• The halogens are a chemical series.

They are the elements in Group 17 (old-

style: VII or VIIA) of the periodic table:
fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br),
iodine (I), astatine (At) and the as yet
undiscovered ununseptium (Uus). The
term halogen was coined to mean
elements which produce salt in union
with a metal. It comes from 18th century
scientific French nomenclature based on
erring adaptations of Greek roots.
• These elements are diatomic molecules in
their natural form. They require one more
electron to fill their outer electron shells,
and so have a tendency to form a singly-
charged negative ion. This negative ion is
referred to as a halide ion; salts
containing these ions are known as
halides.
• Halogens are highly reactive, and as
such can be harmful or lethal to
biological organisms in sufficient
quantities. Halide ions combined with
single hydrogen atoms form the
hydrohalic acids (i.e., HF, HCl, HBr,
HI), a series of particularly strong
acids. (HAt, or "hydrastatic acid",
should also qualify, but it is not
typically included in discussions of
hydrohalic acid due to astatine's
extreme instability toward
alpha decay.)
 FLOURINE
 Atomic Symbol: F
 Atomic Number:9
 Atomic Weight: 18.998403
 From the Latin and French words for flow,
fluere.
 History Of Discovery
• Fluorine in the form of fluorspar (also called fluorite) (
calcium fluoride) was described in 1530 by
Georgius Agricola for its use as a flux [1], which is a
substance that is used to promote the fusion of metals or
minerals. In 1670 Schwanhard found that glass was etched
when it was exposed to fluorspar that was treated with
acid. Karl Scheele and many later researchers, including
Humphry Davy, Gay-Lussac, Antoine Lavoisier, and
Louis Thenard all would experiment with hydrofluoric acid,
easily obtained by treating calcium fluoride (fluorspar) with
concentrated sulfuric acid.

• It was eventually realized that hydrofluoric acid contained

a previously unknown element. This element was not
isolated for many years after this due to its extreme
reactivity - it is separated from its compounds only with
difficulty and then it immediately attacks the remaining
materials of the compound. Finally, in 1886, fluorine was
isolated by Henri Moissan after almost 74 years of
continuous effort. It was an effort which cost several
researchers their health or even their lives, and for
Moissan, it earned him the 1906 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
• The first large scale production of fluorine
was needed for the atomic bomb
Manhattan project in World War II where
the compound uranium hexafluoride (UF6)
was used to separate the 235U and 238U
isotopes of uranium. Today both the
gaseous diffusion process and the
gas centrifuge process use gaseous (UF6)
to produce enriched uranium for
nuclear power applications.
• The derivation of elemental fluorine from
hydrofluoric acid is exceptionally
dangerous, killing or blinding several
scientists who attempted early
experiments on this halogen. These men
came to be referred to as "Fluorine
Martyrs."
Picture
 General Description
• Fluorine is the most electronegative and reactive of all
elements. It is a pale yellow, corrosive gas, which reacts
with most organic and inorganic substances. Finely divided
metals, glass, ceramics, carbon, and even water burn in
fluorine with a bright flame.

• Flourine is so dangerous that it must be stored in steel

containers, and even then it reacts with the steel.
Fortunately the layer of flouride that is formed is
unreactive, and prevents it from reacting further.

• Flourine is the most reactive element in the world. It reacts

with absolutely everything (except for nitrogen, oxygen and
some of the lighter noble gases), very often explosively.
• Flourine attacks and breaks down most organic compounds
which burn in it's pale yellow gas.
.
 Chemical Properties
• Electrochemical Equivalent: 0.70883g/amp-hr
• Electron Work Function:
• Electronegativity (Pauling): 3.98
• Heat of Fusion: 0.2552kJ/mol
• Incompatiblities:
• Water, nitric acid, oxidizers, organic compounds
• Ionization Potential
• First: 17.422
Second: 34.97
Third: 62.707
• valence Electron Potential (-eV): -10.1
 Physical Properties
• Atomic Mass Average: 18.9984
• Boiling Point: 85.10K -188.05°C -306.49°F
• Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:
• Conductivity
• Electrical:
Thermal: 0.000279 W/cmK
• Density: 1.696g/L @ 273K & 1atm
• Enthalpy of Atomization: 79.08 kJ/mole @ 25°C
• Enthalpy of Fusion: 0.26 kJ/mole
• Enthalpy of Vaporization: 3.31 kJ/mole
• Flammablity Class: Non-flammable gas (extreme oxidizer)
• Freezing Point: see melting point
• Heat of Vaporization: 3.2698kJ/mol
• Melting Point: 53.63K -219.52°C -363.14°F
• Molar Volume: 17.1 cm3/mole
• Optical Refractive Index: 1.000195
• Specific Heat: 0.82J/gK
 Uses and Importance
• Flourine in the form of flourochloro hydrcarbons
are widely used in air conditioning and
refrigeration,
• Fluorine and its compounds are used in creating
isotopically fractionated uranium.

• Commercial fluorochemicals, used for creating

high temperature plastics.

• Hydrofluoric acid is often used during etching of

glass for light bulbs and similar products.

• Flouride is often included in water or tooth paste

to assist in the fight again tooth decay, however
not all countries through the world include
Flouride in their water supplies.
• Flourine is used as hydroflouric acid in aluminium
smelting and steel production, and Cryolite (a
naturally accuring Flourine source) is used in
Aluminium manufacture. Silicoflouride salts are
used mainly in water flouridation and laundry
detergents.

• In much higher concentrations, sodium fluoride

has been used as an insecticide, especially
against cockroaches.

• Without flourine, you'd have no recyclable cans,

no cars chassis', your clothes would be filthy, and
water wouldn't be safe to drink.
 Other Facts
• Both fluorine and HF must be handled with great care and
any contact with skin and eyes should be strictly avoided.
All equipment must be passivated before exposure to
fluorine.

• Contact with exposed skin may result in the HF molecule

rapidly migrating through the skin and flesh into the bone
where it reacts with calcium permanently damaging the
bone, followed by cardiac arrest brought on by sudden
chemical changes within the body.

• Both elemental fluorine and fluoride ions are highly toxic.

When it is a free element, fluorine has a characteristic
pungent odor that is detectable in concentrations as low as
20 nL/L. It is recommended that the maximum allowable
concentration for a daily 8-hour time-weighted exposure is
1 µL/L (part per million by volume) (lower than, for
example, hydrogen cyanide).
Atomic Structure
• Number
of
Energy
Levels: 2
• First
Energy
Level: 2
• Second
Energy
Level: 7
 Chlorine

• Symbol: Cl
• Atomic number: 17
• from the Greek language chloros,
meaning "pale green"
 History of Discovery
• Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by
Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele,
who called it dephlogisticated marine acid
(see Phlogiston theory) and mistakenly
thought it contained oxygen. Chlorine was
given its current name in 1810 by
Sir Humphry Davy, who insisted that it was
in fact an element.
• Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite,
was first used as a weapon against human
beings in WWI on April 22nd, 1915, and
afterwards was used by both sides.
Picture
 General Description
• Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas which combines
directly with nearly all elements. Chlorine is a
respiratory irritant. The gas irritates the mucous
membranes and the liquid burns the skin. As little
as 3.5 ppm can be detected as an odor, and 1000
ppm is likely to be fatal after a few deep breaths.
It was used as a war gas in 1915. It is not found in
a free state in nature, but is found commonly as
NaCl (solid or seawater).
• Chlorine, Cl2, reacts with water to produce
hypochlorite, OCl-. The position of the equilibrium
depends very much upon the pH of the solution.
• This element is a member of the salt-forming
halogen series and is extracted from chlorides
through oxidation and more commonly, by
electrolysis.
• As the chloride ion, which is part of
common salt and other compounds,
it is abundant in nature and
necessary to most forms of life,
including humans. As chlorine gas, it
is greenish yellow, is two and one
half times as heavy as air, has an
intensely disagreeable suffocating
odor, and is exceedingly poisonous.
In its liquid and solid form it is a
powerful oxidizing, bleaching, and
disinfecting agent.
 Chemical Properties
• Electrochemical Equivalent: 1.3228g/amp-hr
• Electron Work Function:
• Electronegativity (Pauling): 3.16
• Heat of Fusion: 3.203kJ/mol
• Incompatiblities:
• Reacts explosively or forms explosive compounds with
many common substances such as acetylene, ether,
turpentine, ammonia, fuel gas, hydrogen & finely divided
metals.
• Ionization Potential
• First: 12.967
Second: 23.81
Third: 39.611
• valence Electron Potential (-eV): -7.96
 Physical Properties
• Atomic Mass Average: 35.4527
• Boiling Point: 239.3K -33.9°C -29°F
• Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:
• Conductivity
• Electrical:
Thermal: 0.000089 W/cmK
• Density: 3.214g/L @ 273K & 1atm
• Elastic Modulus:
• Bulk: 1.1/GPa
• Enthalpy of Atomization: 121.8 kJ/mole @ 25°C
• Enthalpy of Fusion: 3.38 kJ/mole
• Enthalpy of Vaporization: 10.21 kJ/mole
• Flammablity Class: Non-flammable gas (strong oxidizer)
• Freezing Point: see melting point
• Heat of Vaporization: 10.2kJ/mol
• Melting Point: 172.31K -100.84°C -149.51°F
• Molar Volume: 18.7 cm3/mole
• Optical Refractive Index: 1.000773
• Specific Heat: 0.48J/gK
• Vapor Pressure = 1300kPa
 Uses and Importance
• Chlorine became the first killing agent to be
employed during World War I. German chemical
conglomerate IG Farben had been producing
chlorine as a by-product of their dye
manufacturing. In cooperation with Fritz Haber of
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in
Berlin, they began developing methods of
discharging chlorine gas against enemy trenches.
• Chlorine is commonly used as an antiseptic and is
used to make drinking water safe and to treat
swimming pools.
• Large amounts of chlorine are used in many
industrial processes, such as in the production of
paper products, plastics, dyes, textiles,
medicines, antiseptics, insecticides, solvents and
 Other Facts
• Chlorine irritates respiratory systems
especially in children and the elderly.
In its gaseous state it irritates
mucous membranes and in its liquid
state it burns skin. It takes as little as
3.5 ppm to be detected as a distinct
odor, but it takes 1000 ppm or more
to be fatal. Because of this, chlorine
was one of the gases used during
World War I as a war gas
• Number of
Energy
Levels: 3
• First
Energy
Level: 2

• Second
Energy
Level: 8

• Third
Energy
Level: 7
 Bromine

 Symbol: Br
 Atomic Number:35
 from Greek word Bromos meaning
"stench"
 History of discovery
Bromine was discovered by Antoine
J. Balard in France in 1826.
Picture
 General description
Bromine is a chemical element in the
periodic table that has the symbol Br and
atomic number 35. A halogen element,
bromine is a red volatile liquid at standard
room temperature which has reactivity
between chlorine and iodine. This element
is corrosive to human tissue in a liquid
state and its vapors irritate eyes and
throat. Bromine vapors are very toxic
upon inhalation.
Bromine is the only nonmetallic liquid
element. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-
brown liquid, volatilizing readily at room
temperature to a red vapor with a strong
disagreeable odor, resembling chlorine,
and having a very irritating effect on the
eyes and throat; it is readily soluble in
water or carbon disulfide, forming a red
solution, is less active than chlorine but
more so than iodine; it unites readily with
many elements and has a bleaching
action; when spilled on the skin it
produces painful sores. It presents a
serious health hazard, and maximum
safety precautions should be taken when
handling it.
 Chemical properties:

Atomic number: 35
Atomic mass: 79.904 g.mol-1
Density: 3.1 g.cm-3 at 20°C
Melting point: -7.2°C
Boiling point: 58.8°C
 Physical properties
Atomic Mass Average: 79.904
Boiling Point: 332.40K 59.25°C 138.65°F
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:
Conductivity
Electrical:
Thermal: 0.00122 W/cmK
Density: 3.119g/cc @ 300K
Elastic Modulus:
Bulk: 1.9/GPa
Enthalpy of Atomization: 111.7 kJ/mole @ 25°C
Enthalpy of Fusion: 5.29 kJ/mole
Enthalpy of Vaporization: 15.46 kJ/mole
Flammablity Class: Noncombustible Liquid
Freezing Point: see melting point
Heat of Vaporization: 15.438kJ/mol
Melting Point: 266.1K -7.1°C 19.2°F
Molar Volume: 25.62 cm3/mole
Optical Refractive Index: 1.001132
Pysical State (at 20°C & 1atm): Liquid
Realitive Gas Density (Air=1) = 5.51
Specific Heat: 0.473J/gK
Vapor Pressure = 5800Pa@-7.1°C
 Uses and importance:
Gasoline antiknock mixtures

Fumigants

Poisons

Dyes

Photographic chemicals

Medicinal

Brominated vegetable oil

Atomic Structure
Number of
Energy Levels:
4
First Energy
Level: 2
Second Energy
Level: 8

Third Energy
Level: 18

Fourth Energy
Level: 7
 IODINE
 Symbol:I
 Atomic Number: 53
 From the Greek word "iodes" meaning
"violet".
 History Of
Iodine wasDiscovery
discovered by Barnard Courtois in
1811. He was the son of a manufacturer of
saltpeter (potassium nitrate, a vital part of
gunpowder). At the time France was at war and
gunpowder was in great demand. Saltpeter was
isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts
of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate the
potassium nitrate, seaweed was burned and the
ash then washed with water. The remaining
waste was destroyed by adding sulfuric acid. One
day Courtois added too much sulfuric acid and a
cloud of purple vapor rose. Courtois noted that
the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces making
dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this was a
new element but lacked the money to pursue his
observations.
 Charles Bernard Desormes (1777 - 1862) and
Nicolas Clément (1779 - 1841) to continue
research. He also gave some of the substance to
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 - 1850), a well-
known chemist at that time, and to
André-Marie Ampère (1775 - 1836). On
29 November 1813 Dersormes and Clément
made public Courtois’ discovery. They described
the substance to a meeting of the
Imperial Institute of France. On December 6 Gay-
Lussac announced that the new substance was
either an element or a compound of oxygen.
Ampère had given some of his sample to
Humphry Davy (1778 - 1829). Davy did some
experiments on the substance and noted its
similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated
December 10 to the Royal Society of London
stating that he had identified a new element. A
large argument erupted between Davy and Gay-
Lussac over who identified iodine first but both
scientists acknowledged Barnard Courtois as the
Picture
General Description OF Element
Iodine is a dark-gray/purple-black solid that
sublimes at standard temperatures into a purple-
pink gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen
forms compounds with many elements, but is
less active than the other members of its Group
VII (halogens) and has some metallic-like
properties. Iodine dissolves easily in chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, or carbon disulphide to
form purple solutions (It is only slightly soluble in
water, giving a yellow solution). The deep blue
color of starch-iodine complexes is produced
only by the free element.
 Iodine is a solid diatomic non-metal that is very
pungent in odor and a corrosive poison.
Th density of iodine is 4.94 g/mL, which means it
will sink in water.
 Iodine, I2 is not reactive towards with oxygen,
O2, or nitrogen, N2.
 Iodine, I2, reacts with water to produce
hypoiodite, OI-. The position of the equilibrium
depends very much upon the pH of the solution.
 In the graphic on the left, iodine element reacts
with zinc metal to form zinc iodide. The reaction
is so exothermic that part of the iodine element
solid is vaporized to iodine violet gas.
 Chemical Properties:

 Electrochemical Equivalent: 4.7348g/amp-hr

 Electron Work Function:
 Electronegativity (Pauling): 2.66
 Heat of Fusion: 7.824kJ/mol
 Incompatiblities:
 Ammonia, acetylene, acetaldehyde, powdered
aluminum, active metals, liquid chlorine
 Ionization Potential
 First: 10.451
Second: 19.131
Third: 33
 valence Electron Potential (-eV): -6.55
 Physical Properties:
 Atomic Mass Average: 126.9045
 Boiling Point: 458.6K 185.4°C 365.7°F
 Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion:
 0.000093cm/cm/°C (0°C)
 Conductivity
 Electrical: 8.0E -16 106/cm
Thermal: 0.00449 W/cmK
 Density: 4.93g/cc @ 300K
 Elastic Modulus:
 Bulk: 7.7/GPa
 Enthalpy of Atomization: 106.7 kJ/mole @
25°C
 Enthalpy of Fusion: 7.76 kJ/mole
 Enthalpy of Vaporization: 20.88 kJ/mole
 Flammablity Class: Non-combustible solid
 Freezing Point: see melting point
 Heat of Vaporization: 20.752kJ/mol
 Melting Point: 386.7K 113.5°C 236.3°F
 Molar Volume: 25.74 cm3/mole
 Pysical State (at 20°C & 1atm): Solid
 Specific Heat: 0.214J/gK
 Use and Importance
 In areas where there is little iodine in the diet—
typically remote inland areas and semi-arid
equatorial climates where no marine foods are
eaten—iodine deficiency gives rise to goiter, so
called endemic goiter.
 In some such areas, this is now combatted by the
addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt in
form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide,
potassium iodate—this product is known as
iodized salt.
 Iodine compounds have also been added to other
foodstuffs, such as flour, in areas of deficiency.
 Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of
preventable mental retardation. This is caused by
lack of thyroid hormone in the infant. Iodine
deficiency remains a serious problem that affects
people around the globe.
 Uncombined (elemental) iodine is mildly
toxic to all living things.
 iodide, and thyroxin which contains iodine,
are used internally in medicine.
 A solution of KI and iodine in alcohol is
used as a disinfectant for external
wounds.
 Silver iodide is used in photography
 added to table salt for nutrition to stop
goiter in the thyroid
 deep blue color in a starch solution is a
sign of the free element
 Iodine is primarily used in medicine,
photography and in dyes.
 Other Facts
 Direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so it should
be handled with care. Iodine vapor is very irritating to the
eye and to mucous membranes. Concentration of iodine
in the air should not exceed 1 mg/m³ (eight-hour time-
weighted average). When mixed with ammonia, it can
form nitrogen triiodide which is extremely sensitive and
can explode unexpectedly.
 The United States Food and Drug Administration
recommends (21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)) 150 micrograms
of iodine per day for both men and women. Natural
sources of iodine include seaweed, such as kelp and
seafood. Salt for human consumption is often
Atomic Structure
 Number of Energy
Levels: 5

 First Energy Level:

2
 Second Energy
Level: 8
 Third Energy
Level: 18
 Fourth Energy
Level: 18
 Fifth Energy Level:
7
 Astatine
 SYMBOL: At
 Atomic number: 85.
 Astatine (after Greek αστατος astatos,
meaning "unsteady")
 History of Discovery
The existence of "eka-iodine" had been
predicted by Mendeleev. Astatine was first
synthesized in 1940 by Dale R. Corson,
K. R. MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè at the
University of California, Berkeley by
barraging bismuth with alpha particles. An
earlier name for the element was
alabamine (Ab).
PICTURE
 General Description of Discovery
 Astatine has the most metallic-like
properties of any of the halogens.
 Astatine is irritating to element collectors.
Collecting all the man-made elements is of
course impossible, since there are an
open-ended number of them of
increasingly short half-life. So people like
to define a "complete" element collection
as one containing all the elements up to
uranium.
 Chemical Properties
 Electrochemical Equivalent: 7.8346g/amp-hr
 Electron Work Function:
 Electronegativity (Pauling): 2.2
 Heat of Fusion: 114kJ/mol
 Incompatiblities:
 Ionization Potential
 First: 9.65
 valence Electron Potential (-eV):
 Physical Properties
 Atomic Mass Average: 210
 Boiling Point: 610K 337°C 639°F
 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:
 Conductivity
 Electrical:
Thermal: 0.017 W/cmK
 Enthalpy of Atomization: 92 kJ/mole @ 25°C
 Flammablity Class:
 Freezing Point: see melting point
 Heat of Vaporization: kJ/mol
 Melting Point: 575K 302°C 576°F
 Pysical State (at 20°C & 1atm): Solid
 Use and Importance
 Astatine is produced by bombarding
bismuth with energetic alpha particles to
obtain relatively long-lived 209At - 211At,
which can then be distilled from the target
by heating in the presence of air.
 Other Facts
 Astatine is highly carcinogenic: Mammary
and pituitary tumors have been induced in
laboratory animals by a single injection.
 Astatine can be produced by bombarding
bismuth with energetic alpha particles to
obtain the relatively long-lived 209-211At,
which can be distilled from the target by
heating in air.
Atomic Structure
 Number of Energy
Levels: 6
 First Energy Level:
2

 Second Energy
Level: 8

 Third Energy
Level: 18

 Fourth Energy
Level: 32

 Fifth Energy Level:

18

 Sixth Energy
Level: 7