Tsunami

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For other uses, see Tsunami (disambiguation).

A destroyed town in Sumatra after being hit by a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake
A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: 津波, lit. "harbor wave";[1] English
pronunciation: /suːˈnɑːmiː/ soo-NAH-mee or /tsuːˈnɑːmiː/ tsoo-NAH-mee[2]), also
called a tsunami wave train,[3] and at one time incorrectly referred to as a tidal wave, is a series
of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an
ocean, though it can occur in large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan;
approximately 195 events have been recorded.[4] Owing to the immense volumes of water and the
high energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of
underwater nuclear devices), landslides and other mass movements, meteorite ocean impacts or
similar impact events, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to
generate a tsunami.
The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunami to submarine earthquakes,[5][6] but
the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of
ongoing research. Many early geological, geographical, and oceanographic texts refer to
tsunamis as "seismic sea waves."
Some meteorological conditions, such as deep depressions that cause tropical cyclones, can
generate a storm surge, called a meteotsunami, which can raise tides several metres above
normal levels. The displacement comes from low atmospheric pressure within the centre of the
depression. As these storm surges reach shore, they may resemble (though are not) tsunamis,
inundating vast areas of land.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Etymology and history
• 2 Generation mechanisms
○ 2.1 Tsunami generated by seismicity
• 3 Characteristics
• 4 Drawback
• 5 Scales of intensity and magnitude
○ 5.1 Intensity scales
○ 5.2 Magnitude scales
 • 6 Warnings and predictions
• 7 Mitigation
• 8 As a weapon
• 9 See also
• 10 Footnotes
• 11 References
• 12 External links
○ 12.1 Images, video, and animations

Etymology and history

Lisbon earthquake and tsunami in 1755

The Russians of Pavel Lebedev-Lastochkin in Japan, with their ships tossed inland by a tsunami,
meeting some Japanese in 1779
The term tsunami comes from the Japanese 津波, composed of the two kanji 津 (tsu) meaning
"harbor" and 波 (nami), meaning "wave". (For the plural, one can either follow ordinary
English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.[7])
Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves. In recent years, this term has fallen out of
favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do with
tides. The once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, which is that of an
extraordinarily high tidal bore. Tsunami and tides both produce waves of water that move inland,
but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer
period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of "tidal"
include "resembling"[8] or "having the form or character of"[9] the tides, and the term tsunami is
no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is
discouraged by geologists and oceanographers.
There are only a few other languages that have an equivalent native word. In the Tamil language,
the word is aazhi peralai. In the Acehnese language, it is ië beuna or alôn buluëk[10] (Depending
on the dialect. Note that in the fellow Austronesian language of Tagalog, a major language in the
Philippines, alon means "wave".) On Simeulue island, off the western coast of Sumatra in
Indonesia, in the Defayan language the word is smong, while in the Sigulai language it is emong.
[11]

Main article: Historic tsunami

As early as 426 B.C. the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of the
Peloponnesian War about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that ocean
earthquakes must be the cause.[5][6]
The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point
where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with
redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident
could happen.[12]
The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae 26.10.15-19) described the typical
sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a
following gigantic wave, after the 365 A.D. tsunami devastated Alexandria.[13][14]
While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by
the 2004 earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern
times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with
earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island.[15]

tsunami (ts nä`mē), series of catastrophic ocean waves generated by submarine movements, which
may be caused by earthquakes earthquake, trembling or shaking movement of the earth's surface.
Most earthquakes are minor tremors. Larger earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors but rapidly
take the form of one or more violent shocks, and end in vibrations of gradually diminishing force
..... Click the link for more information. , volcanic eruptions, landslides beneath the ocean, or an asteroid
striking the earth. Tsunamis are also called seismic sea waves or, popularly, tidal waves.
In the open ocean, tsunamis may have wavelengths of up to several hundred miles and travel at speeds
up to 500 mi per hr (800 km per hr), yet have wave heights of less than 3 ft (1 m), which pass unnoticed
beneath a ship at sea. The period between the crests of a tsunami's waves varies from 5 min to about 1
hr. When tsunamis approach shallow water along a coast, they are slowed, causing their length to
shorten and their height to rise sometimes as high as 100 ft (30 m). When they break, they often destroy
piers, buildings, and beaches and take human life. The wave height as they crash upon a shore depends
almost entirely upon the submarine topography offshore. Waves tend to rise to greater heights along
gently sloping shores, along submarine ridges, or in coastal embayments.
There is little warning of approach; when a train of tsunami waves approaches a coastline, the first
indication is often a sharp swell, not unlike an ordinary storm swell, followed by a sudden outrush of water
that often exposes offshore areas as the first wave trough reaches the coast. After several minutes, the
first huge wave crest strikes, inundating the newly exposed beach and rushing inland to flood the coast.
Generally, the third to eighth wave crests are the largest.
Since tsunamis principally occur in the Pacific Ocean following shallow-focus earthquakes over
magnitude 6.5 on the Richter scale Richter scale , measure of the magnitude of seismic waves from
an earthquake, devised in 1935 by the American seismologist Charles F. Richter (1900–1985).
..... Click the link for more information. , one of the best means of prediction is the detection of such
earthquakes on the ocean floor with a seismograph network (see seismology seismology , scientific
study of earthquakes and related phenomena, including the propagation of waves and shocks on or within
the earth by natural or artificially generated seismic signals.
..... Click the link for more information. ). Tsunamis may be detected by wave gauges and pressure
monitors, such as those emplaced as part of the U.S. Tsunami Warning System; established in 1949 and
originally confined to the Pacific region, the system has been expanded to the Caribbean and the W North
Atlantic. An early warning system for the Indian Ocean began operating in 2006. Measurement of sudden
sea level changes from satellites are also used to warn of a potential tsunami.
One of the most destructive tsunamis to occur during historical times followed the explosive eruption of
the volcano Krakatoa Krakatoa or Krakatau , volcanic island, c.5 sq mi (13 sq km), W Indonesia, in
Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra; rising to 2,667 ft (813 m). A momentous volcanic explosion on
Aug.
..... Click the link for more information. in the East Indies on Aug. 27, 1883, when over 36,000 people
were killed as a result of the wave. Waves were up to 100 ft (30 m) high. Its passage was traced as far
away as Panama. On Dec. 26, 2004, a 9.1–9.3 earthquake off NW Sumatra, Indonesia, caused a tsunami
with waves as high as 65 ft (20 m) nearest the epicenter. At least 200,000 people are believed to have
died. The waves devastated many areas in the E Indian Ocean basin, particularly the nearby coast of N
Sumatra, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the E and S coasts of Sri Lanka. Areas of SE India and
SW Thailand were also hard hit. Deaths and destruction occurred as far away as the coasts of Somalia
and Madagascar in Africa, and minor sea level changes were measured as far away as San Diego, Calif.,
Iquique, Chile, and Atlantic City, N.J. It is believed that a 0.6-mi-wide (1-km-wide) asteroid that struck the
ocean SW of New Zealand about A.D. 1500 created a tsunami that reached heights of more than 425 ft
(130 m).
A tsunami is a huge ocean wave that can travel at speeds up to 600 mi/hr (965 km/hr), hundreds
of miles over open sea before it hits land. Sometimes incorrectly called a tidal wave, a tsunami is
usually caused by an earthquake, volcanic eruption or coastal landslide.
Tsunami is Japanese for "harbor wave." It is, in fact, a series of waves which travel outward on
the ocean surface in all directions in a kind of ripple effect. Since the waves can start out
hundreds of miles long and only a few feet high, they would not necessarily be noticeable to a
passing ship or a plane flying overhead.
As the waves get closer to shore, they decrease in speed and increase in height. They approach
the coastline as a series of high and low water levels, approximately 10-45 minutes apart, with
their speed decreasing to about 30-40 mi/hr (50-60 km/hr). The depth of the water and the layout
of the coastal area can affect the tsunami's configuration when it hits the shore. It can grow to 30-
50 meters high and smash into the shore as a wall of water or sweep over the land as a fast-
moving flood. Although tsunamis can happen in any large body of water, most occur in the
Pacific Ocean.
A tsunami that is generated from close-by can reach the shore in less than ten minutes. This does
not allow authorities time to issue a warning. The only warning might be movement in the
ground, which could alert people close to the shore that a tsunami is imminent. If a major
earthquake gives cause to suspect a tsunami, one of the following warnings may be issued:
• Tsunami information bulletin — announcing that a threat exists.
• Tsunami watch — announcing that the tsunami is likely and residents should be alert.
• Tsunami warning — giving expected arrival times of a tsunami.
Areas at greatest risk are usually within one mile (1.6 km) of the shoreline and less than 25 feet
(7.6 meters) above sea level. Since the tsunami arrives as a series of waves, the danger exists
even after the first wave hits. Often, subsequent waves may be more dangerous than the first one.
The force of the tsunami is enormous, with waves carrying huge boulders, trees, buildings and
vehicles in its wake. It can wrap around an island and be just as dangerous on the far side of the
island as on the side facing the source of the tsunami.
What you need to know to prepare for a tsunami:
• Since earthquakes frequently precipitate a tsunami, if an earthquake happens, expect a
tsunami warning in its wake. Leave low-lying areas until the danger passes.
• As a tsunami approaches there is often a noticeable drop in sea level; take it as nature's
warning to leave the area. An incoming tsunami often sounds like an oncoming train —
another of nature's warnings.
• Though a tsunami may be small and harmless on one point on the shore, a little further
away it could be much larger and carry far greater dangers.
• Do not go to the shore to look for a tsunami; if you can see it, you are already too close to
outrun it.
• You should never try to surf a tsunami; the wave does not behave like a regular wave,
curling or breaking.
• If you are at the beach and feel the earth shake, immediately move to higher ground.
• Drowning is the cause of most tsunami-related deaths. Other dangers to property and
person include flooding, fires from ruptured tanks or gas lines, contaminated drinking
water, and the loss of vital community infrastructure (police, fire, medical).
In 2004, an earthquake shook the ocean floor in the Indian Ocean near Indonesia. The resulting
tsunami killed more than 200,000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, India and as far
away as the African countries of Somalia and Madagascar. Waves reached a height of 65 feet (20
meters).
Other devastating tsunamis include one that took place in 1883, after Krakatoa erupted. Waves
up to 100 feet (30 meters) high caused some 36,000 deaths. In Japan, in 1896, a wave that
reached a height of about 65 feet (20 meters) killed about 26,000 people in villages around
Sanriku. And in 1755, Lisbon, Portugal, was hit by an earthquake that precipitated a tsunami.
More than 100,000 people were killed by the quake, tsunami and fires that broke out in the
aftermath.
On March 11, 2011, an earthquake off the coast of Japan, measuring 8.9 on the Richter scale,
created a tsunami with waves of over 33 feet (10 meters) high. Towns were devastated and
thousands of lives were lost, with the effects being felt up to 6 miles (10 kilometers) inland.
Millions of households were left without electricity or water, over 100,000 buildings were
destroyed, and several nuclear reactors were damaged. The leakage from explosions within the
nuclear reactor plants caused the evacuation of residents from within about 10 miles (17
kilometers) from the area. It is considered the most costly natural disaster to date.
What Causes a Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of large waves generated by an abrupt movement on the ocean floor that can
result from an earthquake, an underwater landslide, a volcanic eruption or - very rarely - a large
meteorite strike.

However, powerful undersea earthquakes are responsible for most tsunamis. Seismologists say
only earthquakes measuring greater than 7.0 on the Richter scale can produce a major tsunami.
Most earthquakes that generate tsunamis - including Friday's jolt off Japan's eastern coast - occur
in areas called subduction zones, where pieces of the Earth's crust press against each other.
Subduction means that one tectonic plate slides beneath another and sinks deep into the Earth's
mantle.

The friction between two slow-moving plates of the Earth's crust creates vast amounts of seismic
energy which is released in the form of an earthquake. When a strong undersea earthquake
strikes a relatively short distance below the sea floor, it abruptly pushes up one of the immense
plates of the Earth's crust. That suddenly displaces an enormous amount of ocean water which
becomes a tsunami, spreading outward in every direction from the epicenter of an earthquake -
like ripples on a pond, only on a much larger scale.

Tsunamis generated in the open ocean appear to be only small waves, but they can grow rapidly
in size as they reach shallow water before crashing into seacoast settlements. Waves up to nine
meters high have been recorded on numerous occasions, and tsunamis up to 30 meters high are
believed to have occurred in the past.

Damage is usually worst in areas closest to the undersea quake, often because the fast-moving
waves will hit land so quickly. Tsunamis radiate out from the site of an undersea quake nearly as
fast as a jet airliner can travel, but because the expanse of the Pacific is so wide, alert systems are
in place to sound a warning to those in the path of an advancing wave.

The term tsunami comes from two Japanese words that mean "harbor" and "wave."
What is a Tsunami?
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning ''harbour wave'' that refers to a series of large ocean waves
that hit a shoreline. These waves may be as long as 100km and travel across the ocean at speeds
of up to 800kmh. There may be a constant stream of waves that that batter the shore for between 10
and 60 minutes.
What causes a Tsunami?
Tsunamis are caused by sudden movements of the earth that happen under the sea. Often the most
destructive Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes but causes can also include volcanic eruptions,
landslides or even a comet hitting the sea.

Friction: Tectonic plates rub against each other

How do undersea earthquakes start?
The earth sits on about a dozen tectonic plates. These are large floating peices of hard rock that
are constantly moving and fit together around the world like a jigsaw. Undersea earthquakes happen
when one of these plates is rubbing against another at a plate boundary. The two plates may
become stuck as the heavier plate tries to slide under the lighter other. This causes a build up of
pressure in a process knows as subduction.

As the heavier plate continues to slide beneath the lighter plate, it causes the lighter plate to bend
downwards with the pressure. A point comes when the lighter plate can no longer take the intense
pressure and suddenly snaps back up to the surface where it had been before.

The incredible force of the earths plate shooting upwards in the water causes huge rise in sea level.
A vast body of water moves upward - like a huge mountain of water in the sea.

• What are the effects of a tsunami?

The effects of a tsunami are devastating. They are ond of the world's worst natural disasters
that can hit a country. Tsunami damage is first caused by the immense force of the tidal wave
hitting the...

• Volcanoes: How do volcanoes erupt?

Volcano eruptions happpen when magma erupts from beneath the earth's crust. When the
volcano erupts the magma becomes lava and it shoots into the air or runs down the side of the
volcano. How and why...

How does the Tsunami develop?

Everybody knows that what goes up must come down. This is particularly true for water which
always likes to form a nice flat surface. So once the mountain of water has risen up the next step is
for the sea to level itself out.

The mountain of water comes back down. This pushes the water that was underneath it outwards.
The force of the water moves through the ocean causing an underwater force that travels for
hundreds of Kilometres. The force of the water can reach speeds of up to 800kmh as it surges
through the ocean. The energy is underwater and is not noticeable on the surface.

As this force travels through the ocean it may eventually reach the shore. At this point, the sea
becomes shallower. However, the energy in the water is still the same. The enegery is compressed
and the water is pushed upwards. This is how the energy is transferred from being underater into
waves on the surface.

• National Earthquake Information Center - NEIC

• NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

• USGS - U.S. Geological Survey

• NOAA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

• PNSN - Pacific Northwest Seismic Network

Can anything be done?
Unfortunately nothing can be done to prevent Tsunamis. However, there are several organisations
that use complex technology to monitor movement of the earths plates and sudden changes in water
movement. There are also warning and evacuation procedures in place around countries like Japan
and Hawaii where Tsunamis are frequent.

Any sudden earthquake that happens underwater will be detected in the same manner of on on-
shore earthquake. These are measured in the Richter scale. If this is recorded then warning systems
can sometimes be activated to evacuate people.

Wreckage from Aleutian Islands

Tsunami history
• Indonesia - 26 December 2004

• Papua New Guinea - 17 July 1998

• Sea of Japan - 26 May 1983

• Alaska Britis Columbia - 27 March 1964

• Chili - 22 May 1960

• Aleutian Islands - 1 April 1946

• Tsunami effects: What are the effects of a tsunami?

The effects of a tsunami are devastating. They are ond of the world's worst natural disasters
that can hit a country. Tsunami damage is first caused by the immense force of the tidal wave
hitting the...
• 1. A Tsunami is violent disturbance deep below the ocean surface.

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1. A Tsunami is violent disturbance deep below the ocean surface.

2. The under water earthquakes and subduction zones are

the most common cause.
How a Tsunami Is Caused
When an oceanic plate hits a continental plate the plates
press together and pressure builds.
Eventually the heavier oceanic plate slips under the lighter
continental plate and causes an earthquake.
The earthquake lifts part of the ocean up and drops other
parts down.
What happens on the ocean floor is mirrored on the surface
of the water above.
The gravity acts fast to even out the water’s surface. The
seismic energy created that big wave and it doesn’t just
disappear. Waves start moving up to 600 miles per hour but
you can’t see them.
The Tsunami extends thousands of feet deep into the ocean.
Tsunamis carry lots of water and energy so they can travel
very far.
 Effects Tsunamis can Make

1. They can destroy lives/drowned loved ones.

2. Wash away properties.
3. Wash away and drowned pets.
4. The sound will make you scared and after it happens you might
not be able to sleep well because you might hear the sound of a
tsunami at night.
5. You won’t have anything to live like: Food, clothes, shelter, beds
and blankets.

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What causes a tsunami?... A tsunami is a large ocean wave that is caused by sudden motion on the ocean floor. This sudden motion could be an
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Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes generated in a subduction zone, an area where an
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As the stuck plate continues to descend into the mantle the motion causes a slow distortion of the
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Many people have the mistaken belief that tsunamis are single waves. They are not. Instead
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from Onagawa, Japan beginning at the time of the 1960 Chile earthquake. Time is plotted along
the horizontal axis and water level is plotted on the vertical axis. Note the normal rise and fall of the
Tectonics ocean surface, caused by tides, during the early part of this record. Then recorded are a few
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What Cause Tsunamis?

Tsunamis, also called seismic sea waves or, incorrectly, tidal waves, generally are caused by
earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by submarine volcanic
eruptions and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. Submarine volcanic eruptions
have the potential to produce truly awesome tsunami waves. The Great Krakatau Volcanic
Eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea-level, killing
thousands of people and wiping out numerous coastal villages.
The 1992 Nicaragua tsunami
may have been the result of a
"slow" earthquake comprised
of very long-period movement
occurring beneath the sea
floor. This earthquake
generated a devastating
tsunami with localized damage
to coastal communities in
Nicaragua.
Not all earthquakes generate
tsunamis. To generate
tsunamis, earthquakes must
occur underneath or near the
ocean, be large and create
movements in the sea floor.
All oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, but in the Pacific Ocean there is a
much more frequent occurrence of large, destructive tsunamis because of the many large
earthquakes along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
Ring of Fire
About two-thirds of the earth is covered by the waters of the four oceans. The Pacific Ocean is
the world's largest, covering more than one third of the total surface area of our planet. The
Pacific Ocean is surrounded by a series of mountain chains, deep ocean trenches and island arcs,
sometimes called a "ring of fire." The great size of the Pacific Ocean and the large earthquakes
associated with the "ring of fire" combine to produce deadly tsunamis.
In less than a day, these tsunamis can travel from one side of the Pacific to the other. However,
people living near areas where large earthquakes occur may find that the tsunami waves will
reach their shores within minutes of the earthquake. For these reasons, the tsunami threat to
many areas (Alaska, the Philippines, Japan or the U.S. West Coast) can be immediate (for
tsunamis from nearby earthquakes taking only a few minutes to reach coastal areas) or less
urgent (for tsunamis from distant earthquakes taking from 3 to 22 hours to reach coastal areas).
Earth and Earthquakes
The continents and sea floor that cover the earth's surface are part of a world-wide system of
plates that are in motion. These motions are very slow, only an inch or two per year. Earthquakes
occur where the edges of plates run into one another. Such edges are called fault lines or faults.
Sometimes the forces along faults can build-up over long periods of time so that when the rocks
finally break an earthquake occurs. Examples of features produced by forces released along plate
edge faults are the Andes Mountains in South America (on land) and the Aleutian Trench near
Alaska (under water). When powerful, rapid faulting occurs underneath or near the ocean, a large
earthquake is produced and, possibly, a tsunami.
The deep ocean trenches off the coasts of Alaska, the Kuril Islands, Russia,, and South America
are well known for their violent underwater earthquakes and as the source area for destructive
Pacific-wide tsunamis.
The tsunami generating process is more complicated than a sudden push against the column of
ocean water. The earthquake's magnitude and depth, water depth in the region of tsunami
generation, the amount of vertical motion of the sea floor, the velocity of such motion, whether
there is coincident slumping of sediments and the efficiency with which energy is transferred
from the earth's crust to ocean water are all part of the generation mechanism.
What is a tsunami?
Tsunami is the Japanese name given to large waves that sometimes devastated the shores
and ports of Japan. A tsunami is a wave in the ocean but it is very different to normal waves.
Tsunamis have very long wavelengths. Crest to crest they measure between 10 and 500 km
and they travel through the ocean at more than 700 km/h. Sometimes there appears to be
just one wave but often there are multiple waves travelling a few minutes apart.
Wave height [amplitude] may not appear to be great in the open ocean (and often goes
unnoticed) but unlike normal waves the tsunami is moving the entire water column, all the
way to the sea floor! The water depth therefore has a major influence on the behaviour and
appearance of the wave. In addition because of the wavelength, the first sign of the arrival
of a tsunami may actually be the sea level falling and bays appearing to empty.
In deep open water the wave is almost impossible to see although modern instruments can
detect it. However, as the wave approaches shore and the water shallows it slows down. The
wave rapidly bunches up as the faster rear sections catch up with the slower front sections
resulting in the wave growing
in height the closer it gets to shore. This effect is enhanced if the near-shore sea bed
provides a long gradual shallowing. Many tsunamis are barely distinguishable from normal
sea waves but some turn into monsters rising 30 metres above the shore line! The damage
along a shore line may vary because of the influence the local shape of the sea floor has on
wave behaviour.
Bays and harbours that are funnel shaped also suffer more from a tsunami because they
concentrate the effects. Damage in these areas is further increased by the sloshing
backwards and forwards of the water, just like in a bathtub!
What causes a tsunami?
Unfortunately tsunamis have been given numerous names in the past that are misleading.
Even the word tsunami meaning ‘harbour wave’ is misleading!
All tsunami are caused by the sudden displacement of large volumes of water. All are the
result of violent events with enough power to displace large volumes very rapidly. However,
tsunami may be caused by events that are not local to the tsunami site. Because the waves
have been generated by huge releases of energy and they travel so effectively through the
deep ocean some tsunami are caused by events that literally happen on the other side of
the world.
The usual causes of a tsunami are:
• an earthquake
- most tsunamis are caused by submarine earthquakes but not all submarine earthquakes
cause tsunamis. Movement on the fault must have a vertical component that generates
sufficient displacement to set a tsunami running
• a landslide
- underwater landslides or coastal landslides that fall into the ocean can displace enough
water to create a tsunami. Sometimes the landslides are caused by earthquakes.
• a volcanic eruption or explosion
- submarine explosions, caldera collapse and massive pyroclastic flows can all cause
sufficient displacement of water to generate a tsunami.
• impact by a meteorite
- large meteorites have a high probability of landing in the ocean and causing a tsunami
given that about two thirds of the surface of the Earth is covered by water.

Tsunami Warnings and Prevention

Tag: tsunami warnings and prevention

A tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted - even if the right magnitude of an earthquake occurs in the right location. Geologists,
Oceanographers and Seismologist analyse each earthquake and based upon many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However,
there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from
tsunami. One of the most important systems that is used and constantly monitored are bottom pressure sensors. These are anchored and
attached to buoys. Sensors on the equipment constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column - this can be deduced by the
simple calculation of:

where

P = the overlying pressure in Newtons per metre square,

ρ = the density of the seawater= 1.1 x 103 kg/m3,
g = the acceleration due to gravity= 9.8 m/s2 and
h = the height of the water column in metres.

Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to

or about 5.7 Million tonnes per metre square.

In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is the trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the
wave's arrival. If the slope of the coastal seabed is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of meters. People unaware of the
danger may remain at or near the shore out of curiosity, or for collecting fish from the exposed seabed. During the Indian Ocean tsunami of
26th December 2004, the sea withdrew and many people then went onto the exposed sea bed to investigate. Pictures taken show people on
the normally submerged areas with the advancing wave in the background. Most people who were on the beach were unable to escape to
high ground and died.

Regions with a high risk of tsunami may use tsunami warning systems to detect tsunami and warn the general population before the wave
reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs advise people of evacuation
routes.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based in Honolulu. It monitors all sesimic activity that occurs anywhere within the Pacific. Based up the
magnitude and other information a tsunami warning may be issued. It is important to note that the subduction zones around the Pacific are
seismically active, but not all earthquakes generate tsunami and for this reason computers are used as a tool to assist in analysing the risk of
tsunami generation of each and every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses.

As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat of all coastal areas is being undertaken by national
governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is currently being installed in the Indian
Ocean.

Computer models can predict tsunami arrival - observations have shown that predicted arrival times are usually within minutes of the
predicted time. Bottom pressure sensors are able to relay information in real time and based upon the readings and other information about
the seismic event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor (bathymetry) and coastal land (topography), it is possible to estimate the
amplitude and therefore the surge height, of the approaching tsunami. All the countries that border the Pacific Ocean collaborate in the
Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures to prepare people for the inevitable tsunami. In Japan
such preparation is a mandatory requirement of government, local authorities, emergency services and the population.

Some zoologists hypothesise that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake or a tsunami. Some
animals seem to have the ability to detect natural phenomena and if correct, careful observation and monitoring could possibly provide
advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and has not been proven scientifically. There are some
unsubstantiated claims that animals before the Lisbon quake were restless and moved away from low lying areas to higher ground. Yet many
other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The following
two references whilst relevant, are media and not scientific. It is possible that certain animals (e.g., elephants) may have heard the sounds of
the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants reaction was to move away from the approaching noise - inland. Some humans, on the
other hand, went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result.

It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage
caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated
coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness
has been questioned, as tsunami often surge higher than the barriers. For instance, the Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami which struck Okushiri
Island of Hokkaidō within two to five minutes of the earthquake on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-
story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed
all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did
not prevent major destruction and loss of life.

The effects of a tsunami may be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004
Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami's energy being absorbed by trees such as coconut palms and
mangroves. In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's Tamil Nadu region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as
the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the Guinness Book of Records.
Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of seacoast which are prone to tsunami risks. It would take some years for the
trees to grow to a useful size, but such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the
construction of artificial barriers

Tsunami Warnings and Prevention

Tag: tsunami warnings and prevention

A tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted - even if the right magnitude of an earthquake occurs in the right location. Geologists,
Oceanographers and Seismologist analyse each earthquake and based upon many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However,
there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from
tsunami. One of the most important systems that is used and constantly monitored are bottom pressure sensors. These are anchored and
attached to buoys. Sensors on the equipment constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column - this can be deduced by the
simple calculation of:

where

P = the overlying pressure in Newtons per metre square,

ρ = the density of the seawater= 1.1 x 103 kg/m3,
g = the acceleration due to gravity= 9.8 m/s2 and
h = the height of the water column in metres.

Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to

or about 5.7 Million tonnes per metre square.

In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is the trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the
wave's arrival. If the slope of the coastal seabed is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of meters. People unaware of the
danger may remain at or near the shore out of curiosity, or for collecting fish from the exposed seabed. During the Indian Ocean tsunami of
26th December 2004, the sea withdrew and many people then went onto the exposed sea bed to investigate. Pictures taken show people on
the normally submerged areas with the advancing wave in the background. Most people who were on the beach were unable to escape to
high ground and died.

Regions with a high risk of tsunami may use tsunami warning systems to detect tsunami and warn the general population before the wave
reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs advise people of evacuation
routes.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based in Honolulu. It monitors all sesimic activity that occurs anywhere within the Pacific. Based up the
magnitude and other information a tsunami warning may be issued. It is important to note that the subduction zones around the Pacific are
seismically active, but not all earthquakes generate tsunami and for this reason computers are used as a tool to assist in analysing the risk of
tsunami generation of each and every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses.

As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat of all coastal areas is being undertaken by national
governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is currently being installed in the Indian
Ocean.
Computer models can predict tsunami arrival - observations have shown that predicted arrival times are usually within minutes of the
predicted time. Bottom pressure sensors are able to relay information in real time and based upon the readings and other information about
the seismic event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor (bathymetry) and coastal land (topography), it is possible to estimate the
amplitude and therefore the surge height, of the approaching tsunami. All the countries that border the Pacific Ocean collaborate in the
Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures to prepare people for the inevitable tsunami. In Japan
such preparation is a mandatory requirement of government, local authorities, emergency services and the population.

Some zoologists hypothesise that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake or a tsunami. Some
animals seem to have the ability to detect natural phenomena and if correct, careful observation and monitoring could possibly provide
advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and has not been proven scientifically. There are some
unsubstantiated claims that animals before the Lisbon quake were restless and moved away from low lying areas to higher ground. Yet many
other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The following
two references whilst relevant, are media and not scientific. It is possible that certain animals (e.g., elephants) may have heard the sounds of
the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants reaction was to move away from the approaching noise - inland. Some humans, on the
other hand, went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result.

It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage
caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated
coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness
has been questioned, as tsunami often surge higher than the barriers. For instance, the Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami which struck Okushiri
Island of Hokkaidō within two to five minutes of the earthquake on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-
story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed
all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did
not prevent major destruction and loss of life.

The effects of a tsunami may be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004
Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami's energy being absorbed by trees such as coconut palms and
mangroves. In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's Tamil Nadu region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as
the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the Guinness Book of Records.
Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of seacoast which are prone to tsunami risks. It would take some years for the
trees to grow to a useful size, but such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the
construction of artificial barriers

Subje
ct
Links
Coast Urba
Flood
Intro al n
Draina
Page Land Plan
ge
Use ning
Tsuna
Coast
Early mi-
al
Preve Proof
Protec
ntion Build
tion
ings

Early Prevention
Initial Proposals
Early prevention of tsunamis
should be divided into two
categories: preventing
earthquakes and preventing
landslides. These two are the
primary causes of tsunamis
and hence deserve the most
attention as priority targets.
Prevention of earthquakes would rely on the deliberate generation of minor quakes
in order to release the elastic tension energy stored in the tectonic plates under
stress.
One
way to

generate quakes is to have something similar to flail tanks in World War II used to
clear mines. Adaptations would have to be made but these machines would go into
deep water and proceed to flail the ground along the fault lines. This would occur
at a regular interval and result in minor and harmless tremors. This might be a very
expensive option as developing these underwater machines would likely be costly
.

Another way to generate quakes would to use ultra low sound emitters at resonant
frequencies. Once a line of the emitters are in place along the fault line, they can
produce resonance that would disrupt and cause ruptures. These emitters should
have the ability to relocate or they will get destroyed in the actual plate movements
while at the same time they need to be close to be effective.
Yet another way to generate quakes would be
use of explosives. Only explosives that would
be practical to use would be tactical nuclear
weapons. These are cheap and more practical
compared to equivalent amounts of TNT.
Furthermore, they are quite abundant in the
remnants of the Cold War arsenals. The
unfortunate side effect is the tremendous
amount of nuclear fall out that would occur. Regular nuking would utterly
devastate ecosystems and have unforeseeable repercussions.
Why they would not work
However, these ideas are generally impractical. It turns out that flail tanks and
sound emitters would likely have too little energy to trigger a quake. According to
the US Geological Survey, a thermonuclear test named "Faultless" ironically
produced a new fault rupture on Jan. 19, 19681[1]. However, even then, the
wavefield generated was only 20-30% earthquake like. The largest thermonuclear
test by the United States was the Cannikin test with a 5 megaton yield bomb. In
this, it registered 6.9 on the Richter scale. In studies done, it appears that quake
generated as a result of underground thermonuclear explosions typically have
around 1/10 the strength of the nuclear blast. Thus, to generate roughly 5.3
magnitude quake, you need a 5 megaton bomb. To prevent a magnitude 8
earthquake by premature triggering, we need roughly 32,000 magnitude 5
earthquakes2[2]. This means to prevent a quake capable of generating a reasonably
big tsunami would require around 30,000 5 megaton bombs. For the quake that
caused the December 2004 tsunami, we would need roughly 1,000,000 5 megaton
bombs. This is simply unrealistic costwise and environmentally.
Prevention of landslides is important as not all tsunamis are generated by
earthquakes. The first option will be to provide concrete braces and other
reinforcement structures for sections of the seafloor deemed vulnerable to slides.
This would be able to prevent a significant amount of sliding. However, it’s
impractical and costly to do this for large areas. Only high risk areas and important
protection locations like major ports and cities should have this nearby. There is
also need for novel structural materials which would render it practical to build

1[1] United States Geological Survey, Nuclear Explosions and Seismology.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/faq/nuclear.html. Jan. 14, 2004
2[2] J.
Louie, What is Richter Magnitude.
http://www.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/100/magnitude.html. Oct. 6, 1996

Page by: Peak Xu

such structures as a replacement time of less than ten years is likely to be
unacceptable.
The second option is to have small artificially triggered underwater landslides.
These can be triggered with explosives or with small mobile underwater dozers.
This is more practical than triggering quakes in that it can be smaller and more
localized. Use of power that only nuclear weapons can provide is likely
unnecessary.
With landslides, cost of reinforced concrete would be prohibitive. One can only do
this for important areas like near city harbors. However, tsunami waves that hit can
come from across the globe. Money on reinforcing underwater topology to prevent
slides is likely better utilized for physical dissipation in form of seawalls and
mangroves.

Rebuilding and Prevention in Tsunami-Hit

Areas
From the Archives

Posted on December 20, 2006

Previously filed under: Asia, Environment

Richard Stone describes efforts to restore

ecosystems and establish preventative practices
for a secure future.

Protecting against the risk of shifting ground and

replanting mangrove forests are some of the
tasks ahead for areas in Asia hit by the 2004
tsunami and earthquake in March 2005.

In a series of three articles in Science, an The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami - rebuilding continues

International weekly science journal, Richard

Stone describes how ecosystems are being restored and measures put in place to ensure that
the next earthquake will not have such devastating consequences.

Subsidence and uplift caused by the 2005 earthquake profoundly changed the landscape of
Nias Island off Sumatra's west coast, according to research by scientists from the Caltech-
Indonesian Institute of Sciences. The team warns that the coastline around Padang, Sumatra,
 would subside by tens of centimetres if another major earthquake hit the area. This, they say, is
likely to happen within the next few decades.

Scientists from the

The risk of subsidence complicates
Caltech-
development of an adequate
Indonesian
evacuation plan for Padang. One
Institute of Science
possibility is to build tsunami
shelters every 100 metres along the warn that the
coast, but this is only a viable option coastline around
if they can withstand a wave as well Padang, Sumatra
as shifting ground. would subside by
tens of centimetres
Meanwhile a US$62 million initiative if another major
to replant mangroves, sand dunes earthquake hit the
and sea-grass beds, called area.
Mangroves for the Future (MMF),
will be unveiled at a tsunami donors meeting on 31 October.

MMF will also provide an updated assessment of mangrove distribution in the area and restore
ecosystems in the 12 nations affected by the tsunami.

Tsunami: Progress in Prediction, Disaster

Prevention and Warning
Series: Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research, Vol. 4

Tsuchiya †, Yoshito; Shuto, Nobuo (Eds.)

1995, 368 p. 38 illus., 5 in color.

• Hardcover, ISBN 978-0-7923-3483-5

Usually dispatched within 3 to 5 business days
149,95 €

• Softcover, ISBN 978-90-481-4553-9

Usually dispatched within 3 to 5 business days
149,95 €
• ABOUT THIS BOOK

The Sixteenth International Tsunami Symposium, TSUNAMI ¿93, drew more than 150 scientists, engineers and specialists in tsunami research and disaster
mitigation from 13 countries. The leading contributions to the symposium, selected after a rigorous reviewing process, are presented here under three broad
headings:
• - Tsunami Generation, Propagation and Inundation: Their Prediction and Simulation.
• - Tsunami Disasters: Their Prevention and Mitigation.
• - Tsunami Observations, and Warning Systems and Plans for Improvement.
Audience: Scientists, engineers and graduate students interested in the prediction of earthquakes and tsunamis, tsunami disasters and their prevention and
mitigation. Professionals in the field of coastal management and protection.
Content Level » Research

Related subjects » Classical Continuum Physics - Earth Sciences & Geography - Engineering - Geophysics & Geodesy - Hydrogeology

Cases and Precedents : emergency shelters | community rebuilding | ecology restoration | disaster prevention

Tsunami Mitigation and Prevention

Tsunamis, like most natural disasters, are beyond human control. There are, however, a number of techniques that can minimize the harmful effects of tsunamis
to the physical environment (including built structures) and to individuals and communities. Accompanied by an effective warning system, thoughtful design and
strong community organization can reduce harm from Tsunamis and other natural disasters.
Mitigation and prevention through: site strategies | community development | ecology

[back to top]
Site Strategies

The US National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program’s publication Designing for Tsunamis stresses the importance of understanding site conditions. Through
zoning, creation of open space and not allowing new development in potential tsunami areas, safer land use will be better able to protect people and buildings. In
redevelopment of high risk areas four basic site planning techniques need to be considered. Please refer to page 4-11, Table 4-1.Mitigation Methods for
Selected Types of Development which gives a variety of building solutions based on the four basic site planning techniques listed below.

Specific Site Planning Strategies to Reduce Tsunami Risk

1. Avoid Inundation Areas: Site Buildings or infrastructure away from hazard area or locate on a high point.
2. Slow Water: Forests, ditches, slopes, or berms can slow down waves and filter out debris. The success of
this method depends on correctly estimating the force of the tsunami.
3. Steering: Water can be steered to strategically placed angled walls, ditches and paved roads.
Theoretically, porous dikes can reduce the impact of violent waves.
4. Blocking : Walls, hardened terraces, berms and parking structures can be built to block waves.he house
and household in a wide community context such as whether it is a majority or minority situation, the conflict
situation and ownership issues.
Case Study: Hilo, Hawaii was hit by a tsunami in 1960 and created widespread damage. The downtown area was rebuilt according to the Hilo Downtown
Development Plan which was passed in 1974. The plan determined safe areas to build based on both the 1946 and 1960 tsunamis that affected the downtown
area. All new buildings had to conform to urban design and building design standards. Any building built below the 20-foot elevation contour line had to be able
weather the force of a major tsunami. Parking structures were also designed to block the water from buildings farther inland.

Buildings made of concrete, masonry and heavy steel frames tend to withstand a tsunami if it is unaccompanied by an earthquake. Houses made of wood,
manufactured houses and light steel frame structures did not fare well.
Please see page 27 of Designing for Tsunamis for a case study of a Hilo downtown development plan and to the table on page 35, Tsunami Effects and
Design Solutions for a list of design solutions that may withstand a tsunami based on local hazard mapping.

[back to top]
Community- Based Prevention
The Philippines has been termed a “laboratory for new approaches in disaster mitigation” due to the large number of disasters that have occurred there.
Community based disaster preparedness endeavors initiated by the Phillipines National Red Cross are briefly described and analyzed in the publication:
Case Study: Risk reduction in practice: a Philippines case study
A study by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in the Philippines found that community-based disaster action teams are an
important element in disaster relief.Volunteering is a kind of grass roots organization which views the local community as the primary actors who have a good
sense of what needs to be done and needs to be involved to make the changes that are needed. Working together on building mitigation structures, such as
seawalls and evacuation centers, creates a sense of control over the environment after a disaster and builds a sense of community among workers. Volunteers
working on disaster preparedness are able to make connections between local villages and the larger disaster agencies.
Community-Based Approaches to Disaster Mitigation
This paper discusses the importance of community as a part of disaster mitigation. Locally involved people know what the needs are, are able to define the
problems. The disaster survivors themselves are knowledgeable about local resources and can use their skills and knowledge so that costs are kept low. The
advantage of the community-based approach is that projects can combine projects involving for example, housing and agriculture or health and agriculture. This
kind of grassroots organizing emphasizes solutions rather than law and order issues.In addition,local peole can easily identify who are the natural leaders.
In Cambodia in 2001 local workers repaired dams and dikes; cleaned irrigation ditches, culverts, and water gates; and constructed small bridges.
Case Study: Sustainability in Grass-Roots Initiatives - U.N. Center for Regional Development
In Bangladesh a community-based program worked to reduce damage from flooding. Projects undertaken involved raising homestead yards so that cattle, poultry,
feed and other possesions would be place above flood level. Other projects included building latrines and tube wells above the flood level. Shelters and
community space were constructed as well as raised roads with culverts.
A 1988 project in Guagua, Indonesia focused on community-based projects that included building spur dikes, unclogging important waterways, dredging and
building dikes.
........................................