CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

In this chapter the writer presents review of the related study. In the review of the related theories. He discusses some important theories used to support this analysis, while in review of the related study, the writer takes one of graduate students thesis from UK Petra with the title The Study of Meaning and Contextual Features of Caricatures in the Surabaya Post Newspaper. 2.1 Review of the Related Theories The writer tries to take five theories that related to that title. Those are semantics, semantic feature, meaning, types of meaning and the changing of meaning. 2.1.1 Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning in communication. In linguistics it is the study of interpretation of signs as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts. As stated by Martinich, (1996:06) in his book that : Semantics is the study of the meanings of linguistic expressions (as opposed to their sound, spelling, etc.). This means that 'meaning' is a notoriously vague and ambiguous term; many different kinds of meaning are part of semantics. In relation with Martinichs statement above, simpson (1997:64) also give definition about semantics that: semantics, the study of meaning encompasses units of language which very in size, from parts of words and sounds right up to whole clauses and sentences. This means that semantics in language is focusing on the meaning which very in size, from parts of words of typically deals with meaning in every languages which people used.

Based on Hatch and Brown (1995:41) also give definition about semantics that: the use feature in semantics field analysis to identify the relationship of the lexical meaning and conceptual with a field with the goal of discovering how terms within the field or domain differ from each other in semantics feature analysis, by contrast, the primary goal is to find those feature that are distinctive, that have consequences for the grammar of the language and to clarify the various of a single word. Thus, the writer use semantic field because every meaning of language consists lexical and conceptual meaning besides that semantic has close relationship with the writers study. 2.1.2 Semantic Features A semantic feature is a notational method which can be used to express the existence or non-existence of semantic properties by using plus and minus signs. Man is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [+ADULT] Woman is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [+ADULT] Boy is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [-ADULT] Girl is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [-ADULT] In Semantic-Feature Analysis Anders & Bos stated that semantic feature is a strategy that helps reinforce vocabulary that is essential to understanding important concepts in a text. (Anders & Bos, 1986). For example : The teacher builds a grid in which essential vocabulary words are listed vertically and features and/ or ideas are listed horizontally. Students complete the grid by indicating with a check mark () or minus sign (-) whether each word possesses the stated features or is related to the ideas. 2.1.3 Meaning

In semantics, Fodor (1977:11) states: meaning are behavioral responses to verbal stimuli implies that are should formulate and seek to explain universal cross language semantics similarities in terms of universal laws relating stimuli and responses. From the above statement, the writer sums up that meaning is concept which can be transferred from the mind of the speaker to the reader by embodying them, as it were, in the form of one language or another. In line with Fodors statement above, Hurford and Heasley (1983:3) define meaning into two, there are speaker meaning and sentence meaning. speaker meaning is what the speaker means (i.e intends to convey) when he uses a pieces of language. Sentence meaning (or word meaning) is what the sentence (or word) means, i.e. what it counts as the equivalent of in the language concerned. From the quotation above, the writer states that speaker meaning is how the writer or speaker defines words meaning. To gives the clear definition, the writer gives the example as follow: A: Are you going to bed soon? B: What do you mean? A: I mean that I am tired, and the sooner you go to bed, the writer gives the example as follow The above mean is attributable to speakers and has the same meaning as the expression intend to indicate while sentence meaning deals with description of word or sentences. For example : Stevanie murdered Jacky means that someone called Jacky. 2.1.4 Types of Meaning There are five types of meaning relates to the study, those are: lexical meaning, expressive meaning, social meaning, grammatical meaning and conceptual meaning.

2.1.4.1 Lexical Meaning As Lyons (1984:262) states that lexical meaning is all words get their original meaning by virtue of their application to persons, objects, qualities, activities, processes and relations in highly specific situations. This means that lexical meaning is the original meaning in certain situation. To gives the clear definition about lexical meaning, the writer gives an example as follows: the writer gives an example as follows: the German verb reiten (ride) was originally restricted in denotation, or applicability, to riding on horseback ; and this is still identifiable as its central meaning. 2.1.4.2 Expressive/ Effective Meaning In conjunction with Lyonss statement above, Leech (1981:15) gives the definition of Expressive/ Effective meaning as the consideration of how language reflects the personal feelings of the speaker including his attitude the listener or his attitude to something he is talking about. This means that effective meaning or expressive meaning relates that people will be able to know the writers feeling by the way of how he or she reflects his or her feeling through word or sentences. For example: if someone exclaims sit down please! with the stress and intonation indicates an angrily. It describes the speaker emotion or state of mind. Here sit down please! is clear case of an exclamation that is frequently treated as belonging to a class of utterance distinctive from statement, question, and commends. An exclamation is one way which the speaker or writer expresses or reveals his feeling, attitude, belief, and personality. 2.1.4.3 Social Meaning Social meaning which states by Leech (1981:14) is a peace of language conveys about the social circumstance of it use. This statement means that social

meaning is a part of communication aspects that has something to do with the use of language to maintain social roles and relations. Leech (1981:15) also gives two examples: 1. They Chucked a stone at the cops and then did a bunk with a loot. 2. After casting a store at the police, they absconded with the money. From the quotation above, the writer sums up that they are synonymous expression, however there is different status, the sentence which is said by the criminal and the officer is different. The first sentence is said by the criminal, taking casually about the crime. Afterward, while the second sentence is said by chief inspector in making official report. To give clear explanation, the writer give the example relates to above case: if there is someone said I need water. The example above has the form and meaning of assertion, and while in social reality (example if said to the waiters in a restaurant or cafe) it is called request statement such as please bring me water. 2.1.4.4 Grammatical Meaning As stated by Jackendoff (1990:16) in his book; this is not to say that every aspect of syntax should be explainable in semantic terms ..the point of the grammatical meaning is only to attempt to minimize the differences of syntactic and semantic structure. From the statement above, the writer can withdraw the conclusion that grammatical meaning will occur if there are differences between syntactic and semantic structure. For example the verb kill entails-truly and necessary implies the meaning cause someone to become dead. That is, in all cases where L kills P, it follows that L causes P to become dead. This is not to say that kill means the same thing as, or is even adequately paraphrased by cause to because dead. That is , in all cases where L

kills P, it follows that L causes P to become dead this is not to say that kill means the same thing as, or is even adequately paraphrased by cause to because dead. It only means that will involve at least three semantic notion: causing, becoming, and death. 2.1.4.5 Contextual Meaning Contextual meaning has to do with the recognition of the meaning of a word using the context where the word is. This is why the knowledge of the word order and context is helpful to support word identification and confirm word meaning. For i. A example: lovely Sweet! way to Depending address on the context Sweet! could Please mean: come.

someone.

ii. To show you are approve of something. Free tickets? Sweet! (American English) iii. The taste of a food. What do you prefer, a sweet or savoury snack? Sweet! Sperber & Noveck stated that "...pragmatics is the study of how linguistic properties and contextual factors interact in the interpretation of utterances" ( Sperber & Noveck 2004:1 ). It is argued that world knowledge is available to interlocutors in two forms: as encapsulated in lexical items based on prior encounters and experience (conventionalized cognitive context), and as provided by the actual situational context framed by the situation in which the interaction takes place. Meaning formally expressed in the linguistic interactional context is created on-the-spot, and is the result of the interaction of the two sides of world knowledge and the actual situational context. 2.1.5 The Changing of Meaning Semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. Semantic change is one of three major processes to find a designation for a concept.

The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology and semantics. A number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change. The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from Leonard Bloomfield (1933): Narrowing: Change from superordinate level to subordinate level, e.g., meat "food" "flesh of an animal" Widening: Change from subordinate level to superordinate level, e.g., bird "nestling, young bird" "bird" Metaphor: Change based on similarity of thing, e.g., bitter "biting" "not sweet" Metonymy: Change based on nearness in space or time, e.g., jaw "cheek" "jaw" Synecdoche: Change based on whole-part relation, e.g., town "fence" "city" Hyperbole: Change from stronger to weaker meaning, e.g., astound "strike with thunder" "surprise strongly" Litotes: Change from weaker to stronger meaning, e.g., kill "torment" "kill" Degeneration: e.g., knave "boy" "servant" Elevation: e.g., knight "boy" "knight"

Related to his study the writer takes two of them they are : 2.1.5.1 Narrowing As stated by bloomfield (1933) Narrowing is change from superordinate level to subordinate level. For instance:

Originally: Add feature/s:

[+animate] [+winged]

'bird'

[+animate] 'chicken' Narrower meaning: [+winged] Specific type of bird, viz. 'chicken' [genus Gallus] (=domestic cock/hen) Fewer referents: Chickens are only a subset of birds generally

2.1.5.2 Widening As stated by Bloomfield (1933) Widening is change from subordinate level to superordinate level. For instance: the word virus has meaning as disease but in the other context such as computer virus, or society virus. The word virus not only has meaning as disease for human but also 2.2 Review of the Previous Study The writer takes the previous study from the student of UK PETRA. Sophie Irawaty Budiarto, No.Reg:11495104. The Study of Meaning and Contextual Features of Caricatures in the Surabaya Post Newspaper. 1999 this thesis is about the study of meanings and contextual features of caricatures in the Surabaya post newspaper using semantic theories and also discourse analysis theories. In this study, the writer wants to investigate 1) what are the denotative meanings of the words or phrases 2) which occur in the caricatures, 3) which contextual features appear in those caricatures,4) what are the connotative meanings of the words or phrases which occurs in the caricatures. This analysis is different from the previous study since the writer uses Semantic Features as the focus of the analysis. The contribution of reviewing the previous studies for the writer is giving much better understanding in analyzing semantic features in with the title A Study of Semantic Features in Formula 1 Found in F1 Magazine.