivity.
Reflectance (R) ⎛ ε 0 c0 ⎞
I = ⎜n E
2
⎟ 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
I r Ar A = Area
R ≡ Reflected Power / Incident Power =
I i Ai

wi θi θr
ni wi
nt

Because the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection,

the beam area doesn’t change on reflection.

Also, n is the same for both incident and reflected beams.

So:
R = r2 The Reflectance is also
called the Reflectivity.
Reflectance and Transmittance for an
Air-to-Glass Interface

Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization

1.0 1.0
T T
.5 .5

R R
0 0
0° 30° 60° 90° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, θi Incidence angle, θi

Note that R+T =1

Reflectance and Transmittance for a
Glass-to-Air Interface

Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization

1.0 1.0
R R
.5 .5

T T
0 0
0° 30° 60° 90° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, θi Incidence angle, θi

Note that R+T =1

Reflection at normal incidence
When θi = 0, 2
⎛ nt − ni ⎞
R = ⎜ ⎟
n
⎝ t + ni ⎠

and 4 nt ni
T =
( nt + ni )
2

For an air-glass interface (ni = 1 and nt = 1.5),

R = 4% and T = 96%

The values are the same, whichever direction the light travels, from
air to glass or from glass to air.

The 4% has big implications for photography lenses.

Practical Applications of Fresnel’s Equations
Windows look like mirrors at night (when you’re in the brightly lit room)

One-way mirrors (used by police to interrogate bad guys) are just

partial reflectors (actually, aluminum-coated).

Disneyland puts ghouls next to you in the haunted house using partial
reflectors (also aluminum-coated).

Lasers use Brewster’s angle components to avoid reflective losses:

R = 100% 0% reflection!
Laser medium R = 90%

0% reflection!

Optical fibers use total internal reflection. Hollow fibers use high-
incidence-angle near-unity reflections.
Phase Shift in Reflection (for Perpendicularly
Polarized Light)
r r
r⊥ = E0 r / E0i = ki kr
[ ni cos(θi ) − nt cos(θt )] Ei Er ni
[ ni cos(θi ) + nt cos(θt )] Bi θi θr Br
Interface
When θ i = 0, r =
[ ni − nt ] θt
[ ni + nt ] Et
r
nt
Bt kt
If ni < nt ( air to glass ) , r < 0

So there will be destructive interference between the incident and

reflected beams just before the surface.

Analogously, if ni > nt (glass to air), r⊥ > 0, and there will be

constructive interference.
Phase Shift in Reflection (Parallel Polarized
Light)
r r
r = E0 r / E0i = ki kr
Ei Br
[ ni cos(θt ) − nt cos(θi )] ni
Bi θi θr Er
[ ni cos(θt ) + nt cos(θi )]
Interface
When θi = 0, r =
[ ni − nt ]
θt
[ ni + nt ] Et
Bt r
nt
If ni < nt (air to glass), r < 0 kt

This also means destructive interference with incident beam.

Analogously, if ni > nt (glass to air), r|| > 0, and we have constructive
interference just above the interface.
Good that we get the same result as for r⊥; it’s the same problem
when θi = 0! Also, the phase is opposite above Brewster’s angle.
Phase shifts in reflection (air to glass)

ni < nt π

180° phase shift

┴ for all angles

0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle
π

180° phase shift

for angles below
|| Brewster's angle;
0° for larger angles
0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle
Phase shifts in reflection (glass to air)

nt < ni π

Interesting phase
above the critical
┴ angle

0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle
π

180° phase shift

for angles below
|| Brewster's angle;
0° for larger angles
0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle
Phase shifts vs.
incidence angle
and ni /nt

θi
Note the general behavior ni /nt
above and below the
various interesting
angles…

ni /nt
Li Li, OPN, vol. 14, #9,
pp. 24-30, Sept. 2003 θi
If you slowly turn up a laser intensity incident
on a piece of glass, where does damage happen
first, the front or the back?
The obvious answer is the front of the object, which sees the
higher intensity first.

But constructive interference happens at the back surface between

the incident light and the reflected wave.

This yields an irradiance that is 44% higher just inside the back
surface!
(1 + 0.2) 2 = 1.44 (glass to air), r|| > 0 ⇒ r|| =[(1.5-1)/(1.5+1)]
Phase shifts with coated optics
Reflections with different magnitudes can be generated using partial
metallization or coatings. We’ll see these later.

But the phase shifts on reflection are the same! For near-normal
incidence:
180° if low-index-to-high and 0 if high-index-to-low.

Highly reflecting coating

Example: on this surface
Laser Mirror

Phase shift of 180°

Total Internal Reflection occurs when sin(θt) > 1,
and no transmitted beam can occur.

Note that the irradiance of the transmitted beam goes to zero (i.e.,
TIR occurs) as it grazes the surface.

Brewster’s angle

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is 100% efficient, that is, all the light is reflected.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection

Beam steerers

Beam steerers
used to compress
the path inside
binoculars
Fiber Optics
Optical fibers use TIR to transmit light long distances.

They play an ever-increasing role in our lives!

Design of optical fibers
Core: Thin glass center of the fiber that carries the light

Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects the light back into the core

Buffer coating: Plastic protective coating

ncore > ncladding

Propagation of light in an optical fiber

Light travels through the

core bouncing from the
reflective walls. The walls
absorb very little light from
the core allowing the light
wave to travel large
distances.

Some signal degradation occurs due to imperfectly constructed glass

used in the cable. The best optical fibers show very little light loss -- less
than 10%/km at 1,550 nm.

Maximum light loss occurs at the points of maximum curvature.

Microstructure fiber
Air holes
In microstructure fiber, air holes
act as the cladding surrounding
a glass core. Such fibers have
different dispersion properties.

Core

Such fiber has

many applications,
from medical
imaging to optical
clocks.

Photographs courtesy of
Jinendra Ranka, Lucent
Frustrated Total Internal Reflection
By placing another surface in contact with a totally internally
reflecting one, total internal reflection can be frustrated.

Total internal reflection Frustrated total internal reflection

n=1 n=1
n n
n n

How close do the prisms have to be before TIR is frustrated?

This effect provides evidence for evanescent fields—fields that leak through
the TIR surface–and is the basis for a variety of spectroscopic techniques.
FTIR and
fingerprinting

See TIR from a

fingerprint valley
and FTIR from a
ridge.
The Evanescent Wave r θ r
ki i k r ni
The evanescent wave is the
"transmitted wave" when total internal y θt r
reflection occurs. A mystical quantity! k t nt
x
So we'll do a mystical derivation:

E0 r [ ni cos(θi ) − nt cos(θt ) ]
r⊥ = =
E0i [ ni cos(θi ) + nt cos(θt ) ]
Since sin(θt ) > 1, θt doesn't exist, so computing r⊥ is impossible.
Let's check the reflectivity, R, anyway. Use Snell's Law to eliminate θt :
2
⎛ ni ⎞
cos(θt ) = 1 − sin (θt ) = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 (θi ) = Neg. Number
2

⎝ nt ⎠
Substituting this expression into the above one for r⊥ and
⎛ a − bi ⎞ ⎛ a + bi ⎞
redefining R yields: R ≡ r⊥ r⊥* = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =1
⎝ a + bi ⎠ ⎝ a − bi ⎠
So all power is reflected; the evanescent wave contains no power.
The Evanescent-Wave k-vector
The evanescent wave k-vector must
have x and y components: r θ r
ki i k r ni
Along surface: ktx = kt sin(θt) y r
θt
k t nt
Perpendicular to it: kty = kt cos(θt) x

Using Snell's Law, sin(θt) = (ni /nt) sin(θi), so ktx is meaningful.

And again: cos(θt) = [1 – sin2(θt)]1/2 = [1 – (ni /nt)2 sin2(θi)]1/2

= ± iβ

Neglecting the unphysical -iβ solution, we have:

Et(x,y,t) = E0 exp[–kβ y] exp i [ k (ni /nt) sin(θi) x – ω t ]

The evanescent wave decays exponentially in the transverse direction.

Optical Properties of Metals
A simple model of a metal is a gas of free electrons

These free electrons and their accompanying positive nuclei can

undergo "plasma oscillations" at frequency, ωp.

where: N e2
ω =
2
p
(ε 0me )

The refractive index for a metal is :

2
⎛ ωp ⎞
n = 1− ⎜ ⎟
2

⎝ω⎠

When n2 < 0, n is imaginary, and absorption is strong.

So for ω < ω p metals absorb strongly. For ω > ω p metals are transparent.
Reflection from metals
(n − 1) 2
At normal incidence in air: R=
(n + 1) 2
(n − 1)(n* − 1)
Generalizing to complex refractive indices: R=
(n + 1)(n* + 1)