.. .. ..

adurai,i}un,cd.
2000 GIobaIization.Jhcmc issuc. uh/tcCu/lurc l2 l ) .
CIiIIoid,|amcs
l Ioulc:. 1rutc/unJ1run:/ulton t nllc ulc 1ucnltcll Ccnlury. Cambrdgc, ^.
IarvaidUnvcrsityIicss.
ricdman,|onathan
l+ Cu/luru/IJcnltlyunJC/ohu/rocc::. London. SagcIubIications.
l Jhc IybridizationoIRootsandthcbhoricncc oIthc ush. l npucc: o[Cu/lurc.
Ctly ^ulton or/J. ^iIccathcrstonc andScottLash, cds. I. 2J0-56. London. Sagc
Iubications.
Gaica CancIini,stoi
l 5 IyhrtJ Cu/lurc:. lrulctc: [or Inlcrtn unJ cuttn MoJcrntly. ^inncaois.
UnivcrsityoI^inncaoIisIicss.
Guta,khiI, and|amcsciguson, cds.
l Cu/lurc, ouc /ucc. Ixp/orulton:tn Crtltcu/Anllropo/oy. urham, C.uIc
UnivcisityIicss.
Iannciz,UII
l2 Cu/luru/ Comp/cxtly luJtc: tn llc octu/ Cruntzulton o[Mcuntn. cv Yoik
CoIumbiaUnivcisityIicss.
l 6 1run:nultonu/ Conncclton:: Cu/lurc, cop/c, /ucc:.cvYoiI. RoutIcdgc.
]amcson, icdiic, and^asao ^iyoshi, cds.
l8 1lc Cu/lurc: o[C/ohu/tzulton. uiham, C. uIc Univcisity Ircss.
^cyi,iigit,andIctciGcschicic, cds.
l C/ohu/tzulton unJ IJcnltly. Ltu/ccltc: o[I/ou unJ C/o:urc. xIord. IacIvcII
IuhIishcis.
^iIIci, anicI, cd.
l5 Vor/J:ApurlMoJcrntly llroul llc rt:m o[llc ocu/. London. RoutIcdgc.
ng,ihva
l I/cxth/c Ctltzcn:ltp: 1lc Cu/luru/otc:o[1run:nultonu/tly. urham, C: ukc
UnivcrsityIrcss.
Rousc,Rogci
l5 JhinIingthroughJiansnationasm: otcs on thc Cutuia IoIitcs oI CIass RcIa
tionsinthc ContcmoiaryUnitcdStatcs. uh/tcCu/lurc 2) . J5J-+02.
JomIinson,]ohn
I C/ohu/tzultonunJ Cu/lurc. Chicago.UnivcisityoIChicagoIrcss.
ViIson,Rob, andVimaIissanayaIc,cds.
l 6 C/ohu//ocu/. Cu/luru/roJucltonunJllc1run:nultonu/Imutnury. uiham,C.
ukcUnivcisity Ircss.

e
NOI05 OD Ih0 lOD3| bCUD0D0
|/j Hanncrz
Culiural interrelatedness increasingly reacLes across iLe vorld. More iLan ever,
Lere is nov a global ecmene. To gras tLis laci, in iis vide range of manilesi
aiions and imlicaiions, is iLe largesiiasknovconlroniing a macroantLroo|ogy
ofcu|iure. JLese noies are devoiediotvo oftLe issues involved: iLeyideniilytLe
naiureofcenier-eriLeryrelaiionsLis inculiuralierms, andscruiinizetLenotion
tLaiiLevor|d is becomingculiura|lyLomogenized.
Cul ture and Center-Fer| phery Re|at|onshps
Unii| tLe 96Os or so, acknovledgemenis of tLe fact tLai ve are all iniLe same
vorld' vere mosily ieties, viiL uncertain o|iiical and inte|leciua| imlications.
Since iLen, in tLe social sciences, iLe globa|izing iendency Las usually involved a
viev olasymmeiry, keyconceiualairs Lave been cenier , or core and eriLery,
meiroo|is and satelliie.Asymmeiries are reseniiniLe g|oba| socialorganizaiin
ofmeaningasvell.uivLaikindolasymmeiriesareiLey?Hovcloselyalignedare
tLeasymmeiriesolculiureviiLiLoseofeconomy,oliiics, ormilitarymigLi? Hov
do ceniereriLery relaiionsLis in iLe vor|d alfeci siruciures ol meaning and
culiuraleression?
Inoliiical andmi|iiaryierms,iLevorlddringmucLofiLetveniieiLceniury
Lad ivo suerovers, and vLaiever freedom ofmovemeni oiLercouniries exer-
cised, vLeiLer greai or sma|l, ii tended u|timaiely io be constrained by iLis
arrangement. In economic ierms, iLe century Las by and |arge seen iLe Uniied
Siaies in a dominani osition, viiL a number of lesser overs groued around
ii, varyingly in asceni or dec|ine. In culiura| ierms, are iLere oiLer overs iLan
iLese?
Irom luh/tc Cu/turc l Z) . 66-7'. Copyrghr l 989, Oukc Lnvcrsity P;css .
.. ..
JLe question ai leasi Las ivo sides ,vLicL may be io sim|ily maiiers) . JLere
is iLai culiura| roduciion in iLe eriLery vLicL is someLov in resonse io
iLe oliiica| and economic dominance of iLe cenier. Here iLe vorld sysie as
delined in oliiical andor economic ierms is obviously given culiura| recogni
iion ol a sori. n iLe oiLer Land, iLere is iLe issue of culiural diffusion. \Lai
delines tLe cenier-eriLery relaiionsLi Lere are above all asymmeiries of inui
andscale.\LeniLecenier seaks, iLeeriLerylistens, and oniLevLoledoesnot
ialkback.
IniLiscase, iLeculturalcenters ofiLe vor|darenoibydefiniiionideniicalviiL
olitical and economic ceniers. Are iLey in raciice? Let us consider iLis in gross
terms, as anissueoliLe overallculiuralinfluence ofnaiions. ItcanbearguediLai
iLeceniereriLeryre|aiionsLisofculiurearenot, aileasi aianyariicularoini
iniime, amere refleciion ofo|iiicalandeconomicover.IntLeAmericancase,iLe
congruence is undeniaole. JLe generalcu|iuralinfluence oliLe SovietUnioniniLe
vorld iniLedecadesolitsgreaiesisirengiL , oniLeotLerLand, remainedmodesi
comared vitLiis oliiical and miliiary over. AmongtLe lesser overs, riiain
and France may ai resent be stronger as culiural iLan as economic and oliiica|
ceniers,iLis iserLas debaiab|e.|aan, ontLevLole, keesalovculiuralrofile
iniLevorld, desiteiis economicsuccess.MostofvLaiiiexortsdoesnoiseemto
be identifiably marked by]aaneseness.
IfiLe global atiern ofcenier-eriLery relaiionsLis in culiure tLus Las some
degree ofsearaieness, it is easyio see in someinstancesvLai is beLinda graier
culiuralinfluence.Joa degreeiLeresentculiuralinlluence olriiainand France
reflecistLelaciiLatiLeo|dsiyleco|onialoverscouldmoreorlessmonoolizetLe
ceniereriLerycu|iuralflovtotLeirdomains. InlargearisofiLevorldtLissiill
makes London or Paris noi j usi a cenier but tbe cenier. In o|d seii|er co|onies,
Lisiorical iies are yei closer, as links ol kinsLi and ancestry also conneci tLe
eriLeryioasecificcenter.InAusiralia,vLencriiicsreferto iLecultura|cringe,
iiisiLedeference io iLings ng|isL iLey sii|l Lave inmind. Language isobvious|y
a|so a lactorvLicL mayconveri olitical over inio culiura| influence, andiLen
conserve iLe laiter. As eo|e go on seaking EnglisL, FrencL and Poriuguese in
osico|onia| lands, in osicolonial iimes, old cenier-eriLery relationsLis gei a
rolonged lease on life. Il all iLis means iLat the cenier-eriLery relationsLis ol
culture tend to eLibii some lag relaiive io reseni and emergent siruciures ol
olitical and economic over, ii migLi also mean iLai |aan could yei come inio
greaierculiural influence intLevorld.
ne migLi seculate iLaieole a|so make differeniassumiions, in a meiacul-
tural lasLion, aboui iLe naiure ol iLe relationsLi beiveen iLemse|ves and ieir
culture. yandlarge, AmericansmaynoieeciiLatiLe meaningsandtLeculiural
forms iLeyinventareon|yforiLemselves, ossibly because tLeyLaveseenatLome
overiLeyearsiLairaciica|ly anybody can becomeanAmerican.JLe FrencLay
seeiLeirculiureasagifitoiLe vorld. JLereisanissionciui/isatrice.JLe|aanese,
ontLeoiLerLand- soiiis said linditasirangenoiioniLaianyonecan 'become
|aanese', andiLeyui|aaneseculiureoneLibii,iniLeframevorkolorganized
internaionalcontacis, asavayofdis|ayingirreducibledisiinciivenessraiLeriLan
in order to make ii sread. ,oiably, many of iLose vLo engage in iniroducing
asecis of]aanese culiureio iLevorld are alienculiure brokers. )

....... ..
StayingviiLiLeconceiionofculturalceniersas|acesvLerecultureisinvented
and lrom vLicL ii is dillused, Lovever, one cannot be saiisfied viiL onlyiLevery
generalizediciure ofiLerelaiivesiandingofaLandfulofcountriesasvLo|es.Joo
mucL is missing, and ioo mucL is assumed. Countries donoi alvays eercise iLeir
influence at iLe same leve| across tLe gamui of culiural eressions. American
influence is at reseni very diverse, bui erLas mosi consicuous in science,
iecLnologyand oular culture,FrencLinfluenceonvorld culiure israiLer ofiLe
LigL culiure varieiy, and in lields like umarket food and fasLion, there is vide
sread interesi in iLe organizaiion and culiure ol|aanese cororaiions. In sucL
more secializedvays, laceslike iLe aiican andiLe SLia Loly ciiy ofom a|so
organizearisofiLevorldiniocenier-eriLeryre|aiionsLisofculiure,forceriain
uroses.Asfarasasymmetriesofcu|iuralflovareconcerned,tLereislikeviseiLe
notableinsianceofiLeIndianfilmindusiry, offeringenieriainmentforlargearisof
iLeJLird\orld.
IniLisconiet one sLould also kee in mindtLaiariicularly insucLfields as
science and iecLnology, tLe sread ofknovledge beiveennaiions can be aciively
revenied, for reasons ofeconomic,oliiical andmiliiary advantage. Indeed, iLere
are signsiLailarge-scale resiriciive managemeni ofknovledge is oniLe increase.
ften it is rimarily a ari of cometiiive relaiionsLis beiveen ceniers, but ii
consirains tLe cultural flov beiveen cenier and eriLery as vell, maintainingtLe
advaniage ofiLe former.
IiisanoiLercLaracieristicofiLesiructure olcenier-eriLeryrelaiionsLisiLatit
Lasmanyiiers. SomecouniriesLaveasironginf|uenceintLeirregions,duetoavell-
develoedculiuralaaratus- MeicoinLatinAmerica,loreamle,andgyiin
tLeArab vorld. A sLared language and cu|iural iradiiioncan beimortantiniLis
vay,aiiLe sameiime asa sizeable domesiic markeifor culiural roducis can give
onecountryanadvaniageous osiiion in Laving someiLingto eoriio tLe restof
tLe egion.SucLregionalceniersmaybasetLeirroduciiononmeaningsandforms
vLolly iniernal to iLe region, or tLey may oeraie as cultural brokers, iranslating
influences from firsiiier ceniers inio someiLing more adaied io regional condi

iions.
\orldcu|turalflov,ii aears, Las a mucLmore iniricaie organizaiionofdiver-
sitytLanisal|ovedinaiciureolaceniereriLerysiruciureviiLj usiaLandfulof
allurose ceniers. A luriLer issue, obviously, il one iries to arrive ai a kind of
reseni-day globa|culiuralflovcLari, isio vLaieieniiLeeriLeriesindeed ialk
back,vLicLvouldinlargeartbe aquesiionofiLeculiuralinfluenceoliLeJLird
\orld oniLe ccideni.
Reggaemusic, svamis, andLaiinAmericannovelseemlifyiLekindofcounier-
currenisiLatmaylirsienier one's mind, cu|turecoming fu|lydeveloed,asitvere,
lromeriLeryiocenier, andatiLesameiimeculiurevLicLiLeeriherycangive
avay, andkeeaitLesame time.JLere areindeedinsiances|ikeiLese.Yei|udging
bytLemalone,LovevermucLmoredesirableonevou|dfindiitobeableioseakof
vorld culiurein ierms olequal ecLange, iLe conclusion can atresentLard|ybe
avoidediLaiasymmeiryrules.
uiiLenihere arealsootLerkindsofculiura|iranslersfrom eriLeryio cenier,
vLicLiniLemselveseemlilyasymmeiryinotLermanners. neinvolvesariicular
embodimentsofmeaning,objecisofari,ritualoroiLersignificance,vLicLmaynot
.. ...
bereadilyrelaceableaiiLeeriLery,butvLicLareaioneiime oroiher eoried,
dueioiLesuerioreconomicandoliiicaloverofiLecenier, andabsorbedbyiis
museums oroiLercolleciions. Here onemaysee indeed a iangible imoverisLmeni
ofiLeculturesoliLeeriLery ofieneseciallyiniermsofimmediaie accesstoiLe
besi in one's culiural Leritage, as vLat is removed is vLai iLe cenier delines as
caiial-C cu|ture of tLe eiLery. TLis is nov a field ol coniroversy, viiL iLe
reresentaiives of the eriLery insisiing uon iLe moral rigLi io demand iLe
decommoditization andreairiaiionofariifacis toiLeir ovncouniries.
TLere is |ikevise iLe kind of eriLery-io-cenier iransler i nvLicL eole like
aniLroologisiscancomeiolay aari. MucLknovledgeconcerningiLeerihery
is more available in iLe cenier iLan in iLe eriLery iiself, and esecia|ly to ie
secialisis on iLe eriLerylrom iLe cenier, because oftLe greaier caaciiy ofiLe
cenierio organize andanalyze knov|edgeinceriainvays. JLe centermayeiract
iLeravmaieria|sloriLisknovledge,soioseak,fromiLeeriLery, buiassucL,it
mayattLesameiimeremainiLere, loragain,inlormansandoiLersneednoigiveu
tLe knov|edge iLaiiLey give avay. utiLe rocess ofrelining iLe maierials ofien
onlyoccurs iniLeknov|edgeinsiiiuiionsofiLecenier,andiiisnoiaiallcertainhai
tLe finalroducigeis backioiLe eriLery. Someiimes, iLis kind ofcenter-eriL
ery asymmeiry is labeled academic imerialism, as ve see, ii entails a llov in iLe
oosiie direciionofiLaiusuallyiLougLi olas culiural imerialism.
Anyvay, all iLis is n gross ierms, as a vay ol beginning io look ai culiural
managemeniaitLemostinc|usiveleve|.Infaci,onedoesnoigeiveryfaroyialking
abouitLeinfluenceofnaiions, fornaiionsassucL, ascororaie aciors, Laveonlya
limitedarii niLeglobalculiuralflov.TLeymayaeari nguisessucLasiLeUSA,
iLe FulbrigLt Commission, iLe riiisL Council, and iLe A||iance Franaise, nd
inieractiniLeirovnierms inorganizaiions sucL asUESC. MucLoftLe iraffic
in culiure in iLe vorld, Lovever, is transnational raiLer iLan iniernaiional. It
ignores, subveris and devalues raiLer iLan celebraies naiiona| boundaries. \en
ve ialk aboui American inl|uence or FrencL influence or Meican inlluence, ve
iLroviogetLer a greai manykinds of asymmeirica| relaiionsLis, erLasviia
number olsymmeirica| ones lor good measure. A more recise realizaiion olLov
coniemoraryvorldculiureisconsiiiuiedcanonlyresu|ivLenveiakeiLemaari

aga.
n j {~D{
JLelorecasiiLaiiLeceniereriLeryflovolculiurevilll eadioiLedisaearane
ofculiuraldiflerencesintLevorldisencounieredfairlyfrequenilyiLesedays."ne
conclusion siill seems unanimouslysLared," claims a romineni media researcLer,
"iLeimressivevarieiyofiLevorldsculiuralsysiemsisvaningduetoarocessof
culiuralsyncLronizaiion'iLatis vitLouihisioricalrecedeni" ,Hamelink l983. 3) .
Horror ia|es are iold: "JLe incredibly ricL local musical iradiiion ofmany JLird
\orldcouniriesisraidlydisaearingunderiLeons|augLioldavn-io-duskAmeri-
can o music." "For siarving cLildren in iLe razilian ciiy of Recile, io Lave a
arbie doll seems more imoriani ihan food. "TLe rime mover beLind iLis an

Lumanrelication of unilormiiy is laie vesiern caiialism, equied vitL media

....... .
iecLnology, loreverluringmorecommunities inio deendency on iLe lringes ofan
eandingvorld-videconsumersocieiy.TLeiransnaiionalculturalaaraiusis an
insirumentolLegemony.
TLe alarmisi viev of iLe iLreai of globa| culiural Lomogenizaiion cannot be
dismissedouiofLand.Yei somequesiions sLou|d beraisedvLicLmaycasisome
generalligLioniLerob|emofiLeefficacyoliLeiransnationalcu|iuralaaraius.
nequesiionisvLeiLeriLeiransnaiionalinfluencesmusirea|lybeseenasvLolly
deleierious. Curreni conceiions ofcu|iural imerialism eemlify on iLe largest
imaginable scale iLe curious faci iLat according io iLe economics of culture, io
receive may be to lose. In iLaivay, iLey are a useful aniidoie io old 'vLiie man's
burden noiions of iLe gifis ol culiure from cenier io eriLery as unadu|ieraied
benefaction. ui erLas a closer eaminaiion allovs usto seemore sLades iniLe
iciure. IniLe areas ofscLolarsLi andinielleciuallileingeneral, veLardlyiakea
conflici for granted betveen iLe iransnaiiona| llov of cu|iure and local cultural
creaiivityihevayvedoviiLouarcu|ture.\iiLouiaceriainoennessiomulses
lromtLeouisidevor|d,vevouldeveneectscience,ariandliieratureiobecome
imoverisLed.bviously,loreamle,igerianliierary|ilecouldLardlyeisivere
iinotloriLeimoriaiionofliieracyandarangeolliieraryforms.uiiLerevouldnoi
LavebeenaigerianobelPrizevinnerin|iieraiureinl986if\oleSoyinkaLadnoi
creaiivelydravnonboiLacosmooliianliieraryeeriiseandanimaginaiionrooied
inaigerianmyiLology, andiurnedLemintosomeiLingunique.
everiLeless,iLeiransnaiionaldiffusionofoularcultureiendsiobedescribed,
among inielleciuals and o|icymakers ai |easi, raiLerunremittingly in ierms ofiis
desiructiveanddistraciingovers.AndiLisis asirueindebaieiniheTLird\orld
,oronoeLalfoliLe TLird \orld, among inieresied ouisiders asin a couniry like
SvedenvLicL,iffinerdistinctions aretobemade,vouldrobab|ybedescribedas
ariofiLesemieriLery ,buiLardly, oniheoiLerLand,ofiLesemi-cenieraslar
as transnaiionalculiural llovisconcerned.
\Ly, iLen, arevesoquickioassumeiLat iniLisfieldiLerelaiionsLi beiveen
localandimoriedculiurecanonlybeoneofcomeiiiion? EsiablisLedassumiions
aboui culiural uriiy and auiLeniiciiy robab|y come to iLe surface Lere. \e
imagineiLailocalroducis areiLreatenedviiLeiinctioniLrougLtLe imoriaiion
of'cLeaforeignj unk` . InsucLreferencesonemaydeiecisomeLyocrisy,insofaras
iLeyim|yiLaiall |ocal roducis are olgreaiinielleciua| or esiLeiicmerii, never
merelycLea |oca| | unk. uive also ignoreiLe ossibi|iiy iLaiiLe lormal symbo|
sysiems of oular cu|ture and the media, and iLe skills in Landling tLe symbol
sysiems, can be iransferred beiveen culiures. As long as iLere is room for loca|
culiuralroduciion asve|l, iLis may iniiselfbe Le|ed in iis develomenibyiLe
availabi|iiyofaviderrangeofmodels. AndaileasiioiLeeteniiLatiLeigerian
examle is anyiLing io go by,ii seems to be a dubious assumtion iLai iLere vill
neverbesucLroomfor|ocalroduciion,ortLaiiicannoibecreaied. ,uiIvillLave
aliitlemoreio say aboui iLeariicularigeriancondiiionsbelov.
Iimay be objeciedihai sucL noiions ofculiural enricLment arenoiioiLe oint,
iLai even if vLai is imoried is seen as equimeni, models and siimuli, ii is siill
destruciive insofar asiiirreversiblycLanges |ocal culiure.\Laievermodificaiions
tLese imorisundergo, LovevermucLiLey areiniegraiedvitLindigenousculiure,
tLey may imose alien formais on ii. \Len liieracy comes in, vLaiever modes of
.. ..
iLougLt maybelinkedtoureoralityarelikelyiobecorruted.Aigeriansiicom
is still a sitcom. JLe very sLae ol oular culture as a social organizational
Lenomenon, viiLitsgreaiasymmeiryiniLerelaiionsLi beiveenerlormersand
audience, migLi iLreaien older and more ariiciaiory arrangemenis ol culiural

exressn.
AgainiLisis a seriousargumeni.uiiLereiserLasonlya iLinline beiveena
delense olauiLeniicityandananiiquarianismvLicLolieniurnsouiiobevicarious.
igeria,lorexamle,couldLardlyiniLisosicolonialeragobackcomleielytoiis
recolonialculiuralLeriiage,lorureiradiiionanditscolleciivelormolexression
vouldnoiserveiLeconiemorarysiruciuresoltLecountryandcouldnoimaicLtLe
everydayexeriencesanddesires olmanyigeriansioday.Aoularculture,anda
mediaiecLnology, arenov as mucLnecessities large aris oltLe JLird\orldas
tLeyareintLeccideni,andtLemorerealisiicLoelorconiinuedculturaldiversiiy
in iLe vorld, viiL some linkage io local Leriiage, vould ratLer seem to be lor a
diversiiy in moiion, one olcoexistence as vell as creaiive interaciion beiveen tLe
iransnaiionalandiLeindigenous.
AnoiLer roblem viiL alarmism tends io be tLe quality ol iLe evidencelor ii.
uiielrequentlyiiisanecdoial " I svitcLedoniLeielevisionseiinmyLotelroom
in Lagos ,orManila, or Tel Aviv, orCeneva) , andloundtLai7vas on." In a
moresoListicaiedversion,iimaybeointedoutiLatononeJLird\orldtelevision
cLanneloroiLer, someLigLercentageoltLerogrammingisimorted.
Jobe morecomleielyersuasive, Lovever, argumenis aboutiLeimacioliLe
iransnational culiural llov vould Lave io say someiLing aboui Lov iLe eole
resond io it. JLe mere laci tLai JLird \orld television staiions buy a loi ol
imoriedrograms, lorexamle, olienLas more io doviiL iLelaciiLaitLeyare
cLeatLaniLaiaudiences are necessarily eniLralledviiLiLem.\emayLave litile
idea aboui Lov many television seis are on, vLen iLey are sLovn, andmucL less
vLaiis iLequality olaiientionioiLem.
AtleastasroblemaiicisiLesensetLateolemake oltLeiransnaiionalcultural
llov. venvLen ve reler to it as a llov olmeaning', ve musi kee in mind ie
unceriainties built inio iLe communicaiive rocess. Il one cannot be ioo sure ol
erleciundersiandingeveninalaceiolaceinteractioninalocalconiexiviiLmucL
culiural redundancy, iLe dilliculiies , or iLe oortunities lor innovaiive inierret
aiions, ilonevanisiosee iianotLervay) multilyvLereiLereislargelyaonevay
culiuralllov, beiveeneolevLoseersectivesLavebeensLaedinverydillereni
coniexts, inlacesverydisianilromone anoiLer.JLe meaning oliLetransnational
culiuralllovisiLusiniLeeyeoliLebeLolder,vLaiLeseesvegenerallyknovliiile
aboui
h
neiniricaieissueLereistLerelaiionsLi betveendillerentsymbolicmodesand
iLeglobaldiversiiyolculiure.Dosomesymboliclorms,insomemodes,iravelbeiie
iLan otLers? \e knov vell enougL vLere iLe barriers ol incomreLension are
beiveen languages. HovisiLeiransnaiional sread oloularculiurealleciedby
varying sensibiliiies viiL reseci io oiLer modes, ariicularly iLe musical and
gesiural? nemayraiLerlacilelyexlaintLeoularityolIndianandHongKong
movies over mucL oliLeJLird\orld byrelerring toiLelaciiLaitLey arecLea
,vLicL aeals io disiribuiors) and aciionacked ,vLicL aeals to somevLai

unsoLisiicaied audiences) . ut iLe laiier oini may Lide as mucL as it reveals.
....... ..
\Lai kind, or degree, ol recision is iLere in iLe audience areiaiion ol tLe
symboliclormsolanoiLer couniry?
ItseemsalsoiLaitLe consequencesoltransnaiionalculiuralllovmusibeunder-
sioodasiLeyunloldoveriime.JLemurderoustLreaiolculiuralimerialismisolien
rLeiorically deicied as involving iLe LigL-iecL culture ol iLe meiroolis, viiL
overlul organizational backing, lacing a delenseless, small-scale lolk culiure.
SucL encouniers do erLasoccur.Yeiai otLeriimes and in oiLerlacestLis is a
very aListorical viev. In igeria, in iLe case ol oular music bui robably viiL
relerence iootLeroularculiure lormsasvell,iiseems imortaniiLatiLerocess
byvLicLexiernalborrovingsLavebeenabsorbedLassomeiimedetL.Meirool
iianoularmusic,iisgenresandiisinsiruments,LavelilteredintoiLe\estAlrican
coasi societies gradually over iLe lasiceniury, iniroducedio beginviiLby modesi
means.TLereLasbeeniime, tLen,ioabsorbsucLinlluences,andiniurnmodilyiLe
modilicaiions, and io lii iLe nev oular culture io tLe evolving naiional social
siructure, iis audiences and iis siiuaiions. And iLis is iLe local scene vLicL nov
meeisiLeiransnaiionalculiuralindusiriesoltLelaieiveniietLceniury.
ne can iLink ol ivo rougL scenarios ol iLe long-ierm ellects oliransnational
culiuralllovs. IvouldlikeiocalliLemiLescenarios olsaturaiionandmaturaiion.
TLelormervould suggesitLai as iLe transnationalcultural aaraius unendingly
oundsoniLesensibiliiiesoltLeeolesoltLeeriLery,local culiurevillcumula
iively assimilaie more and more ol tLe imoried meanings and lorms, becoming
gradually indisiinguisLable lrom iLem. Ai any one iime, vLai is considered local
culiure is a liiilemore like iransnaiional imortsiLanvLaiveni belore itas local
culiure.JLismaynoisoundaltogeiLerimlausible.JLemaiuraiionscenario,oniLe
oiLerLand,isbasedoniLeossibiliiytLatviiLiime,imoriedculiuraliiemsvLicL
vere ailirsito some degree intLeir unaliered,vLolly alien lorms vould vitL time
come to be tken aari, iamered and tinkeredviiL, as eole vould evolve iLeir
ovn vay ol using iLem in a manner more in line vitL a culture ollundamenially
local cLaracier.
JLe tvo scenarios describe oosing tra|ectories, but in real lile iLeymay vell
aearintervovenviiLoneanoiLer. niLevLole, iLeLisioryoligerianoular
music seems io Lave mucL incommonviiLiLematuraiion scenario. And onecan
see reasons vLy iLis sLould be so: develoed native musical iradiiions, an early
involvemeni vitL loreign culiural imoris ai a time vLen iLe ressure ol iLe
iransnaiionalculiuralaaraiusvasmodesi,iLusallovingiimetoadai,asizeable
marketloriLelocalroduci.YetiLisisnoiiosayiLaitLeigerianmarketcannoi
coniinuouslymakesomeroomlornevmusiclrom abroad asvell.
TLenaiureoltLemarketisiLelaciorolsomeimoriance,noileastvLenonecan
seeiLeiransnaiionalculiuralllovasa llovolcommodiiies.lientLeimortation
ol culiure seems io resume a markeivLicL is, as ii vere, middling oor. Again,
vLenlorexamleigerianielevisionstaiions, andoiLersiaiionsmoreorlessontLe
eriLery,buyrogramminglromiLecenier,iLereasonisiLatiLeycannoiallordto
roducetLeirovn. ntLe oiLerLand,iLey arenoioorenougLnoiio be ableto
imori. ui iLe more or lesseriLeral laces can diller in tLese resecis, andcan
dilleralsoviiLregardiodillerenikindsolculiuralcommodities,andcandillerover
iime. igeria, iLemostoulous couniryinAlrica,atiimesquiiealllueniduetoits
oil exoris, is beiier equied tLan mosi io engage in culiural imori substituiion
.. ...
and bui|d u iis ovn inierna| culiural aaraius. Iiis a|so one of iLose couniries
vLicLmayfindsome markei for its ovn cultural commodiiies in iisvider region,
and eveniually io someeienireacL a vider markei yei. IiLassome oientialfor
becominga cenierofsortsiniisovnrigLi. Smallernaiiona|markeismaybemore
deendent on iLe imoriaiion of oular culiura| goods from eiiLer regional or
globalceniers.
n iLe otLer Land, if cultural commodiiies vi|l only flov iransnaiiona|ly io
lacesvLere markeiseist, tLere may be|acestoooorio Lold mucLromise in
iLisregard.AstLecountriesoltLeeriLeryareofienvu|nerab|eiocLangesiniLe
relationshi oflocal economies io tLai ofiLe vorld, moreover, markeis maysLifi
dramaiical|y over iime. SmalliovneolevLo bougLi imoriedoularfasLions
iniLe markeilace yesierday are erLas no |onger able to do so oday tLeyLave
oiLerreasonsforiLeimortsubsiiiuiion. uiteossibly,ifiLeLoldofiLecenteron
iLeeconomiesoltLeeriLeriesissucLasioveakeniLem,aioneiimeoroveriime,
iLaiveryfactmay a|so limiiiis ovncu|iura|overoveriLem.
cdrJn
l KoytoII l8. l0) de!inestheecumeneasa iegiono!eisistentcuItuiaIinteiactionand
exchange. Kioebei l+8 +2J) , iecaIingthattheGieeIs inantiquityusedthis teim Ioi
theinhabitedvoiId,commentsthatit has a modeinutiIityas a conveientdesigation
o!thetotaI aiea ieachedbytiaceabIe diIIusioniIIuencesIromthe mainhigheicenteis oI
Lurasia atvhichmostnevcuItuiehadutothebeenioduced". Agai,avorIdcuItue
oideied by centei-eiiheiy ieIationshis.
2 Jhecoie-eriheiyconcetuaIairattimesvithsemieiiheiythiovninto!orma tiio)
isIavoiedbyVaIeistein l+themetiooIis-sateIIitecontiastmayiemainmoststrongIy
associatedvithianIe. g. ,l6)ShiIs,athoughvritingIiomaveiydi!Iereteisective,
may have done moie tha anybody ese to utthecetei-eiiheiy aii into ciicuIatn
e. g. , l5) . oia sighty earIiei attemt, see ^ooie l 66.
J AcommentbyAmaiathIandeyaatameetingo!Asianacademicsistotheoint.Ve in
India ieceive in!oimation on ]aanese society and science via America, and Americans
image oI]aan is given to us as iI it vere vhat |aan ieaIy is. |aan eoits cars and
machines, but not cuItuie or sciece, |aanese schoIais and academic circIes aie not
iesonsive to internationaI needs. Vhat ve vant to Inov is not the Ameiica eoIe`s
viev o! |aan, but the |aanese eoIe`s viev oI |aan AbdeI-^aIeI and Iandeya
l8l: l2) .
+ See, !oi examIe, contiibutionstothevoIumeeditedbyGibbonsandVittiocI l85) .

5 See discussionIsuch issuesi n^ciyde l85.

6 SeeIoiexamIeRodgers`s l8+) anaysisoI theimactoI iteiacyonatakthinkingabout
Iinshi.

AcassicinstanceIiomanthiooIogyistheJivreinteiietationoIIum/ct,asiecountedby
Lauia ohannan 66) . A nevs temon Lu//u:, the teIevsion seiiaI, in theIntcrnuttonu/
Icru/J1huncteIsa simiIaistory iiedman l86 . AteamoIcommunicationieseaicheis
atIebrevUniveisityin]eiusaIem conducted a studyo!hovIsraeIis oIdi!IeientnationaI
oiigins decoded AmeiicanteIevisionrogiamsgeneraIy, andLu//u:seci!icaIy.Jhemost
stiiIingIinding vas that the grous came u vith quite diveigent inteiietations oIthe
iogiam.RecentRussianimmigiantsveresusiciousoItheshovandaid attentiontothe
....... ..
creditt oIindoutvhovastheoveibehindit.neoIthemsaid,theyvantustothiIthe
richaieunhaysove aveiage eoeviIIIeeImoiecotent. ey aIso IooIed iamoie
deteiministicvayattheactivitiesoIthe chaiacters- ]Rdidvhathedidbecausehehadto,
as a businessman. Jhe ^oioccan ]evs as veII as the IsiaeIi Aiabs savthe shovas some
soit oIdeictionoIieaity, buta ieaIitytheyvere uncomIoitabIe vith. JheArabsdidnot
vant to vatch Lu//u: in mixed comay, and vhen it had shovn Sue LIen eaving hei

husband]Rto go and Iive vith heiIovei, this giou oI vieveis aaientIy unconsciousIy
censoied the occuirence and reorted that she had ieturned to hei !ather. Jhe Iibbutz
IsraeIisveremostIiIeAmeiicansinthe iesose, accoidingtothisstudy.JheyieIatedtoit
IayIuIy, asa source oIIantasy.
8 Voith l8l. 2) touches uonsuchiobemsinhisdiscussionoI!iImanthiooIogy,ashe
asIshovcinematic understandings aie distributed. oIiImIanguagecommunities have
anythingto do vith Iaguage communities do they ieIate to the distiibution oIcognitive
styIes Seibei`s l85) eidemioogicaI concern vith the diIIeretiaI cognitive conta-
giousness oIreiesentations mayaIso be ieatedtotiansnationaI cutuiaI IIovsindiIIerent
symboIic modes.
lJNJlJcHJn
bdeIaIeI, Anoui, and Amai ath Iandeya eds. ) l8l. Intc//cctuu/ Crcuttttty tnInJo-
cnou: Cu/turc, Jokyo. JheUnitedations niveisity.
ohannan,Laura. l66. ShaIeseaie in the ush,^uturu/It:tory, 5 ) . 28-JJ.
rank,AndieGundei. l6.Cupttu/t:munJUnJcrJctc/opmcntt nIuttnAmcrtcuevYork.
^onthIyRevievIress.
riedman,JhomasL. l86. lsiaeIiCuItuiaIGiousViev aIas`butSeeaiIIeientShov,
Intcrnuttonu/Icru/J1rthunc, Aii J.
Gibbons,^ichaeI, and|oinVittiocI eds. ) l85. ctcnccu:u CommoJtty,Iaiov,Lssex.
Longma.
IameIinI, Cees l8J. Cu/turu/Autonomy tn C/ohu/ Communtcutton:,evYoiI.Long-
man.
KoytoII, Igor. l8. Jhc lntcinaI AIiica ionticr. c ^akig o!AIricaIoitica Cu
tuie, in1lcA[rtcun Ironttcr, Ioomington. lndiaa UiversityIress.
Kioebei, A. L. l+8. Antlropo/oy, evYorI.Iaicouit,iace.
^ciyde, Isabe ed. ) l85. Vlo Cun:tlc u:t, ^ebouie. xIoidUniveisityIiess.
^ooie, ViIbert F. l66. GobaI Socioogy. Jhe VoiId as a Singuai System, Amcrtcun
]ournu/o[octo/oy, l. +5-82.
Rodgeis,Susan. l 8+. iaity,Liteiacy, adataI Concetso!^aiiiageAIiace,]ournu/
o[Antlropo/otcu/ Ic:curcl, +0:+JJ-50.
Shis, Ldvard. I 5. CcntcrunJcrtplcry, Chicago. niveisityoIChicago Iiess.
Seibei, an. l85. AnthiooogyandIsychoIogy.JovaidsanLidemioIogyoIReiesen-
tations Mun,20 J-8.
VaIIerstein, ImmanueI. l+. 1lc MoJcrn Vor/J-y:tcm, evYoiI. Academic Iiess.
Voith,SoI.l8l. tuJytn \t:uu/Communtcutton,Ihiadehia.UniveisityoIIennsyvania.