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More important than the quest for certainty is the quest for clarity. Francois Gautier 2.0 Design specification and interpretation
Product engineering, as you learned in Chapter 1, is a key activity in the conversion of an idea into a finished product. Product engineering typically culminates with the creation of an engineering drawing, which is used to represent the designer's ideas. The engineering drawing represents several characteristics of the product. For mechanical products, the most notable feature of the engineering drawing is the geometry that it represents. The engineering drawing however contains several other important specifications. The material(s) to be used are defined on the drawing along with the dimensions, datums and tolerances in accordance to which the product is to be produced. The engineering drawing may also contain surface or material preparation instructions, such as painting or tempering. The product geometry and material are most certainly critical aspects of the engineering design. From a manufacturing point of view; the datum specification, tolerance requirements and surface and material specification may be even more critical to the efficient manufacture of a product. In this Chapter, we examine product engineering more closely with a specific focus on the engineering drawing, how a designer creates an engineering drawing, and how tolerance specifications of the design are interpreted so that an inspector can qualify a product. Before our industrial revolution, skilled artisans like blacksmiths, carpenters or scientists skilled in woodworking or metalworking produced products. For simple items like farm tools and
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carpenter's planes, a farmer would simply describe his need and the function of the tool. This would be described verbally to a blacksmith. The blacksmith would serve as both a designer as well as a manufacturer. No formal design was undertaken. He would instead try to duplicate as closely as possible some similar product given his materials and processes, such as forging with a hammer and pressure welding. More complex items created more difficult problems. For example when James Watt invented the steam engine (1775), it took some twenty-five years to bring this concept to fruition. Watt described his concept to fellow inventor James Wilkerson. However, no standard manufacturing techniques were available to create the required parts. The concept was probably first expressed as words and then as a sketch where a piston fit within a cylindrical housing. Forged or cast components did not fit well enough to function as required. Wilkerson eventually invented and produced a verticalboring machine that could hold the required tolerances to make pistons and cylinders for the steam engine. These activities were critical events in our industrial development in that the steam engine became one of the sources for industrial power and the boring machine became a model for other machine tool advances. Today, we would never attempt to produce a complex product without first creating an engineering drawing of the product. The drawing allows us to envisage the gross geometry and action of the product before it ever exists. The designer can make several design iterations before the first product is ever manufactured. The geometry and material specification can also be used to analyze the product's capacities (weight limits, product weight, envelope, etc.) before the product is ever made. Finally, the engineering drawing is the model used to check or qualify the product that gets produced when it is inspected to make sure that it meets the specifications of the design. Prior to manufacture, a products intended function and specification must be determined. These activities are normally referred to as product engineering or design. The product design process can be divided into five basic steps: (1) design conceptualization, (2) design synthesis, (3) design analysis, (4) design evaluation, and (5) design representation. Based on the functional requirements of a product, a product engineer conceptualizes a solution (or design). The initial solution is usually rather aggregate, and normally contains the general elements of the product, without a lot of detail. The synthesis step adds more detail to the initial concept. In this stage, the product engineer lays out geometry and dimensions are assigned to the product. Steps 1 and 2 rely heavily on the creativity of a designer. That is the process is more of an art than an exercise in scientific basis exists for these activities. During the first two steps, the designer investigates by the designer. As the design takes on more definition, a sketch is frequently used to help clarify the idea. When the design task is carried out by a group of people, like for an automobile or and aircraft a common, understandable representation schema must be used in order for all involved to share in the development. The solution is then analyzed and evaluated in order to identify viable and, eventually, the best design alternative. Before the design is released for manufacture, a design must detail the design, which includes the selection of standard components, the determination of dimensions and tolerances, the determination of special manufacturing notes, and final drafting, is performed. The design representation step includes both the rough sketch and the design layout detail. In order for a product to be properly manufactured, several activities must be completed. Most products consist of more than one part. For each part to be properly manufactured, a detailed part representation with information pertinent to manufacturing must be received before any production activity can begin. In addition to the individual part drawings, the designer must also prepare an assembly drawing of the product (or a subassembly). An assembly drawing shows the relationship of how parts fit together to make an assembly. Assembly drawings normally do not contain dimensions and tolerances as these specifics are included in the individual part drawings. In this chapter, various procedures used to specify a part design are discussed. This chapter begins with a general discussion on engineering design, followed by a discussion of interpretation of engineering drawings and inspection required to certify that a good product has been manufactured.
2.1
PRODUCT ENGINEERING
An engineering drawing is the output from the product engineering process, but only represents the partial realization of a designers concept. That is, the designer transforms an idea in his
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head to one on an engineering drawing since the designer cannot normally directly transform a concept into a physical item. The designer conveys an idea to other key personnel via a engineering drawing, for instance purchasing agents, process engineers and production managers. A process engineer will then determine how to produce the design (Figure 2.1). For example, let us suppose that a product engineer is charged with the task of designing a wagon that will be used as a toy. The product engineer has many decisions to make. In this case a 3 or 4 wheel wagon will function reasonably well. The 4 wheel wagon will produce a more stable toy, but will also increase the cost of the product. The product engineer must also select the suspension and steering apparatus for the wagon. Finally, the designer will need to specify what type of frame will be used (unibody or a separate frame structure). Each of these decisions affect not only the performance of the product, but they also affect: 1) The number of components that make up the product, 2) The raw material (and initial form) that goes into the product, 3) The manufacturing and assembly method used to produce the product, 4) The maintainability of the product, and 5) The cost of the product. The intent of this book is not to provide the student with a treatise on how to design and evaluate the functionality of product, but rather to relate how design decisions affect the choice of raw materials, manufacturing methods and production management. As a result, we will not dwell upon how a product engineer develops a concept, but rather what the affects of the design decisions will be on the process and production engineer. Many of these decisions are somewhat obvious. For instance in the case of a 3 versus 4 wheel wagon, 25% of the assembly time and wheel purchase cost could be saved by choosing the 3 wheel design. There are many far more subtle affects that the product engineer imposes on the process and production engineer. In order to illustrate some of these affects, we will first look at how a product is typically represented. A pictorial image of the product is necessary to relate information to others. Traditionally, engineers have used multiview orthographic drawings as the standard tool to represent a design. Orthographic drawings allow the designer to convey design information to others reading the drawings. The viewer can use the drawing to reconstruct and interpret the object that the designer has portrayed in the engineering design. To interpret the information in the drawing, the reader must be able to transform the object from one medium to another who are well, specifically from a two-dimensional three-view drawing to a three-dimensional picture. In addition, the viewer must be able to understand the rules used to construct the drawing. We review these rules in Section 2.2.2. There are several methods used to represent an engineering drawing. The conventional method is drafting on paper with pen or pencil. Manual drafting has been the standard for developing and representing engineering product. Manual drafting however is tedious and requires a tremendous amount of patience and time. Computer-aided drafting or Computer-aided design (CAD) systems improve drafting efficiency because they eliminate tedious drawing and redrawing. CAD systems store partially completed or completed drawings in a computer and the drafter can retrieve them when needed. CAD has become to designers what word processing has become to writers.
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O R PL N PE . A SA 1` * 44 * 1` W ` D IL R L
M facture anu
F igure 2.1.
E volution/realization of a product.
Most CAD systems store drawings as a three-dimensional representation. Points (vertices), lines (edges), and curves are represented in (X, Y, Z) space. When a CAD user requests a drawing, the computer performs a series of transformations on the data, and a drawing is presented either in two- or three-dimensional perspective or in sectional views. The resultant drawing using a plotter or printer, and displayed on a monitor. The drawing is represented to the computer in a very different way then it is displayed on the plotter or monitor. The use of points, lines, edges and curves makes up an internal representation for a computer. Such internal representations can be used not only for design drafting, but also for engineering analysis, such as volumetric calculations and finite-element analysis of a product. CAD is a tremendous productivity tool for the product engineer. The ultimate goal of using CAD is to produce efficiently an engineering drawing.
2.2
DESIGN DRAFTING
An engineering drawing is an abstract universal language used to represent a designers ideas to others. It is the most accepted medium of communication in all phases of industrial and engineering work. In ancient times, before multiview drawing standards were adopted, designers used perspective drawings. The great master of art during the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, designed several machines and mechanical components (which still amaze contemporary designers) using perspective sketches (Figure 2.2). Today, pictorial drawings still supplement other design representations. The basic engineering drawing is a complete and unambiguous representation of a part or product.
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Figure 2.2. Idea sketch prepared by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) (Courtesy of Institut de France.)
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0.001 M
A B M
7.00 + 0.005 -
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in stock sizes, (b) parts generally recognized as commercially standard, (c) sizes that can be produced with standard tools and inspected with standard gauges, and (d) tolerances from accepted published standards. 2.2.3.1 Conventional Tolerancing Most designers are well aware of the impact of the mechanisms that they choose in creating a product. As with the example of a 3 versus 4 wheel wagon, the product engineer scrutinizes the number of parts required to achieve a function. The product engineer is also constantly concerned with the performance of the design. Unfortunately, dimensioning and tolerancing often are an afterthought to the process even though the dimensioning and tolerancing of a part frequently implies information critical to the manufacture of a part and significantly influences its cost. This information can effect the choice of processes to be used, tooling to be used, fixtures and fixture location and machines required to produce a part. In the following sections, we will discuss some of the other specifics often neglected. Because it is impossible to produce the exact dimension specified on an engineering drawing, designers specify the acceptable variation in a dimension. This variation is the tolerance. The higher the quality a product has, the smaller the tolerance value specified. Tighter tolerances(small values that may be less than .001 inch) require more careful production procedures and more rigorous inspection. There are three types of tolerance specifications: bilateral, unilateral, and limiting condition (Figure 2.6). Limiting condition is a specification of the acceptable extremes of a dimension. For instance, a dimension might be specified as 0.995 1.005 This specification cannotes that any dimension between 0.995 and 1.005 (inclusive) is acceptable. A bilateral tolerance is specified using a nominal value with allowable variation on both sides of the nominal size. For instance, a bilateral tolerance might be given as 1.000 0.005 The limits of this specification are again 0.995 1.005. Unilateral tolerances such as
0.995
+0.01 -0.00
specify dimensional variation from the basic size (i.e., decrease) in one direction in relation to the basic size. For example,
0.995
+0.010 -0.000
= 0.995 ~ 1.005
There is a unique geometric interpretation for each of these specifications all of which ends up with limits of 0.995 1.005. Although there is no unique manufacturing interpretation, many industries use the nominal value as the manufacturing target. The implication for unilateral specification is that a part of dimension 0.995 is more desirable than one with a value of 1.000 or 1.005. This however is company specific. The basic location where most dimension lines originate is the reference location (datum). For machining, the reference location provides the base from which all other measurements are taken.
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The process engineer uses the datum to determine how to hold (fixture) the part. By stating tolerances from a standard reference location, the product engineer can eliminate cumulative errors. Most mechanical parts contain both working surfaces and nonworking surfaces. Working surfaces are surfaces on items such as bearings, pistons, and gear teeth, for which optimum performance may require control of the surface characteristics. Nonworking surfaces, such as the exterior walls of an engine block, crankcase, or differential housings, seldom require surface control. For surfaces that require surface control, control surface symbols can be used. Figure 2.7 shows how these tolerance symbols are used. Figure 2.7 and 2.8 specifies several surface tolerance characteristics. The roughness height is the roughness value as normally related to the surface finish. It is the average amount of irregularity above or below an assumed center line. It is expressed in microinches (in. = 0.000001 in.) or, in the metric system, in micrometers (m = 0.000001 m). Table 2.1 lists recommended roughness heights. Lay is another property of a machined surface. It indicates the direction of the predominant pattern of surface irregularities produced by the tool. Lay symbols are listed in Figure 2.8. Figure 2.9 shows an example of using control surface symbols, where specifications are given for both the external and internal tube surfaces.
1.00
+1.00 + 0.05
No tolerance
Bilateral tolerance
1.00 +0 -0.05
1.00 + 0.05 -0
Unilateral tolerance
Unilateral tolerance
Figure 2.6. Tolerancing: bilateral and unilateral. Dashed lines show the tolerance limits.
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Parallel to the boundary line of the nominal surface indicated by the symbol Perpendicular to the boundary line of the nominal surface indicated by the symbol Angular in both directions to the boundary line of the nominal surface indicated by the symbol M C R Multidirectional Approximately circular relative to the center of the nominal surface indicated by the symbol Approximately radial relative to the corner of the nominal surface indicated by the symbol
Table 2.1. Recommended Height Values Roughness value (in.) 1000 500 close 250 125 motion Medium Average smooth Type of surface Extremely rough Rough Purpose Used for clearance surfaces only where good appearance is not required. Used where vibration, fatigue, and stress concentration are not critical and tolerances are not required. Most popular for general use where stress requirements and appearance are essential. Suitable for mating surfaces of parts held together by bolts and rivets with no between them.
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9/29/2011 For close fits or stressed parts except rotating shafts, axles, and parts subject to extreme vibration. Used where stress concentration is high and for such applications as bearings. Used where smoothness is of primary importance, such as high-speed shaft bearings, heavily loaded bearings, and extreme tension members. Used for such parts as surfaces of cylinder.
32 16
Extremely fine finish produced by cylindrical grinding, honing, lapping, or buffing Superfine finish produced by honing, lapping, buffing, or polishing
Used on areas where packings and rings must slide across the surface where lubrication is not dependable.
Section A-A Interpretation: Roughness height (OD) ..............................................................................................................63 Roughness height (ID) ............................................................................................................32
in. in.
Roughness-width cutoff (OD and ID) ......................................................................................0.030 Waviness height (OD) ..............................................................................................................0.002 Waviness height (ID) ................................................................................................................0.001 Lay (OD) .................................................................................................................................. Lay (ID) ....................................................................................................................................Axial Circumferential
Figure 2.9.
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Figure 2.10. Illustration of some additional part conditions. All dimensions shown are in inches. Conventional methods of dimensioning with limiting tolerances only provide information concerning size and surface condition. Using only conventional tolerances, a component can be produced without a guarantee of interchangeability. For example, in Figure 2.10, both components (b) and (c) satisfy the dimension specified in (a), that is, the diameter of components (b) and (c) is 0.501 in. over the entire length of the component. Obviously, both (b) and (c) are not desirable. However, as specified, both (b) and (c) meet specifications. Form geometry or geometric tolerancing is used to qualify different aspects of a part, and in some cases to insure part interchangeability.
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The product engineer frequently uses symbolic modifiers in conjunction with datums to explicitly define tolerances. The maximum material condition (MMC) can be used to constrain the tolerance of the produced dimension at the maximum designed dimension. It can be defined as the condition of a part feature where the maximum amount of material is contained. For example, maximum shaft size and minimum hole size can be illustrated, as shown in Figure 2.11. Note that the symbol M is used to depict maximum material condition. Least material condition (LMC) specifies the opposite of the maximum material condition. These symbol modifiers can be applied only when both of the following conditions hold: 1. 2. Two or more features are interrelated with respect to the location or form (e.g., two holes). At least one of the features must refer to size, and MMC or LMC must directly reference a size feature.
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Figure 4.11
When MMC or LMC are used to specify the tolerance of a hole or shaft, it implies that the tolerance specified is constrained at the maximum or least material condition as well as some other dimensional features. For MMC, the tolerance may increase when the actual produced feature size is larger (for a hole) or smaller (for a shaft). Because the increase in the tolerance is compensated by the deviation of size in production, the final combined hole-size error and geometric tolerance error will still be larger than the anticipated smallest hole. Figure 2.12 illustrates the allowed positional tolerance under the produced hole size. The allowed tolerance is the actual acceptable tolerance limit; it varies as the size of the produced hole changes. The specified tolerance is the value specified on the drawing. Hole size D is the specified value, and D is the produced hole size, which is measured from the actual hole produced. The silhouette of the part at MMC produces a virtual part. The third modifier is regardless of feature size (RFS). RFS is the default modifier when MMC or LMC is not specifically called out. When RFS is used, the position tolerance does not change even when the produced diameter varies. Table 2.3 shows the application of three modifiers applied to the hole and shaft shown in Figure 2.11. Figure 2.13 illustrates the use of form geometry symbols and their meanings. In all of the examples (except true position), RFS is assumed. The first drawing in each group of drawings represents the original drawing. The second drawing illustrates the interpretation of the geometric tolerance specified. All variations on the surfaces have been exaggerated.
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Produced Size 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05
0.01 M 0.01 M
or or
0.01 L 0.01 L
or or
0.01 S 0.01 S
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Figure 2.13
(Continued)
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A 0.005 30
0.005
30
(i) Angularity
Figure 2.13
(Continued)
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A 0.005
0.005
..
A
.. ..
..
(j) Concentricity
1.50 + 0.01 A
0.75 + 0.01
TOT 0.005
0.005 Total .. .. . .. ..
(k) Symmetry
Figure 2.13. (continued) In Figure 2.13(a) (where straightness is illustrated), straightness defines the maximum deviation on the assumed center line over the entire length of a cylindrical component. It is useful in specifying the fit of shafts and holes. A dial indicator moving along the ideal line can be used to measure the deviation. Flatness, Figure 2.13(b), is the maximum deviation allowed on a flat surface. It is important for plane surface fit (e.g., gasket surfaces). Flatness can be checked by taking a dial indicator reading over the surface in both the X and Y directions. Roundness, Figure 2.13(c), defines the irregularity of the diameter at any given cross-sectional location of a cylindrical component. Roundness can be checked by using a V-block and a dial indicator. The cylinder is set between centers
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and a dial indicator measures the deviation over one complete 360 turn. Cylindricity, Figure 2.13(d), is similar to roundness except that it defines the irregularity over the entire length. It is the diameter difference between two cylinders sandwiching the cylinder being measured. Again, these symbols are useful in specifying the fit for shafts and holes. The inspection of cylindricity is similar to that of roundness except measurement is taken over the entire length of the cylinder. Profile of a line, Figure 2.13(e), and profile of a surface, Figure 2.13(f) describe the deviation on the profile except that profile of a line focuses on any cross-sectional location and profile of a surface looks at the entire surface. They can be checked by comparing the readings of an actual profile with the limits of the ideal profile. Any feature of a component can be specified as being parallel to any given datum. Figure 2.13(g) shows the use of the parallelism symbol. Perpendicularity, Figure 2.13(h), defines the tolerance of a feature that is 90 to a given datum. Angularity, Figure 2.13(i), is similar to perpendicularity except that the relationship of a feature to a given datum need not be 90. The axis of a hole or cylindrical object can also be dimensioned with angularity. Concentricity, Figure 2.13(j), is used to establish a relationship between the axes of two or more cylindrical parts of a component. Runout, Figure 2.13(k), is the composite deviation from the desired form of a rotational part during a full rotation (360 ) of the part on a datum axis. True position, Figure 2.13(1), expresses the location of the center line with respect to a feature. Conventional tolerancing methods produce a tolerance area that is greater than the round tolerance area that true position ( ) specifies. Thus far, basic drafting methods and symbols have been discussed. By using this knowledge of basic engineering geometry, dimensioning, and tolerancing symbols, any proper engineering design drawing can be interpreted precisely.
2.3.1 Tolerancing
Two types of tolerancing schema are allowed in the specification of geometric entities: parametric and geometric. Most engineers and drafters are taught parametric tolerancing in basic engineering drawing. The term parametric refers to the limiting conditions or control parameters that are defined based on normal Cartesian (or Polar) dimensions. Figure 2.14 illustrates the use of parametric tolerancing. 2.3.1.1 Parametric Tolerancing In parametric tolerancing, datum surfaces depend on the placement of the arrows on the drawing. When the drafter specifies a dimension from another dimensioned surface, the tolerances for the surfaces stack (become additive). Figure 2.15 a-c illustrates the stacking of dimensions expressed sequentially. In Figure 2.15a, each face is specified as a function of the previous face. The first flat is specified as 1.000 + .010. This implies that the second face can be from .990 - 1.01 from the left side of the part (labeled datum B in the figure). Since the next face is specified in reference to the second face, the tolerance of the first flat convolutes the second flat. The face labeled datum C can be from 1.975 - 2.025
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Figure 2.14.
from face datum A. Finally, the total width of the block can be from 2.970 - 3.030. In general, dimensions chained together in this manner accumulate as:
Max dn =
di
all i
2.1
Where dn is the maximum possible error and di represents the individual stack tolerances In the case of Figure 12.15b, the tolerances stack differently. Since the entire width is specified, the width of the block is acceptable if the dimensions are from 2.990 - 3.010. Face datum B can now be from 0.975 - 1.025 from datum A, and surface datum C from 1.983 - 2.017 from datum A and so forth. In Figure 2.15c, the leftmost surface labeled datum A becomes an implicit datum as all measurements are made with respect to it. An implicit datum is a feature that is used several times for dimensioning without being explicitly labeled as a reference datum.
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Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16 A-C again illustrates the chaining of tolerances for the parts shown in Figure 2.15A-C. The figure represents the accumulation of errors as they are specified on the drawings. The chaining of the tolerances should always be viewed critically, because the surface relationships affect the manufacturing (both sequence and process) and fixturing of the part. The tolerances will accumulate, and therefore reducing them is a poor substitute for correct specification. Special care should be taken in specifying tolerances, because they effect both the functionality as well as the manufacturability of a part. 2.3.1.2 Geometric Tolerances Geometric tolerances were created to eliminate deficiencies in the parametric tolerancing scheme. Geometric tolerancing is normally used to describe attributes of specific geometric features. The feature as we refer to it here qualifies a geometric entity, e.g., roundness or cylindricity of a hole, true position of a geometric feature, etc. Geometric tolerancing allows a designer to state allowable deviations in geometric
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Figure 2.16
form where parametric tolerancing allows only Cartesian (and sometimes polar) implementation. In the following section, we will provide a set of examples and interpretations using both parametric and geometric tolerancing.
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Figure 2.17
the .014 x .020 rectangle (as defined by + .007 and + .010 specification) is an acceptable start point. If we created the Maximum Material Condition (MMC) specification for the part (the silhouette that we can fit a mating component into), the silhouette of the holes would not be round, but would look as shown in Figure 2.17. Figure 2.18 contains a similar part with specification for square holes instead of the round ones in Figure 2.17. Again, the MMC interpretation of the holes is shown (Figure 2.19). The translation of square holes produces a larger but still square hole image. For prismatic features (like square holes and boxes), parametric tolerances are quite intuitive; however, for symmetrical features the resultant specification may not provide an interpretation that a designer is seeking. Figure 2.20 contains essentially the same part shown in Figure 2.14 only with Geometric Tolerance specification. The tolerances for the symmetric features (holes) are now specified using Form Geometry symbols, e.g., , O, // . The hole features in the figure are specified as MMC entities. This means that a virtual size for assembly is specified. This virtual size is specified as the MMC for all of the part features, and represents the minimum opening for all such labeled entities. For female features such as holes, the virtual size is specified as:
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where:
s - s - s
2.2
is the virtual size of the feature s is the nominal size specification of the feature s is the negative tolerance specification s is the form geometric value
=
For male features, such as a shaft, the virtual size is specified as:
s + s + s
2.3
For the small holes shown in Figure 2.20, the virtual size of the holes is: = 0.250-0.007-0.007 = 0.236 inches
Figure 2.18
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Figure 2.19
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Figure 2.20: A part drawn using geometric tolerance specifications. into the hole. The designer simply selects from the subclasses the one that best fits the needs of the part, knowing that the higher the specification subclass, the less expensive the manufacturing. Transition fits are normally used to specify tolerance for parts that are stationary. Location clearance fits (LC1 to LC11) are used for parts that are assembled together and can be disassembled for service. The accuracy for these components is not exact. Transition location fits (LN1 to LN6) are specified when the location accuracy is of importance but a smaller clearance or interference is acceptable.
Basic size
27
Clearance fit. Transition fits Interference fit Examples taken from the shaft-basis system
Clearance fit. Transition fits Interference fit Examples taken from the hole-basis system
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Figure 2.21: Shaft-basis and hole-basis systems for specifying fits in the ISO system. (By permission from ISO Recommendation R286-1962, System of Limits and Fits, copyright 1962, American National Standards Institute, New York.) Locational interference fits (LN1 to LN3) are specified when both rigidity and accuracy are required. Location interference fit parts can be assembled and disassembled but not without special tooling (usually a shaft or wheel puller) and considerable time. Other interference parts normally require special operations for assembly. Tight drive fits (FN1) are used on parts requiring nominal assembly pressure. Force fits (FN5) are used for drive applications where the hole element is normally heated to expand the diameter prior to assembly. Tables 2.4 and 2.5 contain the specification for various classes of fit.
Table 2.4
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Errors in measurement depend on the method of measurement used and the accuracy of the measuring equipment, which is subject to errors. These errors are the result of one or more of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Inherent errors in the measuring instrument Errors in the master gage used to set the instrument Errors resulting from temperature variation and different coefficients of linear expansion the of instrument and part being gauged Errors due to the human element of the inspector
The engineer should not specify a dimension, characteristic, or function of a part or apparatus that cannot be measured. Fortunately, owing to the extensive development of inspection and testing apparatus, it is now possible to measure to a very high degree of accuracy. Instruments for measuring roughness of surfaces are available, and through the use of oscilloscopes, oscillographs, interfracrometers, X-rays, and other types of sensitive measuring equipment, the quality of products can be controlled. Some of these instruments, such as air gages for measuring close dimensions, are rugged
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enough to use production operations, and thus the operator has a means of controlling the quality of the part he or she is making. The operator can be responsible for detection of surface defects and blowholes, and other flaws. Checking gages can be built into jigs, fixtures, and equipment that can be used by the operator and inspector. This is especially valuable on medium-activity and complicated parts. Inspection and testing equipment may be stationary or portable and destructive or nondestructive of the material or part. The ability to measure and control dimensions has progressed. A few years ago it was said: We can work to 0.001 in. and talk about holding to 0.0001 in.; now it can be said, we work to 0.0001 in. and talk about holding to 0.00001 in. tolerance. The basic equipment and standards for measurement are measuring blocks, known as Jo blocks, invented by Johansson. Interchangeable manufacture would not be possible without these carefully maintained standards. Inspection equipment can be broadly classified as general-purpose or special-purpose equipment. To measure reasonably simple parts or very low-volume items, general-purpose inspection equipment is normally used. To inspect very intricate or high-volume parts, special gages are normally designed in order to reduce the amount of time required for the inspection process. A general characteristic of these special gages is that they are designed to fit over some aspect of the part when the part is with dimension (A GO GAGE). An alternate gage is used to determine whether a part is too small or too large (A NO-GO GAGE). See Figure 2.22.
Figure 2.22
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accuracy as that attained from a standard scale. However, an auxiliary scale, as shown in the figure, can be used to obtain a finer resolution. The lower scale normally provides 0.025 in. of dimension in 0.001 in. increments, or some other similar resolution. In order to obtain the reading from a vernier caliper, you first obtain a base measure is first attained from the scale itself. Then you use the vernier scale shown below is then used to obtain the finer graduations between the scale readings. For instance in Figure 2.22, we read a base measure of 1.900 directly from the scale. By aligning the scale lines on the vernier, we get a reading of 0.006. By adding the vernier reading to the scale reading we obtain a reading of 1.906 (1.900 + 0.006). Although the scales on verniers may vary, the procedure used to obtain the reading is usually quite similar. 2.4.2.3 Micrometer We can use a micrometer to obtain measurements having greater precision than those of the vernier caliper. Micrometers come in various shapes and styles in order to be able to measure different geometric features. Figure 2.24 shows some typical micrometers. As you can see in the figure, a micrometer is a screw-actuated instrument. The accuracy of a micrometer may vary; however, you can normally expect 0.0005 in. of precision with a micrometer. Some micrometers contain ratchet drives to produce a consistent pressure on the part. Some also have a vernier to obtain a finer resolution. Micrometers are general-purpose gages used to obtain a reasonable accuracy without requiring an exceptionally large amount of inspection time. 2.4.2.4 Gage Blocks Gage blocks are accurate in height, flatness, and parallelism and have a Rockwell hardness of over Rc = 65. The following set of gage blocks with accuracy tolerances indicated are available today. Laboratory set Inspection set Working set Working set Grade AA A B C Tolerance, in. 0.000001 0.000004 0.000008 0.000010
Dimension can be measured/verified by combining various blocks. These blocks are so accurate that they cling together because of the surface tension of the absorber water film and must be slid or pulled apart. They can be combined to check snap gages, height gages, micrometers, and verniers.
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Figure 2.24
Some micrometers
2.4.2.5 Optical Flats Optical flats made of fused quartz are available in two grades: AA Grade, 0.000001 in.; and A Grade, 0.000002 in. Optical flats use interference light waves to measure distances as small as one millionth of an inch.
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Air and electric comparator gages can be set by Jo blocks or other standards so that operators can quickly measure deviations from standard. Large scales that can be read easily are available. The range of variations measured is between 0.000001 and 0.001 in. Optical comparators throw a profile of the part on a screen so that it can be compared to a drawing. The profile of the part is blown up many times so that deviations can be seen and measured easily. Other measuring equipment is also available to measure dimensions for dimensional equipment. Figures 2.25 and 2.26 contain a cross section of equipment normally used for manual measurement. Some characteristics of these items are described in Table 2.6. The accuracy, workpiece geometry, and annual production rate, along with many other factors will dictate the type of equipment used for inspection. As is the case in manufacturing, general-purpose equipment is usually used for inspection when the product has only a few parts. However, as the number of pieces that required inspection increases, the use of special gages becomes more economic. High-volume production systems usually employ a variety of special gages, many of which are built into the production system itself. Flexible inspection equipment, like flexible production equipment, has also emerged during the past three decades. The use of coordinate measurement machines (CMM) has become an effective alternative to manual dimensional inspection. These machines are used and programmed in much the same way as numerically controlled machines. Figure 2.27 contains an example of one such machine. A tactile sensor/strain gage locates surfaces on the workpiece. The location information is used to determine whether the part is acceptable. Programs to inspect individual workpieces are prepared and executed as required. Automatic inspection systems can be economically effective for batch production of even small to medium lots (10 to 500 parts). Dimensional inspection is not limited to inspection machines requiring physical contact. Several optical inspection systems have also evolved during the past decade. These systems use a camera or laser to detect the edge of a workpiece. The information is used in much the same manner as the surface location from a coordinate measuring machine. The edges of the workpiece are used to construct a dimensional representation of the part. These measurements are again compared to those called out on the drawing in order to determine whether the part is good or not. A variety of inspection equipment is used to qualify the dimensionality of products manufactured both here and abroad. The use of the equipment is predicated not only on the geometry and accuracy called out but also on the economics of the inspection process. Inspection does not transform a product, but it does add to the value of the end item by improving the reliability of the end product. 2.4.2.7 Strain Gages Strain gages give a picture of the stresses existing in parts under static or dynamic load. There are mechanical, magnetic, electrical-resistance, and electrical-capacity types of strain gages that record strains where the gage can be fastened to the surface of the part. This equipment is valuable in designing apparatus and for feedback control.
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Figure 2.25 Typical gages. (A) Plain ring gage. (B) Adjustable limit progressive thread snap gage. (C) Adjustable thread ring gage. (D) Fixed limit progressive thread snap gage. (E) Fixed limit ring-snap gage. (F) Tapered thread plug gage. (G) Form gage. (H) Fixed limit snap gage. (I) Single end Brass plug gage. (J) Adjustable limit inside diameter or length gage. (K) Single end spherical plug gage. (L) Cylindrical double end plug gage. (M) Flush pin gage. (N) Double end slot width gage. (O) Double end thread plug gage. (P) Double end step gage. Taper plug gage. (S) Adjustable limit progressive snap gage. (T) Form gage. (U) Cylindrical progressive plug gage. (V) Tapered ring gage. (W) Fixed limit double end snap gage.
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Figure 2.26 Standard measuring instruments. (1) Outside spring calipers, round leg. (2) Inside spring calipers. (3) Spring dividers. (4) Inside firm joint caliper. (5) Outside firm joint caliper with adjusting screw. (6) Outside firm joint caliper. (7) Firm joint hermaphrodite caliper. (8) Spring Divider. (9) Inside spring caliper. (10) Outside spring caliper. (11) Outside micrometer calipers. Medium weight. (12) Outside micrometer calipers, heavy duty. (13) Outside micrometer calipers with lock nut and ratchet stop. (14) Steel protractors. (15) Universal bevel. (16) Scribers. (17) Inside micrometer set, solid rods. (18) Steel rule set and holder. (19) Universal indicator. (20) Dial test indicator. (21) Micrometer depth gages. (22) Depth rules. (23) Depth gage. (24) Radius gage set. (25) Small hole gages. (26) telescoping gages. (27) Pin vises. (28) Thickness gages. (29) Screw pitch gage. (30) Vernier height gage. (31) Steel rules. (32) Mechanics reference table. (33) Automatic center punch. (34) Inside micrometer set, tubular. (35) Planer and shaper gage. (36) Diemakers squares. (37) Slide calipers. (38) Universal surface gages. (39) Drive pin punches. (40) Center gage. (41) Combination square. (42) Bevel protractor. (43) Double squares. (44) Steel Square. (45) Rightangle rule clamps. (46) Center punches. (47) Tapered parallels. (48) Rule clamps. (49) Hold down parallels. (50) Toolmakers parallel clamps. (51) V-blocks and clamps.
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Figure 2.27
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2.4.2.8 Photoelasticity Photoelasticity is the process of using special transparent material having the profile of the shape to be studied. When a part is inspected, polarized light is passed through the part. When it is strained, colors indicate where stresses occur. 2.4.2.9 Stress Paints Stress paints are another means of obtaining a picture of strains existing in parts under stress. Stress paints cling to the surface of the part and crack when stressed, because they are brittle. The pattern of cracks indicates the direction and magnitude of the strain. Some quantitative values can be obtained by measuring the photograph of the part. 2.4.2.10 Hardness Testers The Brinell, Rockwell, and Scleroscope types of hardness testers are universally used to control hardness and measure strength of materials. Hardness and strength tend to have direct relation to each other in the same materials. The Rockwell and Scleroscope hardness testers may be portable, and can measure hardness on castings, billets, and parts that would be difficult to transport to a machine. Hardness testers leave a mark on the surface, which limits their use.
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parts in the background. X-rays are used to control continuously the thickness of sheets rolled in steel, brass, or aluminum mills. The control is sensitive enough to measure variations of 0.001 in. 2.4.3.2 Ultrasonic Equipment Ultrasonic equipment with electronic transmitters and receivers detects flaws in material. Fine cracks within material that cannot be detected by X-ray or magnetic means are picked up using ultrasonic methods. 2.4.3.3 Fluorescent Penetrants A penetrating fluid that carries highly fluorescent dyes and is able to enter any minute crack shows up under ultraviolet light. This process, and magnaflux, are often used to inspect each part in a production line, such as a piston rod in an airplane, a gas engine housing, or any other vital part. 2.4.3.4 Machine Vision Today vision systems are used to identify as well as qualify parts used for assembly. The central components of machine vision systems are a digital camera and computer. These systems are capable of either gross or fine detail. Accuracies of up to 5 x 10 -6 in. are possible with these systems.
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The supervisor can determine his best operators by observing inspection and test records. By studying test records, the engineer can determine components that can be improved in design or manufacture.
Since it costs more to produce smooth surfaces, designers should be specify them only when they are required. Progress has been made in advancing the methods of controlling surface finishes through the adoption of national standards.
Figure 2.28
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In using instruments for comparison, or for direct measurement, care should be exercised to insure that the specified quality or characteristic of the surface is measured. Roughness measurements, unless otherwise specified, are taken across the lay of the surface or in the direction that gives the maximum value of the reading. The physical measurement of the roughness height value shall be the maximum sustained reading of a series of readings. It shall be the minimum sustained reading in case a minimum permissible value is specified also. The physical measurement of the waviness height shall be the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum readings of a dial gage over a distance not exceeding 1 in., if no other definite waviness width is specified. The waviness height can also be determined by means of a straight edge. The recommended values for roughness classification, in microinches, are: 1 2 4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000
The use of only one number or class to specify the height or width of irregularities shall indicate the maximum value. Any lesser degree or class on the actual surface of the part shall be satisfactory. When two numbers are used on the drawing or specification, they shall specify the maximum and minimum permissible values.
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The parts used to illustrate how tolerances are interpreted are simple examples of engineered products. Notice in these examples how tolerances are applied to drawings and features on the drawings. Datum surfaces on drawings usually are locating surfaces for fixturing and inspection. Designers and detailers frequently specify conditions that make manufacture and qualification of a product much more difficult than is necessary.
Figure 2.29
2.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have discussed the basics of engineering drawing. Various methods of representing drawings along with drawing specifications were discussed. We have long used some form of icons to represent designs. We have evolved to a precise representation for the ideas that we convey as engineering drawings. As we fully immerse ourselves into the era of Computer Aided Design, we look to develop methods that can be automatically interpreted as well as compactly represented. We must be exceptionally careful that we fully understand the implications of our design and specification decisions. In this chapter, we presented both the standards to represent engineering specification and the interpretations of the specification. In the chapters on process planning and tool engineering, we will look back to the detail specified on an engineering drawing to define methods for manufacture as well as methods to locate and support the product while it is being manufactured. The cost of quality control and reliability is proportional to the level of reliability and accuracy desired in materials, processes, and functions of the apparatus. The accuracy desired is based upon the judgment of management, which depends upon the advice of the sales, engineering, and manufacturing departments. The level of reliability established usually emanates from the customer. The ultimate decision as to acceptance or rejection rests upon the quality control and reliability department. In general, the company that is willing to maintain quality at considerable expense survives competition that has lower quality standards. Over the long haul, the high-quality, reliable product wins, because customers are satisfied. Through good engineering, a good-quality product can be obtained at less cost than the former poor-quality product produced under uncontrolled conditions. By going to the source of trouble and eliminating the cause, by providing the shop operators and members of the quality control department with adequate equipment, by improving maintenance of tools and machines, and by inspecting in the critical places, quality control has become an asset to competitive industry.
2.7 QUESTIONS
2.1 What are the five major steps in a design process? Briefly explain each one.
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Discuss how a design idea is represented in a designers mind, that is, in the form of an equation, line drawing, etc. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a three-dimensional solid model in mechanical part design. Prepare a three-view drawing of the part shown in Figure 2.30.
Figure 2.30 2.6 2.7 1.8 What are the methods used in diameter inspection? What kind of tolerance specification is necessary for the mating part shown in Figure 2.31 in order to ensure proper assembly? What tolerance specifications are important for a tool holder for a NC machine?
Figure 2.31
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Figure 2.32
Figure 2.33
2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21
Show the setup required for inspecting the part in Figure 2.32. If a part being inspected has the dimension shown in Figure 2.33, is it acceptable? Why? Why is it that 100 percent inspection seldom ensures that a shipment of parts will be 100 percent to specifications? In what way does incentive wage payment improve the quality of a product? What is the purpose of Jo blocks? For what type of work is the optical comparator used? What advantage does the Brinell hardness tester have over the Rockwell tester? What is the purpose of Magnaflux inspection? What does the durometer measure? What equipment would you recommend to test the ability of a part to resist corrosion? For what reasons is it advisable to control the surface roughness of a part? What is meant by the root-mean-square deviation? What is the value of 1 in? Give the sequence in ascending order based on surface roughness of the following processes: cold rolled, die cast, plaster cast, hot rolled, and cold drawn.
2.8
PROBLEMS
2.1
Determine the surface roughness values of the partial surface trace given in Figure 2.34 in terms of the maximum peak to valley roughness, the arithmetic average, AA, and the root-mean-square.
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2.2
On an interference fit the basic size of a hole is 3.5()(X)in. The interference between the shaft and the hole must be at least 0.0015 in. The tolerance on the shaft and the hole is 0.0009 in. using the basic hole system and unilateral tolerances. Divide the tolerances on each item into three groups so that the small shafts mate with the small holes, the medium shafts mate with the medium holes, etc. Thereby there will be as nearly uniform as possible interference between the mating parts. This procedure is called selective assembly and is used when more precise metal fits are needed than can be obtained by conventional interchangeable manufacture. A wrist pin If, in. diameter is designed to have a medium force fit in the cast iron piston bosses of a small internal engine and a snug fit in the steel connecting rod, a. Using ASA standards, determine the limits for the pin and the hole in the connecting rod. b. Calculate the limits for the pin and the holes in the piston bosses. c. Devise an assembly method that would double the machining tolerance but still maintain the same average interference. d. Specify the sizes of the parts and how they will be prepared for assembly using the improved method of assembly. e. Using the same components, develop a functional design that will provide better wear characteristics than the present design and that will require only minor changes in tooling.
2.3
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2.9 REFERENCES
Autodesk, Inc. (1987). AUTOCAD User Reference. Sausalito, CA: Autodesk. BAER A., C. EASTMAN, and M. HENRION. (1979). Geometric Modeling: A Survey. ComputerAided Design, 2, 5, 253-272 BEZIER, P. (1972). Numerical Control-Mathematics and Applications. A. R. Forrest (trans.), Wiley, London. BRAID, I. C. (1973). Designing with Volumes, Cambridge, England, CAD Group, Cambridge University. CHANG, T. C. and Wysk, R. A (1985) An Introduction to Automated Process Planning Systems, Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. ENCARNACAO, J., and E. G. SCHLECHTENDAHL. (1983). Fundamentals and System Architectures. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Computer Aided Design,
FOSTER, L. W. (1986). Geo-Metrics, The Metric Application of Geometric Tolerancing Techniques. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. GORDON, W. J.. and R. F. RIESENFELD. (1974). B-Spline Curves and Surfaces. In R. E. Barnhill and R. F. Fiesenfeld, Eds., Computer-Aided Geometric Design. New York: Academic Press, pp. 95-126. GRAYS, J. C. (1967). Compound Data Structures for Computer Aided Design: A Survey. Proceedings of the ACM National Conference. Washington. DC: Thompson, pp. 355-365. GROOVER, M. P. (1987). Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-lntegrated Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. GROOVER, M. P., and ZIMMERS, E. W (1984) CAD/CAM: Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. IBM. (19XX). General Presentation of CATIA. City: IBM. MAJCHRZAK, A.. T.-C. CHANG, W. BARFIELD, R. EBERTS, and G. SALVENDY. (1987). Human Aspects of Computer-Aided Design. London: Taylor and Francis. MITCHELL, M., Y. WANG, S. RYAN and B. MARTIN. (1990). Data Model Development and Validation for Product Data Exchange, NISTIR3 88-4078, National Institute for Standard and Technology, Gaithersburg. MD. MORTENSON, M. E. (1985). Geometric Modeling. New York: Wiley. NEWMAN, W. M., and R. F. SPROULL. (1979). Principles for Interactive Computer Graphics, 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. RAKER, D., and H. RICE. (1986). Inside AutoCAD. Thousand Oaks. CA: New Riders. REQUICHA, A. A. G. (1980). Representations of Rigid Solid: Theory. Methods, and System. Computing Surveys 12, 4, 437-462. REQUICHA, A. A. G., and H. B. VOELCKER. (1982). Solid Modeling: A Historical Summary and Contemporary Assessment. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 2, 2, 9-22. STOVER, R. (1984). An Analysis of CAD/CAM Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. SUH, N. P. (1982). Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Design and Manufacturing Axioms. CIRP Annals 31, 333-338. SUTHERLAND. I. E. (1963). SKETCHPAD: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System. SJCC 1963, Baltimore, Spartan Books. P. 329. and MIT Lincoln Lab. Tech. Rep. 296, May 1965.
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VOELCKER, H. B.. and A. A. G. REQUICHA. (1977). Geometric Modeling of Mechanical Parts and Processes. Computer, 10, 12, 48-57. WILLIAMS, R. ( I971) A Survey of Data Structures for Computer Graphics Systems. Computer Surveys, 3,1,1-21. ZEID, I. CAD/CAM Theory and Practice.
KEY TERMS
Angularity Bilateral Concentricity Cylindricity Datum Dimensions Flatness Gage Blocks Geometric Modeling Internal Representation Least Material Condition (LMC) Maximum Material Condition (MMC) Micrometer Multiview Drawing Nonworking Surfaces Optical Flats Photoelasticity Perpendicularity Profile of a Line Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) Roundness Runout Simple Scale Straightness Strain gages Stress Paints Surface Finish Test Equipment Three Classes of Fit Tolerances True Position Ultrasonic Equipment Unilateral Vernier Caliper Virtual Size Working Surfaces
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