Our direct knowledge of the earth's interior is minuscule. The
earth has a radius of about 6370 km, but the deepest
scientific borehole ever drilled is only 12 km. To put this in
perspective: if the earth were reduced to a tabletop globe 50
centimetres (20 inches) in diameter, the portion accessible to
direct observation through the deepest borehole would be the
equivalent of a very thin skin less than 1 millimetre (0.04
inch) thick. In other words, scientists have barely scratched
the surface of our globe.

Nevertheless, over the past 100 years or so, geoscientists
have put together a detailed picture of the earth's interior
based largely on indirect evidence -- mainly the behaviour of
seismic waves that travel through the earth [1]. The earth's
interior is believed to consist of several concentric spheres: an
outer solid crust, averaging 7 km thick beneath oceans and
35 km beneath continents; a mainly solid mantle extending
to a depth of 2900 km; an outer core of liquid iron extending
to a depth of 5150 km; and an inner core of solid iron, with a
radius of about 1220 km.

Whenever an earthquake occurs, seismic waves spread out
from the focus in all directions. Three types of waves are
distinguished: surface waves, body waves, and free
oscillations (vibrations of the entire planet). Instead of
travelling in straight lines, body waves are reflected and
refracted (bent), depending on the density, pressure, and
elasticity of the different layers of rock through which they
pass. On the basis of the time taken by different types of
waves from specific earthquakes to reach different parts of
the earth's surface, seismologists try to work out the precise
path the waves have taken, the changes in velocity they have
undergone at different depths, and the density and
composition of the earth at different depths. Nowadays this
is done with the help of supercomputers.

Raypaths are immensely complex; waves may undergo
multiple reflections and refractions, and their paths are
further complicated by the fact that lateral heterogeneity
exists at every depth in the earth. This is directly indicated
by the scatter in seismic-wave arrival times at all distances
from the source. Seismic tomography, which seeks to image
the three-dimensional structure of the earth, provides indirect
evidence of lateral variations of up to 10% in seismic velocity
through the crust and mantle.

Scientists cannot even begin to interpret the hundreds of
thousands of seismic records without making certain basic
assumptions about the earth's interior. The main assumptions
are that the earth's interior consists entirely of solid or liquid
physical matter, and that temperature, pressure, and density
increase with depth. These assumptions are generally believed
to be self-evident.

At several depths in the earth, there appear to be
discontinuities where the velocity of seismic waves changes
abruptly. Such discontinuities are often transition zones
rather than sharp boundaries, and vary in depth from place
to place. The dominant boundary is that between the mantle
and the core. Next in order of magnitude are the crust-
mantle boundary (Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho), the
inner core-outer core boundary, and the mid-mantle
discontinuities at depths of 400 and 670 km. The earth's core
was 'discovered' in 1906, and its depth (about 2900 km) was
determined by 1914. The Moho was 'discovered' in 1909, the
inner core in 1936, and the 400- and 670-km discontinuities
in the 1960s.

The thickness of the crust varies from 20 to 70 km beneath
continents and from 5 to 15 km beneath oceans. As well as
differing greatly in thickness, continental and oceanic crusts
are said to have very different compositions: continental
crust consists chiefly of granitic rock capped by sedimentary
rocks, while ocean crust is believed to be composed largely of
basalt and gabbro. At the crust-mantle boundary or Moho,