Atomic Physics

Prof. C.A.
KIWANGA (in memoriam)

African Virtual university
Universit Virtuelle Africaine
Universidade Virtual Africana
Atomic Physics
Atomic Physics

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Notice
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I. AtomicPhysics____________________________________________5
II. PrerequisiteCourseorKnowledge _____________________________5
III. Time ____________________________________________________5
IV. Materials_________________________________________________5
V. ModuleRationale __________________________________________5
VI. Content__________________________________________________6
6.1 Overview___________________________________________6
6.2 Outline _____________________________________________7
6.3 GraphicOrganizer_____________________________________8
VII. GeneralObjective(s)________________________________________8
VIII. SpecificLearningObjectives__________________________________9
IX. Pre-assessment __________________________________________10
X. TeachingandLearningActivities______________________________15
XI. GlossaryofKeyConcepts__________________________________107
XII. ListofCompulsoryReadings _______________________________109
XIII. CompiledListof(Optional)MultimediaResources_______________113
XIV. CompiledListofUsefulLinks_______________________________115
XV. SynthesisoftheModule___________________________________119
XVI. SummativeEvaluation_____________________________________120
XVII.References _____________________________________________124
XVIII.MainAuthoroftheModule________________________________125
XIX.FileStructure ___________________________________________125
Table of ConTenTs
Notice
Foreword
This module has four major sections.
The frst one is the INTRODUCTORY section that consists of fve parts vis:
TITLE:- The title of the module is clearly described
PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: In this section you are provided with informa-
tion regarding the specifc pre-requisite knowledge and skills you require to start the
module. Carefully look into the requirements as this will help you to decide whether
you require some revision work or not.
TIME REQUIRED: It gives you the total time (in hours) you require to complete
the module. All self tests, activities and evaluations are to be fnished in this specifed
time.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Here you will fnd the list of materials you require
to complete the module. Some of the materials are parts of the course package you
will receive in a CD-Rom or access through the internet. Materials recommended
to conduct some experiments may be obtained from your host institution (Partner
institution of the AVU) or you may acquire or borrow by some other means.
MODULE RATIONALE: In this section you will get the answer to questions like
Why should I study this module as pre-service teacher trainee? What is its relevance
to my career?
The second is the CONTENT section that consists of three parts
OVERVIEW: The content of the module is briefy presented. In this section you will
fned a video fle (QuickTime, movie) where the author of this module is interviewed
about this module. The paragraph overview of the module is followed by an outline
of the content including the approximate time required to complete each section. A
graphic organization of the whole content is presented next to the outline. All these
three will assist you to picture how content is organized in the module.
GENERAL OBJECTIVE(S): Clear informative, concise and understandable objec-
tives are provided to give you what knowledge skills and attitudes you are expected
to attain after studying the module.
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES (INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES):
Each of the specifc objectives, stated in this section, are at the heart of a teaching
learning activity. Units, elements and themes of the module are meant to achieve the
specifc objectives and any kind of assessment is based on the objectives intended to
be achieved. You are urged to pay maximum attention to the specifc objectives as
they are vital to organize your effort in the study of the module.
The third section is the bulk of the module. It is the section where you will spend
more time and is referred to as the TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITIES. The
gist of the nine components is listed below:
PRE-ASSESSMENT: A set of questions, that will quantitatively evaluate your level
of preparedness to the specifc objectives of this module, are presented in this section.
The pre-assessment questions help you to identify what you know and what you need
to know, so that your level of concern will be raised and you can judge your level
of mastery. Answer key is provided for the set of questions and some pedagogical
comments are provided at the end.
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES: This is the heart of the module.
You need to follow the learning guidance in this section. Various types of activities
are provided. Go through each activity. At times you my not necessarily follow the
order in which the activities are presented. It is very important to note:
formative and summative evaluations are carried out thoroughly
all compulsory readings and resources are done
as many as possible useful links are visited
feedback is given to the author and communication is done
COMPILED LIST OF ALL KEY CONCEPTS (GLOSSARY): This section
contains short, concise defnitions of terms used in the module. It helps you with
terms which you might not be familiar with in the module.
COMPILED LIST OF COMPULSORY READINGS: A minimum of three com-
pulsory reading materials are provided. It is mandatory to read the documents.
COMPILED LIST OF (OPTIONAL) MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES: Total list
of copyright free multimedia resources referenced in, and required for completion
of, the learning activities is presented.
COMPILED LIST OF USEFUL LINKS: a list of at least 10 relevant web sites that
help you understand the topics covered in the module are presented. For each link,
complete reference (Title of the site, URL),a screen capture of each link as well as
a 50 word description are provided.
SYNTHESIS OF THE MODULE: Summary of the module is presented.
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION:
Enjoy your work on this module.
I. atomic Physics
By Prof.C.A.Kiwanga, The Open University of Tanzania
II. Prerequisite Course or Knowledge
Before you start this Module, you are expected to be familiar with pre-university
calculus, geometry and also to have done Physics modules Mechanics 1 & 2, Waves
and Optics, Thermal Physics, Electricity 1 & 2 and Quantum Mechanics.
III. Time
You are expected to spend 120 hours of self study on this module. You should share
the time allocation such that Learning Activities 1 and 3 take more time than Learning
Activities 2 and 4. This works out to be 40 hours for Atomic Models, 20 hours for
Electrical Discharges, 40 hours for Atomic Spectra and 20 hours for X-Rays.
IV. Material
The following list identifes and describes the equipment necessary for all of the
activities in this module. The quantities listed are required for each group.
1. Computer (With Internet Access): - A personal computer with word pro-
cessing and spreadsheet software
2. Periodic Table of Elements: -
3. Metre Stick: -
V. Module Rationale
Atomic physics may loosely be defned as the scientifc study of the struc-
ture of the atom, its energy states, and its interactions with other particles
and felds. Learning Atomic Physics is important not only for understanding
the physics of the atom but also the technological applications thereof. For
example, the fact that each element has its own characteristic fngerprint
spectrum has contributed signifcantly to advances in material science and
also in cosmology.
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VI. Content
6.1 Overview
In this module you will learn about an important topic in physics, namely Atomic
Physics. The subject matter of the module is a principal component of the so called
Modern Physics, a scientifc discipline that came into being in the late 19th century and
early 20th century. You will be guided through the historical development of atomic
theories, through the work of Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr. These four
scientists have a very special place in the development of Atomic Physics. The work
by Dalton and Thompson laid the ground on which Rutherford and Bohr built upon
to the extent that the models developed by the latter two scientists are usable to some
extent today. Hence you will be required to solve problems relating to Rutherfords
and Bohrs models of the atom.
In Learning Activity 2 of this module you will be guided through the gas discharge
phenomenon and the onset of cathode rays. This phenomenon was a puzzle to the
scientists of the day but led to an important discovery of the electron, the frst sub-
atomic particle to be discovered. Towards the end of the Learning Activity you will be
guided through Millikans oil drop experiment that led to the discovery that electric
charge is particulate or quantized.
In Learning Activity 3, you will be guided through the evolution of atomic spectra and
learn about the uniqueness of an atomic spectrum for every element. The uniqueness
of atomic spectra has scientifc and technological implications.
In Learning Activity 4, you will be guided through the origin of x-rays, the deve-
lopment of x-ray spectra and the uniqueness of x-ray spectrum for every element.
Towards the end of the unit we discuss and solve problems using Moseleys law and
fnally you will learn about the use of x-rays as an analytical tool.
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6.2 Outline
Atomic Models (40 hours)
Daltons and Thomsons Models,
Rutherfords alpha Scattering Experiment.
Rutherfords Planetary Model of an Atom,
Bohrs Model of an Atom ;
Bohrs Postulates
Electrical Discharges (20 hours)
Discovery of Cathode Rays.
CRT glow Variation with Pressure,
Properties of Cathode Rays.
Atomic Spectra (40 hours)
Quantum Numbers
Angular Momenturm Coupling Schemes,
Vector Model of an Atom,
Zeeman Effect.
Fine Structure of Hydrogen Spectrum
Emission and Absorption Spectra.
Pauli Exclusion Principle.
X-Rays (20 hours)
Production Properties and Characteristic X-Ray Spectra,
X-Ray Diffraction,
Bragg Equation and Crystal Spectrometer
Atomic X-ray Spectra of Elements
Moseleys Law.
6.3 Graphic Organizer
VII. General objective(s)
The aim of this module is to guide the learner through a chronological develop-
ment of Atomic Physics. The learner begins by studying the development of atomic
models from Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford and fnally Bohr. After atomic models
the learner is guided through a phenomenon that led to the discovery of the electron
and its negative charge. Gas discharge experiments also laid the ground as to how
atoms could be excited.
After completing this module you will be able to
Understand the development of atomic theories,
Solve problems related to emission and absorption spectra of atoms and
Describe production of x-rays and their interaction with matter
8
VIII. specifc learning objectives
(Instructional objectives)
Content
Atomic Models (40 hours)
Daltons and Thomsons Models,
Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Expe-
riment.
Rutherfords Planetary Model of an
Atom,
Bohrs Model of an Atom ;
Bohrs Postulates
Electrical Discharges (20 hours)
Discovery of Cathode Rays.
CRT glow Variation with Pressure,
Properties of Cathode Rays.
Atomic Spectra (40 hours)
Quantum Numbers
Angular Momenturm
Coupling Schemes,
Vector Model of an Atom,
Zeeman Effect.
Fine Structure of
Hydrogen Spectrum
Emission and
Absorption Spectra.
Pauli Exclusion Principle.
X-Rays (20 hours)
Production Properties and Characte-
ristic X-Ray Spectra,
X-Ray Diffraction,
Bragg Equation and Crystal Spectrometer
Atomic X-ray Spectra of Elements
Moseleys Law.
Learning objectives
After Completing this section
you would be able to:
Describe the characteristics of
Dalton and Thomson atomic mo-
dels
Solve problems related to the
alpha-scattering experiment
Solve problems using Bohrs pos-
tulates
Explain the discharge phenomena
under different pressures
Put forward evidence that cathode
rays are electrons
Describe the setting and purpose
of Millikans oil drop experiment
Use the vector model of atom to
solve problems and explain proper-
ties
Explain the fne structure of spectra
Explain the atomic origin of X-rays
Distinguish characteristic X-Rays
from Bremstrahlung radiation
Use Braggs rule to solve problems
Solve problems using Moseleys Law
IX. Pre-assessment
Are you ready for Atomic Physics Module?
Dear Learner
In this section, you will fnd self-evaluation questions that will help you test your
preparedness to complete this module. You should judge yourself sincerely and do
the recommended action after completion of the self-test. We encourage you to take
time and answer the questions.
Dear Instructor
The Pre-assessment questions placed here guide learners to decide whether they are
prepared to take the content presented in this module. It is strongly suggested to abide
by the recommendations made on the basis of the mark obtained by the learner. As
their instructor you should encourage learners to evaluate themselves by answering
all the questions provided below. Education research shows that this will help learners
be more prepared and help them articulate previous knowledge.
9.1 Self Evaluation Associated With Atomic Physics
Evaluate your preparedness to take the module on atomic physics. If you score
greater than or equal to 60 out of 75, you are ready to use this module. If you score
something between 40 and 60 you may need to revise your school physics on topics
of mechanics, electromagnetism and modern physics. A score less than 40 out of 75
indicates you need to physics.
All questions are in multiple choice format. The learner should choose the most ap-
propriate alternative and award oneself 5 marks for each correct choice.
1. Before 1945, the atom was defned to be the smallest
a) electrically charged particle
b) divisible particle
c) indistinguishable particle
d) indivisible particle.
2. The colours of the rainbow are such that
a) only the primary colours are present
b) black and white colours are also present
c) violet and red are at either edge of the spectrum
d) none of the above is correct.
3. One essential apparatus in an experiment on the dispersion of white light is
a) a double convex lens
b) a rectangular glass block
c) a curved mirror
d) a triangular glass prism
4. X-rays are
a) subatomic particles travelling at relativistic velocities
b) produced when a metallic solid is heated to temperatures close to the respective
melting point.
c) at the short wavelength side of the electromagnetic spectrum.
d) at the low frequency side of the electromagnetic spectrum
5. In classical physics
a) an electron travels with an associated deBroglie wavelength
b) a particle is associated with any wave phenomenon
c) the Pauli exclusion principle applies
d) none of the above is correct.
6. Phenomenological derivation of the Schrodinger equation was inspired by two
equtions in classical physics
a) wave equation and Newtons second law of motion
b) wave equation and Newtons frst law of motion
c) Ampere-Maxwell equation and the wave equation
d) none of the above equations.
7. One key result from quantum mechanics is
a) the distinction of matter and wave phenomena
b) the ultra violet catastrophe
c) the non distinction of wave phenomena and moving subatomic particles
d) the discovery of negative charge in cathode rays.
8. The partial differential equation for the hydrogen atom is best solved using
a) cartesian coordinates
b) cylindrical coordinates
c) spherical polar coordinates
d) none of the above coordinate systems.
9. A particle is performing circular motion with a tangential velocity v. If r is the
radius of the circle, then the particle acceleration is given by
a) v/r
b) v
2
/r
c) v/r
2

d) v
2
/r
2
.
10. If the particle in Q.9 has mass m, the angular momentum L of the paricle is given
by
a) mv/r
b) mv
2
/r
c) mvr
d) mv/r
2
.
11. The angular momentum vector of the particle in Q.9 and Q.10, is given by
L r p = , where is the linear momentum. The z-component of

r
L is given
by
a)

L
z
= xp
y
yp
x
b)

L
z
= yp
z
zp
y
c)

L
z
= xp
x
yp
y
d)

L
z
= zp
z
yp
y
.
12. A spherical positive charge Q has radius R. The magnitude of the electric feld
at a point a distance r < R from the centre is given by
a)

E =
r
2
4
0
Q
b)

E =
1
4
0
r
Q
c)

E =
r
4
0
Q
d)

E =
1
4
0
Q
r
2
.

r
p

r
L =
r
r
r
p
13. The quantisation of electromagnetic energy is summarized by the equation
a) E = mc
2
b) E = h
c) E = h
d) E = hc
14. An excited atom is one whose energy state is
a) higher than that of the ground state
b) lower than that of the ground state
c) the same as that of the ground state
d) such that none of the above is correct.
15. In terms of energy, violet light
a) is more energetic than red light
b) is less energetic than red light
c) has the same energy as that of red light
d) is such that none of the above is correct.
16. In terms of wavelength, the wavelenght of violet light
a) is longer than that of red light
b) is shorter than that of red light
c) is equal to that of red light
d) is such that none of the above is correct.
17. A particle of mass m carrying positive charge Q is left to drop between charged
parallel plates. If the the electric feld between the plates is E V/m acting upwards
and the medium between plates is viscous causing a drag force bv, the relation
between forces at balance is given by
a)

m
r
g = q
r
E + b
r
v
b)

m
r
g = q
r
E - b
r
v
c)

m
r
g = bq
r
E
r
v
d)

mg = bq
r
E .
r
v .
18) The condition for diffraction of light is that the wavelength
a) is of the same order as that of the slit width
b) is greater than that of the slit width
c) is very much smaller than that of the slit width
d) can assume any value relative the slit width.
19. Ionization energy is defned as being the energy required to
(a) remove an inner shell electron from a gaseous atom.
(b) remove the outermost electron from a gaseous atom.
(c) raise an electron from K-shell to M-shell in a gaseous atom.
(d) neither of the above defnitions.
20. The Binding energy of an atom is defned as being the energy required to
(a) excite an inner shell electron.
(b) completely remove an outer shell electron.
(c) completely remove an inner shell electron.
(d) implant an electron into an inner shell.
9.2 Answer Key:
1. d
2. c
3. d
4. c
5. d
6. a
7. c
8. c
9. b
10. c
9.3 Pedagogical Comment For The Learner:
The questions you have just done are meant to test your preparedness to take on this
module. The module builds on the knowledge you already know and extends from
there. Hence the percentage score is indicative of the level of preparedness of the
learner. Any score of less than 50% implies a lot of catching up to be done before
commencement of the module..
11. a
12. c
13. c
14. a
15. a
16. b
17. b
18. a
19. b
20. c
X. Teaching and learning activities
Activity 1: Atomic Models
You will require 40 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are guided
with a series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self assessment
questions and problems. You are strongly advised to go through the activities and
consult all the compulsory materials and as many as possible among useful links
and references.
Specific Teaching and Learning Objectives
Describe the characteristics of Dalton and Thompson atomic models
Solve problems related to the alpha-scattering experiment
Solve problems using Bohrs postulates
Summary of the Learning Activity
Learning Activity 1 lays the foundation for the whole module. The Activity begins
by looking at the subject matter from an historical perspective. Atomic models by
the founders of atomic physics, namely Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr are
presented. Lastly we introduce the concept of quantum numbers and also discuss
Paulis Exclusion principle.
List of Required Readings
Reading 1: Atomic Models
Complete reference :
From: wikipedia
URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_physics
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract : This reading is compiled from wikipedia page indicated above and
the links available in the page. Titles on Daltons model of the atom, Thompsons
plum pudding model, Rutherfords alpha scattering experiment that led to the pla-
netary model of an atom and quantum mechanics are discussed.
Rationale : The material in this compilation is essential to the frst activity of this
module.
Reading 2: Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom
Complete reference: http://musr.physics.ubc.ca/~jess/hr/skept/QM1D/node2.html
Date Consulted: June 2007
Abstract : In three webpages the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is presented
concisely. You are advised to begin with the page referenced here and then use the
next link to go to the derivation of the Bohr radius and click next again for calculation
of energy levels.
Rationale: The material is presented in a manner that it is easy to follow.
Reading 3: Theory of Rutherford Scattering
Complete reference: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rutcon.html#c1
Date consulted: April 2007
Abstract: The physics of scattering as it relates to the Rutherford Model of the atom
is beautifully presented. You will have to follow the outline as presented in this page
and click on each link as presented in the outline.
Rationale: The material presented in this link is essential and relevant to this
course.
List of Relevant MM Resources
Reference: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl
Date consulted: December 2006
Description: A beautiful applet whereby you create your own atom. Upon entering
the Physics 2000 Home page, click on Table of contents and then go to Science Trek
and click on Electric Force. Place your cursor about 5 cm away from the proton.
Click and drag the created electron at say 45 or greater towards the nucleus and let
go. Then watch the electron make an elliptical orbit around the proton. You will be
surprised at the number of non colliding orbital electrons you can create around
the nucleus.
Reference: http://www.weaowen.screaming.net/revision/nuclear/rsanim.htm
Description: A simulation of the Rutherford alpha particle scattering experiment
against a gold target. In this simulation the nucleus is represented by a yellow dot and
the alpha particle by a red dot which is smaller than the yellow dot. A scattering event
is realized by the learner following the instructions regarding choice of the energy
of the alpha particle, dragging the red dot and clicking the fre bar. You must clear
tracks and hits before the next scattering event. Should you get no response when
click fre, try again. Implementation of one set of the instructions constitutes one
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experiment. The next experiment starts by clicking the next bar to rest the position
of the alpha particle. After several scattering events you need to clear tracks. The
alpha particle energy is restricted between 8 and 25 MeV.
Reference: http://www.physics.brown.edu/physics/demopages/Demo/modern/demo/
7d5010.htm
Abstract: An animation of the experimental set up of Rutherford alpha scattering
is shown. 400 alpha particles are fred at a thin gold foil.
Reference: http://webphysics.davidson.edu/Applets/pqp_preview/contents/pqp_er-
rata/cd_errata_fxes/section4_7.html
Abstract: An animation on the Rutherford Scaterring in which you set your own
values for number of alpha particles, kinetic energy, target nuclear charge and
impact parameter.
Rfrence : http://www.control.co.kr/java1/masong/absorb.html
Description: A Java applet for an absorption spectrum of a Bohr atom
List of Relevant Useful Links
Resource #1
Title: From Bohrs Atom to Electron Waves
URL: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/Bohr_to_Waves/Bohr_to_Wa-
ves.html
Screen Capture:
Reactions to Bohrs Model
Bohrs interpretation of the Balmer formula in terms of quantized angular momen-
tum was certainly impressive, but his atomic model didnt make much mechanical
sense, as he himself conceded

Description: A chronological account of the work by Niels Bohr that culminated
in the quantisation of angular momentum.
Rationale: The article is a lecture among several lectures in Modern Physics
given by Prof Michael Fowler. You should link to the Physics 252 Home page and
read as much as you can Lectures on Atoms, Particles and Waves.
Date Consulted: April 2006
Resource #2
Title: Chapter 27: Early Quantum Theory and Models of the atom
http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:p4PiiJqdDkwJ:cherenkov.physics.iastate.
edu/~mkpohl/teach/112/ch27.pdf+MODELS+OF+THE+ATOM&hl=en&ct=clnk
&cd=79
Screen Capture:
Description: The article is Power Point presentation of Early Quantum Theory and
Early models of the atmom:Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr.
Rationale: The material is brief and sharp. You should read it. To access it frst click
on the url address given and the click on this link: http://cherenkov.physics.iastate.
edu/~mkpohl/teach/112/ch27.pdf.
Resource #3
Title: Atomic Physics
URL: http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/bohr/node1.html
Screen Capture:
Description: On this site you will fnd various links that will help you explore the
Bohr model of the hydrogen atom and its extensions. This model was one of the
greatest successes of early quantum theory, and spurred many further investigations
which continue to this day.
Rationale: The material in this resource is relevant to this module. .
Resource #4
Title: Atomic Models and Spectra
URL:http://online.cctt.org/physicslab/content/Phy1/lessonnotes/atomic/atomicmo-
delsandspectra.asp
Screen Capture:
Description: A chronological account of the work of Rutherford on alpha particle
scattering and the emergence of the nucleus.
Rationale: The material is good for you. .
Resource #5
Title: Rutherford Scattering
URL: http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfadd/1160/Ch29Atm/Ruthrfd.html
Screen Capture:

Rutherfords atomic scattering experiments
Description: Concise notes on Rutherford Scattering
Rationale: This article is part of a series of lecture notes in Atomic Physics. Follow
the Links to get more material. .
Resource #6
Title: Atomic Structure Concepts
URL:-http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/atomstructcon.html#c1
Screen Capture:
Description: This is very useful and almost a complete resource on the Physics of the
Hydrogen atom. You follow the boxes sequentially, starting with the box Hydrogen
energy levels in which you will be linked to the Bohr model etc.
Rationale:This article provides the links to practically all the concepts relevant to
this module.
Date Consulted:- April 2006
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Elements)
Introduction
In ancient Greece, there were two schools of thought regarding the structure of matter,
namely Atomic theory conveying a particulate nature of matter and the continuous
theory of matter proposed by Aristotle. The continuous theory of matter having been
proposed by such a prominent person at the time overshadowed the atomic theory
of matter for sometime.
Daltons Model of the Atom
John Dalton, at the beginning of the 19
th
century, proposed an atomic model that
allowed limited quantitative study of the atom.
Daltons model was that the atoms were tiny, indivisible, indestructible particles,
like billiard balls, and that each one had a certain mass, size, and chemical beha-
vour that was determined by what kind of element it was.
Daltons model is silent about the composition and internal structure of the atom.
Thompsons Model of the Atom
Towards the end of the 19
th
century much spectroscopic data had been gathered taking
advantage of the development of photographic flm, the gas discharge tube, and of the
diffraction gratings. The characterisitic atomic spectrum for every element had been
established. However a theoretical basis to explain the observation was lacking.
J.J.Thompson having established that cathode rays were negatively charged, later
given the name electrons, went on to assume that the electron is a part of the atom
and proposed a model for the atom as a sphere full of an electrically positive subs-
tance mixed with negative electrons like the raisins in a cake. Thompsons model
is frequently referred to as the plumb pudding model.
In an African sense, one could picture a Thompson atom much like a spherically
symmetric guava fruit.
Thompson explained emission lines by suggesting that electrons radiated as they
oscillated within the positive pudding. However, this could not explain the precise
wavelength patterns emitted by different elements.
Rutherfords Model of the Atom
Sir Ernest Rutherford proposed a model of the atom based on the results of alpha
particle scattering that the atom consisted mainly of empty space with a tiny, positively
charged nucleus, containing most of the mass of the atom, surrounded by negative
electrons in orbit around the nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun.
According to Maxwells electromagnetic theory, a charged particle in circular motion
radiates energy and so an electron in a Rutherfords atom should continuously lose
energy as it moves in a planetary orbit and eventually should spiral down to the nu-
cleus at the centre of the atom, which does not happen. Rutherfords model though
a much improved picture of the atom, but could not explain stability of the atom.
Furthermore, according to classical physics, the energy emitted by an electron as it
spirals down to the nucleus should have all frequencies, in other words the emitted
spectrum should be continuous which is not the case. The emitted spectrum consist of
lines in a dark background. Thus, Rutherfords model could not explain the observed
line spectra of elements.
Bohrs Model of the Atom
Niels Bohr proposed an atomic model that would explain the discrepancies between
the observed line spectra emitted by elements and the spectra predicted by the Ruther-
fords atomic model.
Bohr proposed the following postulates
1. An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the
infuence of the Coulomb force between the electron and the nucleus.
2. An electron moves in an orbit for which its orbital angular momentum
r
L
is
an integral multiple of .
3. An electron moving in an allowed orbit does not radiate electromagnetic
energy. Thus, its total energy E remains constant.
4. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted if an electron, initially moving in an orbit
of total energy

E
i
, discontinuously changes its motion so that it moves in an
orbit of total energy

E
f
. The frequency of the emitted radiation is equal to
the quantity

E
i
E
f
( )
/ h .
Electron Cloud Model of the Atom
The cloud model represents a sort of history of where the electron has probably been
and where it is likely to be going. You can visualize a dot in the middle of a largely
empty sphere to represent the nucleus while smaller dots around the nucleus to re-
present instances of the electron having been there. The collection of traces quickly
begins to resemble a cloud.
Rutherford Scattering
Adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruther-
ford_scattering
Rutherford scattering is a phenomenon that was explained by Ernest Rutherford in
1911, and led to the development of the orbital theory of the atom. It is now exploited
by the materials analytical technique Rutherford backscattering. Rutherford scattering
is also sometimes referred to as Coulomb scattering because it relies on static electric
(Coulomb) forces. A similar process probed the insides of nuclei in the 1960s, called
deep inelastic scattering.
Highlights of Rutherfords Experiment
A beam of particles were aimed at a thin gold foil.
Most of the particles passed through without defection.
Others were defected by various angles
Some were backscattered .

Sir Ernest Rutherford
From these results Rutherford concluded that the majority of the mass was concentra-
ted in a minute, positively charged region (the nucleus) surrounded by electrons. When
a (positive) alpha particle approached suffciently close to the nucleus, it was repelled
strongly enough to rebound at high angles. The small size of the nucleus explained the
small number of alpha particles that were repelled in this way. Rutherford showed,
using the method below, that the size of the nucleus was less than about 10
14
m .
Scattering Theory
Main assumptions
Collision between a point charge but heavy nucleus with charge Q=Ze and
a light projectile with charge q = ze is considered to be elastic,
Momentum and energy are conserved,
The particles interact by the Coulomb force;
The vertical distance the projectile is from the centre of the target, the impact
parameter b, determines the scattering angle .

Fig. 1.1 Rutherford Scattering Geometry
The relationship between the scattering angle , the initial kinetic energy

K =
1
2
mv
0
2
and the impact parameter b is given by

b =
zZ
2K
e
2
4
0
cot / 2
( )
1.1
where z =2 for -particle and Z = 79 for gold.
A Cursory Derivation of the Differential Cross section
In Fig. 1.2 or 1.3, a particle that hits the ring between b and b + db is scattered into
the solid angle d between and + d.
By defnition, the cross section is the proportionality constant

2bdb =
( )
2 sind
Hence,

d = 2b db =
d
d
d 1.2
where

d = 2 sind
The Differential Cross Section then becomes

d
d
=
2b db
2 sind
1.3
From Eqns.1.1 and 1.3 we have

d
d
=
1
4
0
2
qQ
4K
2
1
sin
4
/ 2
( )
1.4
Eq.1.4, is called the Differential Cross section for Rutherford Scattering.

Fig.1.2 SchematicGeometryforCalculationofScatteringCross
Section

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rutcon.html#c1
Fig.1.3 Detailed Geometrical Arrangements for Calculation of Scattering
Cross Section
In the above calculations, only a single - particle is considered. In a scattering ex-
periment, one must consider multiple scattering events and one measures the fraction
of particles scattered through a given angle.
For a detector at a specifc angle with respect to the incident beam, the number of
particles per unit area striking the detector is given by the Rutherford formula:

N
( )
=
N
i
nLZ
2
k
2
e
4
4r
2
KE
2
sin
2
/ 2
( )
1.5
Where N
i
= number of incident - particles,
n = atoms per unit volume in target
L = thickness of the target
Z = atomic number of target
e = electronic charge
k = Coulombs constant
r = target to detector distance,
KE = kinetic energy of - particles and
= scattering angle.
The predicted variation of detected alphas with angle is followed closely by the
Geiger-Marsden data, shown in Fig. 1.4 below.

Fig.1.4 VerifcationofRutherfordsFormula
Calculation of Maximal Nuclear Size
For head on collisions between alpha particles and the nucleus, all the kinetic energy

1
2
mv
2
of the alpha particle is turned into potential energy and the particle is at rest.

The distance from the centre of the alpha particle to the centre of the nucleus (b) at
this point is a maximum value for the radius, if it is evident from the experiment that
the particles have not hit the nucleus.

Fig.1.5 Scattering with Different Impact Parameters
Applying the Coulomb potential energy between the charges on the electron and
nucleus, one can write:

1
2
mv
2
=
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
b
Rearranging:

b =
1
4
0
2q
1
q
2
mv
2
1.6
For an alpha particle:
m (mass) = 6.710
27
kg
q
1
= 2(1.610
19
) C
q
2
(for gold) = 79(1.610
19
) C
v (initial velocity) = 210
7
m/s

Substituting these into Eqn.1.6, gives the value of the impact parameter of about
2.710
14
m. The true radius is about 7.310
15
m.
The Bohr Model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model

Fig.1. 6 A Bohr Picture of the Hydrogen Atom
The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, Fig.1.6, where a negatively charged electron
confned to atomic shells encircle a small positively charged atomic nucleus, and that
an electron jump between orbits must be accompanied by an emitted or absorbed
amount of electromagnetic energy h. The orbits that the electron travel in are shown
as grey circles; their radius increases as n
2
, where n is the principal quantum number.
The 32 transition depicted here produces the frst line of the Balmer series, and for
hydrogen (Z = 1) results in a photon of wavelength 656 nm (red).
Expression for the Bohr Radius
Consider the case of an ion with charge of the nucleus being Ze and an electron mo-
ving with constant speed v along a circle of radius r with the centre at the nucleus.
The Coulomb force on the electron is

F =
Ze
2
4
0
r
2
The Coulomb force is balanced by the centripetal force, so that we have

Ze
2
4
0
r
2
=

mv
2
r
Using Bohrs angular momentum quantization rule

L = mrv =
h
2
= h
We have the n
th
Bohr radius

r
n
=

0
n
2
h
2
mZe
2
1.7
And the velocity of the electron in the n
th
orbit

v
n
=
Ze
2
2
0
hn
1.8
The Classical Planetary Model
We compute the energy of the hydrogen atom and the frequency of the orbital motion
of a Bohr atom.
Energy
Total mechanical energy E = E
k
+ E
p
( kinetic + potential)

E =
1
2
mv
2
+
ke
2
r
1.9
where

k =
1
4
0
.
The orbital motion is maintained by the Coulomb force

ke
2
r
2
=
mv
2
r

mv
2
=
ke
2
r
1.10
We see from Eqns 1.9 and 1.10 that when an orbit is circular the kinetic energy is
half the magnitude of the potential energy. Giving

E =
1
2
ke
2
r

ke
2
r

E =
1
2
ke
2
r
1.11
This equation shows that the total energy of the system is negative. As the orbital
radius of the electron r increases, the energy E decreases approaching zero.
Since the energy E is negative, the electron and proton form a bound system. For
hydrogen E = -13.6 eV and r = 0.53 .
Frequency
The orbital frequency

f =

2
=
v
2r
1.12
where is the orbital angular speed of the electron. From Eqn. 1.10 we have

v
r
=
ke
2
mr
3
Substituting this in Eqn(4) we have

f =
1
2
ke
2
mr
3
1.13
For the H atom f = 7 x 10
15
Hz, which is in the ultra violet region of the electro-
magnetic spectrum.
If the electron radiates, the energy E will decrease becoming even more negative and
from Eqn(3) the orbital radius r also decreases. The decrease in r in Eqn.1.13, gives
rise to increase in the frequency f. So that we have a runaway effect that when energy
is radiated E decreases, the orbital radius r decreases, which in turn gives rise to the
orbital frequency f increasing and the radiated frequency continuously increasing.
This planetary model predicts the electron to spiral inward toward the nucleus emit-
ting a continuous spectrum. This process is calcuted to last not more than 1 x 10
-8
s,
a very short time indeed.
Task 1.1 Estimates using Thomson and Rutherford Models
Use the Thompson and the Rurtherford models of the atom to estimate the electric
feld on the surface of a gold atom (Thompson Model) and on the surface of the
nucleus (Rutherford model), assume the atomic diameter to be 110
-10
m and the
nuclear diameter to be 110
-15
m and also neglect the infuence of the electrons.
Task 1.2 Derivation of Rutherford Scattering formula
Use the link given below to derive the Rutherford scattering formula, highlight the
physical principles that are involved.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rutcon.html#c1
Task 1.3 Niels Bohrs Postulates
All four Niels Bohrs postulate are said to have been ad hoc, inconsistent with exis-
ting theory at time. Discuss.
Formative Evaluation 1
1. Write an essay on the development of the model of the atom from Dalton to
Bohr.
2. The proponents of Atomic theory of matter are gender imbalanced. Discuss.
3. How was the plum pudding model disapproved?
4. In the web-based literature given to you, there seems to have been a disagreement
between Niels Bohr and Sir Ernest Rutherford. What was the disagreement about
and how was it resolved? Is there any lifelong lesson to be learnt in this case?
5. In the fgure shown below, what is the radius of the hydrogen atom Bohr orbit?

A Standing Wave Pattern Traced out by an Electron in an Orbit
6. (a)If the nuclear radius were 10 cm, what would be the diameter of the atom?
(b) Repeat the calculation with the hypothetical nucleus assuming the radius of
the earth, r = 6.4 x 10
6
m and compare the size of the hypothetical nucleus with
the distance from earth to the moon 3.8 x 10
8
m.
Ans: (a) 100,000 x 0.20 m= 24 km. (b) 6.4 x 10
11
m
7. From the Bohr model, would you expect the energy of the electron to increase
or decrease for larger orbits?
Ans: To raise the electron further away from the nucleus requires more energy. Hence
higher orbits have more energy.
8. Did Rutherfords model explain (a) the stability of atoms? (b) why atoms emit
discrete wavelengths? Elaborate your responses.
Assignment 1
1. List three assumptions used in the derivation of the Rutherford scattering
differential cross section.
2. A 6.0 MeV - particle is scattered at 40 by a gold nucleus.
a. What is the corresponding impact parameter?
b. If the gold foil is 3.0x10
-7
m thick, what is the fraction of the 6.0 MeV beam
of - particles expected to be scattered by more than 45?
3. Calculate the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom in its ground state. Consult a
physics book for required constants.
4. Calculate the ground state energy of Hydrogen as modelled by Niels Bohr.
Electrons have negative energy.
5. Why is an orbit of radius 1 mm unlikely to be occupied by an electron in the
Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom? Find the quantum number that characte-
rises such an orbit.
6. Show on an energy level diagram for hydrogen, the quantum number correspon-
ding to a transition in which the wavelength of the emitted light is 121.6 nm.
Teaching the Content in Secondary School 1
Depending on national physics curriculum, the basic knowledge on atomic
models learnt in this Activity can be taught to High school students.
Activity 2: Electrical Discharges
consult all the compulsory materials and use as many as possible useful links and
references.
Explain the discharge phenomena under different pressures
Put forward evidence that cathode rays are electrons
Describe the setting and purpose of Millikans oil drop experiment
In this learning activity you will learn about a phenomenon that baffed scientists in
the 19th century. So called mysterious rays are observed when a large direct current
voltage is applied across an evacuated glass tube that is equipped with at least two
electrodes, a cathode or negative electrode and an anode or positive electrode in a
confguration known as a diode. We shall also learn about an ingenious experiment
that demonstrated the particulate nature of electric charge.
Reading 1: A Look Inside the Atom
Complete Reference: http://www.aip.org/history/electron/jjhome.htm
Abstract: This is an account of the work by J.J.Thomson on Cathode rays that
culminated in the discovery of the electron as a fundamental part of atom. Follow
the links by clicking next.
Rationale: The article is qualitative but very informative and relevant to this
course.
Reading 2: Nobel Prize Lecture on Cathode Rays
Complete Reference: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1905/le-
nard-lecture.html
Abstract: In the context of what you already know now, this is a light reading but
informative article on cathode rays and misconceptions at the time.
Rationale: The presentation is by a Physics Nobel Prize winner, Philipp Lenard,
1905. This is good motivational material for you.
Reading 3: The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Complete reference: http://hep.wisc.edu/~prepost/407/millikan/millikan.pdf
Abstract: This is a good quantitative article on the practical aspects of the Millikan
Oil Drop Experiment.
Rationale: The material is good and relevant to the course.

Reference: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/crookestube/
Description: This applet enables you see how the tube glows with increased
voltage. The applet can be operated by adjusting the Voltage slider bar to vary the
electrical current within the tube. As the current level is increased, the electrons
begin to ionize gases trapped within the tube causing them to begin glowing with
a fuorescent blue color. As the ionizing electrons pass over the cross, a shadow
appears on the one end of the vacuum tube.
Reference : http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Millikan.htm
Description: Condensed theory of Millikans Oil Drop Experiment and a virtual
experiment is provided
Reference: http://www68.pair.com/willisb/millikan/experiment.html
Description: Millikan Oil Drop Experiment Applet Read the text in this link and
then click here to watch a beautiful simulation of Millikans experiment. Drag
the electric feld bar to change the eletric feld between plates and note the effect
on the oil drops. As the electric feld increases more and more drops are attracted
upwards to the positively charged plate.
Reference: http://physics.nad.ru/Physics/English/top_ref.htm#mill
Description: This fle contains animations of Sciences 10 Most Beautiful Experi-
ments, Millikans experiment is number 3. Also Click on the video.
Resource #1
Title: Investigating Cathode Rays
URL: http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/b858/dept/sci/teacher/zubot/Phys30notes/investnu-
rays/investnurays.htm
Screen Capture:

INVESTIGATING NEW RAYS
Dalton, in 1808 proposed that matter is made of atoms.
All substances were either made of single atoms or combi-
nations of atoms (molecules).
He thought that atoms were indivisible.
In the 20
th
century, experiments showed that atoms
were divisible. As a result, new particles and forces were
found.
Description:Properties of cathode rays are investigated and illustrated.
Rationale: This is a good article on properties of Cathode rays. You should fnd it
highly informative.
Dateconsulted:April 2007
Resource #2
Title:CathodeRays
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray
ScreenCapture:

A schematic diagram of a Crookes tube ap-
paratus. A is a low voltage power supply to
heat cathode C (a cold cathode was used by
Crookes). B is a high voltage power supply to
energize the phosphor-coated anode P. Shadow
mask M is connected to the cathode potential
and its image is seen on the phosphor as a non-
glowing area.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/Image:Crookes Tube.svg.
Description: An encyclopediac presentation of Cathode rays covering defnition,
properties, history and applications.
Rationale: This is a good article with a number of links containing materials rele-
vant to the Learning activity.
Resource #3
Title:-The Cathode Ray Tube
URL:- : http://www.physics.brown.edu/physics/demopages/Demo/modern/demo/
7b3510.htm
Screen Capture:

An older version of the Cathode Ray Tube
Description: A Cathode ray tube is described.
Rationale: This article is part of a series of summaries of concepts in Atomic Phy-
sics. Use the links to navigate to other relevant topics.
Resource #4
Title:- The Oil Drop Experiment
URL:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-drop_experiment
Screen Capture:
A Simplifed scheme of Millikans oil-drop experiment.

Description: The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment is described including background,
experimental procedure, theory and Feynmans commentary on Millikan handling
of data.
Rationale: This is an encyclopediac presentation on The Millikan Oil Drop Expe-
riment. You should fnd the links included in the article to be useful and complimen-
tary.
Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes, i.e.evacuated glass
tubes that are equipped with at least two electrodes, a cathode (negative electrode)
and an anode (positive electrode) in a confguration known as a diode.
Properties of Cathode Rays
At atmospheric pressure, a spark does not extend much from the source, the cathode.
However, under partial vacuum conditions sparking takes a longer distance.

Violet streamers at pressure p = 2.7 kPa
When air is pumped out of the tube, the electrodes, anode and cathode, are connected
by one or more violet streamers, as illustrated in the fgure above. At lower pressures,
a pink glow flls the entire tube.

Continued pumping out, cause the pink glow to concentrate around the anode and
a blue glow to concentrate around the cathode, as sketched in the fgure below. The
space between the glows is dark, called Faradays dark space.

Continued reduction in tube pressure, causes the dark space to expand and the colour
at the electrodes to fade until the tube is dark, except for a faint glow around the anode,
as sketched in the fgure below. The dark region is called Crookes dark space.

Tube pressure p = 1.3 Pa or less
The glow in the tube is partly due to light emitted by gas atoms when electrons
within them de-excite; it is also due to recombination of electrons and positive ions
that occurs during collisisons of the particles.
Striations are caused by alternate ionizations and recombinations in the tube.
The dark bands, Faraday and Crookes dark spaces, are positions where ioni-
zations are occurring mainly due to collisions between ions and neutral atoms.
The gas atoms absorb energy which results in the excitation of electrons within
them and also ionization of the atoms ; hence, there is no light emitted. The
bright bands are places where light is being emitted either by de-excitation
of electrons during recombination with positive ions or by the de-excitation
of electrons within excietd atoms.
Investigations on cathode rays revealed the following properties:
1. Cathode rays travel in straight lines and cast shadows sharp.
2. A paddle wheel placed in the path of the cathode rays turns, indicating that
they are particles, travelling in the direction from the cathode to anode and
have energy and momentum.
3. Cathode rays can be defected by a magnetic feld and also by an electric
feld, indicating that they are charged particles, carrying a negative electric
charge.
4. Through measurements of the charge to mass ratio, reveals the identity of the
particles regardless of the cathode material and the gas in the tube.
5. Thompson called the cathode ray particle, the Electron.
Millikans Oil-Drop Experiment
Adapted From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-
drop_experiment

Robert A. Millikan in 1891
Experimental procedure

Simplifed scheme of Millikans oil-drop experiment.
The diagram shows a simplifed version of Millikans set up. A uniform electric feld
is provided by a pair of horizontal, parallel plates with a high potential difference
between them. Drops of oil are allowed to drift between them. By varying the voltage,
the drops can be made to rise or fall.
A chosen drop is allowed to fall with the electric feld turned off. The drag force
acting on the drop is given by Stokes law:

F = 6av
where v is the terminal velocity (i.e. velocity in the absence of an electric feld) of
the falling drop, is the viscosity of the air, and a is the radius of the drop.
The weight of the drop

W =
4
3
a
3
g
The drop is in air, it experiences an upthrust

W
up
=
4
3
a
3
dg
The resultant downward force:

W
res
=
4
3
a
3
g d
( )
where and d are density of oil and air respectively.
Now at terminal velocity, the resultant downward force is the drag force

4
3
a
3
g d
( )
= 6av 2.1
=>

a =
9v
2 d
( )
g
1
2
2.2
Source: http://www.phys.uf.edu/~hill/teaching/2005/2061/
links/Millikan.pdf
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of the Millikan oil-drop
apparatus.
Fig. 2.2 An oil droplet in the cloud carrying an ion of charge
e falling at terminal speed, i.e. mg = bv.
If q is the charge on the drop and E is the electric feld applied between the plates so
that the drop begins to move upwards with a uniform velocity v
1
, then

The resultant upward force =E q
4
3
a
3
d
( )
g

Therefore, E q
4
3
a
3
d
( )
g=

6av
1
From Eq.2.1 we have

E q = 6a v + v
1
( )
2.3
From Eqn. 2.1 and 2.2, Eqn. 2.3 becomes

q =
6
E
9v
2 d
( )
g
1
2
v + v
1
( )
2.4
1. Explain how a lightning stroke is formed.
2. Using the magnetic feld only, how does one know that cathode rays have
negative charge?
3. An electron enters a mgnetic feld of fux density B = 1 T with a velocity of
1x10
6
m/s at an angle 45 to the feld. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the force acting on the electron in the feld.
4. How did Thompson determine that the cathode rays were the same regardless
of the cathode materials and the gas in the tube?
5. What did Robert Milikan discover in his famous experiment?
Task 2.1 Group Discussion
Consult the link given below and discuss the matter raised in the article. http://www1.
umn.edu/ships/ethics/millikan.htm. Are there any lifelong lessons to be learnt.
Task 2.2 The Thompson e/m Experimental Set Up

Source: http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/b858/dept/sci/teacher/zubot/Phys30notes/investnu-
rays/investnurays.htm

A sketch of the Thompson apparatus used to determine the charge to mass ratio of an
electron is shown above. (a) Describe how the path of the cathode rays is affected by
(i) an electric feld between defecting coils directed in the negatve z-direction, (ii)
a magnetic feld between the magnetic coils directed in the y-direction.(b) Explain
the physical principles applicable in a(i) and a(ii).(c) Identify two useful devices that
were derived from the Thomson apparatus.
Assignment 2.1
1. The charge on one electron is about 1.6x10
-19
C. Assuming an electric feld of
3x10
4
Vm
-1
, estimate the radius of an oil drop for which its weight could be
balanced by the electric force on the electron.
2. In the Thompson charge to mass ratio experiment, it is arranged such that the
electron passes through a region in which the electric and magnetic felds are
perpendicular to each other. (a) Show that

e
m
=
v
rB
, where v is the speed of

the electron, r is the radius of the circular path and B is the magnetic feld. (b)
Taking into consideration that in order for the electron to move in a circular
rather than a helical path, the electric and magnetic forces must be equal, show
that

e
m
=
E
rB
2
, where E is the electric feld.
The material learnt in this activity can be taught in a High School with a minimal
modifcation.
Activity 3: Atomic Spectra
references.
Solve problems using Mosleys Law
Use the vector model of atom to solve problems and explain properties
Explain the fne structure of spectra
In Learning activity 3 you will learn the uniqueness of emissions from different ele-
ments. Every element has its own characteristic fngerprint spectrum. This feature
has a lot of scientifc and technological implications.
Reading 1
Complete reference : URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html
Date consulted: June 2007
Abstract : Highly illustrated physics of the hydrogen atom, energy levels, electron
transitions, fne and hyperfne structures all are very well discussed.
Rationale: This article covers topics in line with this Learning Activity.
Reading 2: Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
Complete reference : URL : http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicre-
view/bp/ch6/bohr.html
Abstract: This article discusses the Emission Hydrogen Spectrum and includes
solved practice problems.
Rationale: This article covers topics in line with this module and the practice pro-
blems makes this reading very important.
Reading 3: Hydrogen Atom
Complete reference : An Introduction to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules
URL: http://www.chemistry.mcmaster.ca/esam/Chapter_3/intro.html
Abstract : This is section three of an article by Prof. Richard F.W. Bader Pro-
fessor of Chemistry / McMaster University / Hamilton, Ontario. It discusses the
hydrogen atom, the evolution of probability densities and hence orbitals and fnaly
the vector model of the hydrogen atom.
Rationale: The material covered in this article is good and relevant to this Lear-
ning Activity.
Reading 4: Mathematical Solution of the Hydrogen Atom
Complete reference : URL: http://www.mark-fox.staff.shef.ac.uk./PHY332/ato-
mic_physics2.pdf
Abstract : This article provides the methodology of solving the Hydrogen atom
problem as a quantum mechanical problem.
Rationale: The article is very relevant to this course as you will see how the three
quantum numbers n, l, and m come out naturally.
Reading 5: Fine Structure of Hydrogen Atom
Complete Reference: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qmech/lectures/
node107.html
Abstract: This article is part of a series of lecture notes in non relativistic quan-
tum mechanics.
Rationale: The material is good but requires a strong link with knowledge in
quantum mechanics.
Reference: http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/BohrModel/
Flash/BohrModel.html
Date consulted : April 2007
Abstract: Photon excitation of the Hydrogen atom is simulated . The excited
electron returns to ground state accompanied by photon emission. The energy of
the projectile photon ranges between 10.2 and 13.2 eV, just short of the ionization
energy of 13.6 eV. The colour of the emitted line depends on the excitation energy;
for example an excitation energy of 10.2 eV excites the electron from n = 1 to n=2,
the de-excitation is accompanied by a red emitted line whereas excitation energy
13.2 eV excites the electron from n = 1 to n = 6 which gives rises rise to a series of
lines, a violet line for a de-excitation from n = 6 to n = 1, a blue line for a de-exci-
tation from n = 6 to n = 3 and a green line for a de-excitation from n =3 to n = 1.
Resource #1
Title: Modifcations of the Bohr model
URL:- http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/bohr/node5.html#SECTION002840000000000
000000
Abstract:- Despite the success of the Bohr model, there were some serious short-
comings in the model. For example, on the experimental side detailed analysis
of the emission spectra for hydrogen found a single emission line was actually at
times composed of two or more closely spaced lines, a feature not present in the
Bohr model. Hence a better theoretical base of the hydrogen atom was sought.
Rationale: This article is part of a series of lecture notes in atomic physics. The
material is relevant to this module.
Date consulted: April 2007.
Resource #2
Title:- Bohrs model of the Hydrogen Atom
URL: http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfadd/1160/Ch29Atm/Bohr.html
Screen Capture:
Abstract: Having become convinced of the general validity of Rutherfords nu-
clear model of the atm, Niels Bohr proposed the planetary model of atom which
was able to explain to some extent the observed atomic spectrum of hydrogen.
Rationale: This is part of a series of lecture notes on atomic physics. Follow the
links to get more material.
Resource #3
Title: Emission Line Spectrum, Absorption Line Spectrum and a Continous Spectrum
URL:- http://www.physics.brown.edu/physics/demopages/Demo/modern/demo/7b1010.htm
Screen Capture:
Abstract:- Emission line spectra from various gas spectrum tubes, Absorption
linespectrum from a low pressure sodium gas and Continuous spectrum from a
white light source are shown.
Rationale:This article is part of a series of lecture notes in atomic physics. Follow
the links for more material.
Resource #4
Title: Spectra of Gas Discharges
URL: http://laserstars.org/data/elements/index.html
Screen Capture:
Hydrogen
Helium

Abstract The article shows Spectra of elements undergoing electrical discharge.
Thirty six atomic spectra are shown in full colour. You will defnetely enjoy wat-
ching these spectra.
Rationale: The material is most relevant to the Learning Activity.
A Summarized Solution of the Schdinger Equation of The Hydrogen Atom
Reduction of a Two-Body Problem to a One-Body Problem
The Hydrogen atom is a two-body system interacting through Coulombs law. It can
be reduced to a one - body system of reduced mass:

=
M
p
m
e
M
p
+ m
e
where M
p
is the mass of the proton and m
e
is the mass of the electron.
The Schrdinger equation for the H-atom is therefore

h
2
2

2
+ V(r)
(r ) = E(r )
3.1
We generalize the problem to include the case of a hydrogen like atom which
consists of one electron moving around a nucleus of charge +Ze, so that the potential
becomes

V (r ) =
Ze
2
4
o
r
The Laplacian Operator in Spherical Coordinates
Because of spherical symmetry of the potential function, Eq.3.1 is best handled in
spherical co-ordinates r, and .
The spherical co-ordinates are defned by the transformations given by Eq.3.2
Spherical co-ordinates are defned by the transformations:


x = rsin cos ........... (3.2.1)
y = rsin sin.............. (3.2.2)
z = rcos ................... (3.2.3)

r = x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
(3.2.4)

= cos
1
z
r
(3.2.5)

= tan
1
y
x
(3.2.6)
Y
X
x
y
, ) (r,
r
z
Fig.3.1 Position of a Particle in Two Coordinate Systems
and the transformation from cartesian coordinates to spherical coordinates is facili-
tated by the chain rule:

x
i
=
r
x
i
r
+

x
i
+

x
i
where x
i
represents x, y, or z.
So that fnally the Laplacian operator in spherical polar co-ordinates can be shown
to be

2
=

2
r
2
+
2
r
+
1
r
2
1
sin
sin

+
1
sin
2
3.3

Denoting the angular part of the Laplacian operator by L
2
and the radial part by
the Laplacian operator becomes:

2
= +
1
2
L
2
and so the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom then becomes:

h
2
2
+
1
r
2
L
2
+V ( r )
( r , , ) = E ( r , , ) 3.4
The method of separation of variables,

( r , , ) = R( r )Y ( , )
leads to a radial differential equation and an angular dependent differential equa-
tion:

R( r ) +
2
h
2
E V (r )
R( r ) =

r
2
R( r ) 3.5
and

L
2
Y ( , ) = Y ( , ) 3.6
The method of separation of variables can be repeated to the angular dependent
differential equation by application of the product solution

Y ,
( )
= P
( )

( )
Which leads to two additional differential equations in and . The -dependent
differential equation is given by

1
sin
d
d
sin
dP
d
+ P
m
2
P
sin
2
=0 3.7
where

= l l + 1
( )
.
And the - dependent differential equation is given by

d
2
d
2
+ m
2
=0 3.8
Eq.3.8 can be solved readily to give

( )
= Ae
i m
3.9
The product solution

Y ,
( )
= P
( )

( )
takes the functional form

Y
l
m
,
( )
= C
l
m
e
i m
1
1
2
m
2
d
d
l m
2
1
( )
l
3.10
which can be written in terms of Associated Legendre Functions defned as fol-
lows:

P
l
m
( )
= 1
( )
m 1
1
2
m/ 2
d
d
l m
2
1
( )
l
3.11
So that Eq.3.10 becomes

Y
l
m
,
( )
= 1
( )
m
C
l
m
P
l
m
( )
e
i m
3.12

The normalized spherical harmonic functions take the form

Y
l
m
,
( )
=
(1)
m
2
l
l !
2l +1
4
.
l + m
( )
!
l m
( )
!
P
l
m
( )
e
i m
3.13
And in full it becomes

Y
l
m
,
( )
=
1
2
l
l !
2l +1
4
l + m
( )
!
l m
( )
!
e
i m
1
1
2
m/ 2
d
d
l m
2
1
( )
l

Quantum Numbers
Two quantum numbers come out of the angular dependent differential equation,namely
the orbital quantum number l and the magnetic quantum number m .
The magnetic quantum number specifes the orientation of the angular momentum
vector about the chosen axis of rotation and the orbital angular momentum quantum
number specifes the shape of the probability density or orbital.
The solution of the radial differential equation leads to a normalized radial solu-
tion

R
nl
( r ) = 2
Z
na
o
3/ 2
( n l 1) !
n ( n + l ) !
3
2Zr
na
o
l
e
Zr / na
o
L
n+l
2l +1
2Zr
na
o
where n is the Principal Quantum number, a

0
is the Bohr radius, Z is atomic
number.
The radial solutions are the Energy Eigenfunctions of the hydrogen atom. The
energy eigenvalues are readily obtained from the defnition of the principal quantum
number n.

n
2
=

2
k
2
Z
2
e
4
h
2
2 E

E
n
=
kZ
2
e
2
2a
o
n
2
where

a
0
=
h
2
ke
2
.

L
n+l
2l +1
2Zr
na
0
is the Associated Laguere Polynomial defned by

L
n+l
2l +1
( ) =
d
d
2l +1
e
d
d
n+l
n+l
e
( )
where

=
2Zr
na
0
.
Examples of Normalized Radial Solutions
1. For n = 1, l = 0:

R
10
= 2
Z
na
o
3/ 2
1.1.e
Zr / na
o
L
1
1
2Zr
na
o
Now

L
1
1
2Zr
na
o
=
d
d
e
d
d
e

( )
= - 1
=>

R
10
= 2
Z
na
o
3/ 2
e
Zr / na
o
x(1)

R
10
= 2
Z
a
o
3/ 2
e
Zr / a
o
2. For n = 2, l = 0:

R
20
(r ) = 2
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
2.8
2Zr
2a
o
0
e
Zr / 2 a
o
L
2
1
2Zr
2a
o
Now

L
2
1
2Zr
2a
o
=
d
d
e
d
2
d
2

2
e

==>

L
2
1
2Zr
2a
o
= 2.
2Zr
2a
o
4 =
2Zr
a
o
4

R
20
(r ) = 2
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
4
.1.e
Zr / 2 a
o
2Zr
a
o
4

R
20
(r ) =
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
2
Zr
a
o
e
Zr / 2 a
o
3. For n = 2, l =1:

R
21
(r ) = 2
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
2(3!)
3
2Zr
2a
o
e
Zr / 2 a
o
L
3
3
2Zr
2a
o

= 2
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
6
1
2.6
2Zr
2a
o
e
Zr / 2 a
o
L
3
3
2Zr
2a
o
Now

L
3
3
( )
=
d
d
3
e
d
d
3
e

( )
= - 6
==>

R
21
r
( )
= 2
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
6
1
12
2Zr
2a
o
e
Zr / 2 a
o
6
( )

R
21
(r ) =
Z
2a
o
3/ 2
1
3
Zr
a
o
e
Zr / 2 a
o
Degeneracy of Hydrogenic Energy Levels
Eigenfunctions belonging to the same eigenvalue are said to be degenerate. The
energy E
n
is only dependent on the principal quantum number n. But for each value
of n, there are n values of l, l = 0, 1, ........., n - 1. And for each value of l, there are
(2l + 1) values of m. So that the total degeneracy of each energy level is the sum

2l + 1
( )
l =0
n1
= n
2
The Total Hydrogenic Wavefunction
The total hydrogen wavefunction, except for time, is the product function:

nlm
( r , , ) = R
nl
( r )Y
l
m
( , )
It will be noted that whereas the form of the eigenfunctions depends on the values
of all three quantum numbers n, l, m, the energy eigenvalues depend only on the
principal quantum number n.
Examples of Normalized Spatial Hydrogenic Wavefunctions:

100
= R
10
( r )Y
0
0
( , ) =
1
1
a
o
3/ 2
e
r / a
o

200
= R
20
Y
0
0
=
1
4 2
1
a
o
3/ 2
2
r
a
o
e
r / 2a
o

210
= R
21
Y
1
0
=
1
4 2
1
a
o
3/ 2
r
a
o
e
r / 2a
o
cos

211
= R
21
Y
1
1
=
1
8
1
a
o
3/ 2
r
a
o
e
r / 2a
o
sin e
i
, etc.
African Virtual University 61
The Radial Probability Density
By defnition the probability density of an electron in a hydrogenic eigenstate is
given by the product

nlm
*
nlm
= R
nl
*
P
lm
*
m
*
R
nl
P
lm
m
Thus, in its raw form, the probability density is a function of three variables which
is rather diffculty to plot directly. Hence, the normal practice is to discuss the de-
pendence of the probability density on each variable separately.
The radial probability density is defned by

P
nl
( r )dr =
nlm
*
nlm
r
2
sindrdd
0
2

= r
2
R
nl
*
( r ) R
nl
( r )dr P
lm
*
P
lm
m
*
m
sindd
0
2
The integrals over and are equal to unity because each of the functions P and
( as well as R ) are separately normalized.

Thus, the radial probability density is given by

P
nl
(r )dr = r
2
R
nl
*
(r )R
nl
(r )dr 3.14
Whereas

nl m
*
nl m
r
2
sindrdd gives the probability of fnding an electron in
the volume element d =

r
2
sindrdd , Eq.3.14 gives the probability of fnding
the electron anywhere with a radial coordinate between r and r + dr.
Visualizing the hydrogen electron orbitals
Fig.3.2 Electron Probability Densities at Different Quantum Numbers
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HAtomOrbitals.png
In Fig.3.2, the image to the right shows the frst few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy
eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the probability density that are color-
coded (black=zero density, white=highest density). The angular momentum quantum
number l is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code (s
means l = 0; p: l = 1; d: l = 2). The main quantum number n (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is
marked to the right of each row. For all pictures the magnetic quantum number m
has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the xz-plane (z is the vertical axis).
The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one
shown here around the z-axis.
The ground state, i.e. the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually
found, is the frst one, the 1s state (n = 1, l = 0).
An image with more orbitals is also available (up to higher numbers n and l).
Note the number of black lines that occur in each but the frst orbital. These are nodal
lines (which are actually nodal surfaces in three dimensions). Their total number is
always equal to n 1, which is the sum of the number of radial nodes (equal to n - l
- 1) and the number of angular nodes (equal to l).
Example 3.1
Show that the wavefunctions describing a 1s electron and a 2s electron are ortho-
gonal.
Solution:
1s electron n = 1, l = 0:

1s
=
Z
a
0
3/ 2
1
e
Zr / a
0
2s electron n = 2, l = 0:

2 s
=
Z
a
0
3/ 2
1
4
2
Zr
a
0
e
Zr / 2 a
0
The scalar product becomes

1s
*
al l space

2 s
d =
Z
a
0
3/ 2
1
e
Zr / a
0
*
0
2
x

Z
a
0
3/ 2
1
4 2
2
Zr
a
0
e
Zr / 2 a
0
r
2
sindddr

( Where the spherical element of volume

d = r
2
sindd )
=>

1s
*
al l space

2 s
d

=
Z
a
0
3
1
4 2
2
Zr
a
0
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
r
2
sindddr
0
2

=
Z
a
0
3
1
4 2
2
Zr
a
0
r
2
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
sinddr d
0
2

=
Z
a
0
3
1
2 2
2
Zr
a
0
r
2
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
dr sind
0

=
Z
a
0
3
1
2 2
2
Zr
a
0
r
2
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
dr cos
( )
0

=
Z
a
0
3
1
2
2 r
2
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
dr
Z
a
0
r
3
e
3Zr / 2 a
0
dr
0

=
Z
a
0
3
1
2
2
2!
3Z / 2a
0
( )
3

Z
a
0
3!
3Z / 2a
0
( )
4
Hence

1s
*
al l space

2 s
d = 0

Example 3.2
An alternative form for determining the associated Laguerre polynomials is

L
n+ l
2 l +1
(x) = 1
( )
i +1
n+ l
( )
!
2
n l 1 i
( )
! 2l +1+ i
( )
!i !
i = 0
n l 1
x
i
Use this relationship to fnd the Laguerre polynomial for n= 2 and l = 1 and check
for consistency with a previous calculation for the same.
Solution:
Substituting n = 2 and l = 1, we have

L
3
3
(x) = 1
( )
i +1
3
( )
!
2
0 i
( )
! 3+ i
( )
!i !
i = 0
0
x
i
= (1)
(3!)
2
0!3!0!
= 6
Which agrees with a previous result for the same polynomial.
Example 3.3
The radial wave function describing an electron in a hydrogen like atom is given
by

R
nl
r
( )
=
2Z / na
0
( )
3
n l 1
( )
!
2n n+ l
( )
!
1/ 2
e
/ 2
l
L
n+ l
2 l +1
( )
where

= 2Z / na
0
( )
r and

a
0
= 4
0
h
2
/ e
2
What is the probability of fnding a 1s electron at r > a
0
?
Solution:
For a 1s electron n = 1, l = 0 and Z = 1, we have

r =
na
0
2Z
=
1
2
a
0
and the wavefunction

R
10
(r ) = 2
1
a
0
3/ 2
e

2
The probability will be given by

P = R r
( )
*
R r
( )
r
2
dr
a
0

= 2
1
a
0
3/ 2
e
/ 2
*
2
1
a
0
3/ 2
e
/ 2
a
0
2

2
d
a
0
2

=
1
2

2
e

d
2

=
1
2
e

2
2 2
( )
=
1
2
0 e
2
4 4 2
( )
= 5e
2

P = 0.6767.
Example 3.4
Determine < r > for a 2p wavefunction.
Solution
From

= 2Z / na
0
( )
r , for n = 2 and Z = 1, we have r = a
0
.
Hence,

r = R
21
r
( )
*
rR
21
r
( )
r
2
dr
0

=
1
2 6
1
a
0
3
2
e
a
0
( )
1
2 6
1
a
0
3
2
e
a
0
( )
2
d a
0
( )

=
a
0
24

5
e

0
d =
a
0
24
5!
( )
= 5a
0
.
Vector Representation of Allowed Orbital Angular Momenta
The eigenvalue problem for the -dependent function is
L m
z

(( ))
==
(( ))
where the quantum number m = 0, l-1, l-2,(l-1),-l.
The eigenvalue problem for the

,
( )
dependent function is

L
2
Y ,
( )
= h
2
Y ,
( )
where

= l l + 1
( )
, and the orbital quantum number l
= 0, 1, 2, 3, n -1
For a given value of l , the magnitude of orbital angular momentum

r
L = l ( l + 1)h
The possible values of the component L
z
can be represented schematically as the
projections of a vector of length

L = l (l +1)h on the z-axis.
We illustrate, in Fig.3.3, the allowed projections of orbital angular momentum for
the cases of l = 1, 2, and 3.

Fig.3.3 Allowed Vector Projections for l = 1, 2 and 3
The vector representing the total orbital angular momentum takes on any one of
(2l+1) distinct orientations with respect to the chosen z-axis. It is allowed to have
quantized components along the chosen axis. The property that there are a fnite
number of distinct inclinations the vector

r
L makes with any given axis, is sometimes
called space quantization.
The vector L should be thought of as covering a cone with the vector angle given
by

m= L cos .
Spin
Defnition of Spin
All elementary particles, viz. protons, neutrons, electrons, etc. possess an Intrinsic
Angular momentum called SPIN symbol S.
There is no classical analogue that would permit a spin defnition such as

r
S =
r
r
r
p
s
in a manner similar to the defnition of the orbital angular momentum

r
L =
r
r
r
p.
The magnitude of S is

1
2
h . Spin is an internal property of a particle, like mass or

charge. It constitutes an additional co-ordinate or degree of freedom in the quantum
mechanical formulations.
Commutation Rules
These are exactly the same as those of orbital angular momentum,
ie.

S
x , S
= ihS
z , etc.

S
2
, S
= 0 , etc.

S
z , S
= hS
+ , etc.
Spin Wavefunctions or Spinors
These are denoted by

s where s = 1/2 and = 1/2 .
So that a spin up state will be denoted by

up
=
1
0
=
1
2
1
2
and a spin down state by

down
=
0
1
=
1
2
,
1
2

The spinors are simultaneous eigenfunctions of the spin operators

S
2
and

S
z :
ie.

S
2
1
2
1
2
=
1
2
1
2
+1
h
2
1
2
1
2
=
3
4
h
2
1
2
1
2

S
2
1
2
,
1
2
=
3
4
h
2
1
2
,
1
2

S
z
1
2
1
2
=
1
2
h
1
2
1
2
and

S
z
1
2
,
1
2
=
1
2
h
1
2
,
1
2
Thus the algebra of orbital angular momentum operators can be applied directly to
that of the spin operators.
The Real Hydrogen Atom
In the discussion so far of the Hydrogen atom, a simplistic approach was adopted.
Only the Coulomb interaction was included in the Hamiltonian. However, in a more
realistic treatment, several corrections must be taken into account. These corrections
include spin-orbit interaction, relativistic correction, and the nuclear hyperfne in-
teraction.
We now consider these effects in some detail.
Spin - Orbit Interaction
Angular Momenta and Magnetic Moments (Semi - Classical Picture)
A current loop has associated with it a magnetic moment

r
= I
r
A
where I is the current and

r
A is the vector area whose direction is perpendicular to
the plane of the loop consistent with the right handed screw rule.
where

A = r
2
And i = charge on electron number of times per second electron passes a given
point = ef
where f is the frequency of rotation of the electron.
Magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment

r
= I A = ef
( )
r
2
( )
Whose direction is opposite to the orbital angular momentum

r
L because the electron
has negative charge.
Now

L = mvr = m 2rf
( )
r = 2mf r
2
=
2m
e

Hence

r
=
e
2m
r
L . 3.15
Since angular momentum is quantized we have

r
l = m
l
h l
In the frst Bohr radius,

m
l
= 1and so Eq.3.15 becomes

r
l
=
eh l
2m
=
B
l
3.16
where
B
is called the Bohr magneton and its value is given by

B
=
eh
2m
It will be observed in Eq.3.16 that
l
is directed antiparallel to the orbital angular
momentum.
The ratio of the magnetic moment to the orbital angular momentum is called the
classical gyromagnetic ratio,

l
=
r
l
r
l
=
e
2m
=

B
h
3.17
The spin angular momentum also has a magnetic moment associated with it. Its gy-
romagnetic ratio is approximately twice the classical value for orbital moments.
ie.

s
=
r
s
r
s
=
e
m
3.18
This means that spin is twice as effective as the orbital angular momentum in pro-
ducing a magnetic moment.
Eq.3.17 and 3.18 are often combined by writing

=
ge
2m

where the quantity g is called the spectroscopic splitting factor.
For orbital angular momenta g = 1, for spin only g 2 (though experimentally g =
2.004).
For states that are mixtures of orbital and spin angular momenta, g is non-integral.
Since

s =
1
2
h
the magnetic moment due to the spin of the electron is

s
=
s
r
s =
e
m
.
h
2
=
B
Thus, the smallest unit of magnetic moment for the electron is the Bohr magneton,
whether one combines orbital or spin angular momentum.
The Larmor Frequency and The Normal Zeeman Effect
( Classical Treatment)
We consider the effect of a weak magnetic feld on an electron performing circular
motion in a planar orbit. We assume the magnetic feld is applied along the z axis
and the angular momentum is oriented at an angle with respect to the z - axis, as
shown in Fig.3.4 below.

Fig.3.4 The Precession of The Angular Momentum Vector in A Magnetic
Field

The torque on

r
l is given by

r
l
=
r
l

r
B 3.19
this is directed into the plane of the page, in the -direction.
Now, the torque also equals the rate of change of the angular momentum, so we
have

r
l
=
d
r
l
dt
=
r
l

r
B =
l
r
l
r
B 3.20

But

d
r
l = l sind

so that the scalar form of Eq.3.20 becomes

l sin .
d
dt
=
l
lB sin 3.21
We defne the precessional velocity by

L
=
d
dt
So that Eq.3.21 becomes

L
=
l
B =
e
2m
B 3.22
The angular velocity
L
is called the Larmor frequency.
Thus, the angular momentum vector precesses about the z-axis at the Larmor frequency
as a result of the torque produced by the action of a magnetic feld on its associated
magnetic moment.
Using the Planck relation, the energy associated with the Larmor frequency is

E =
L
h =
ehB
2m
=
B
B 3.23
where the signs refer to the sense of the rotation. It will be observed that this energy
difference is the potential energy of a magnetic dipole whose moment is one Bohr
magneton.
Recall that the dipolar energy is given by

E =
r
.
r
B
In Eq.3.23, the positive sign corresponds to antiparallel alignment while the negative
sign ( lower energy ) indicates parallel alignment.
The overall effect of this energy associated with the Larmor frequency is that, if the
energy of an electron having a moment
B
is E
0
in the absence of an applied feld,
then it can take on one of the energies

E
0

B
B
in a magnetic feld B.
Thus, in a collection of identical atomic particles of the type discussed, a magnetic
feld produces a triplet of levels, called a Lorentz triplet whose energies are E
0
, and

E
0

B
B .
This phenomenon is known as the Normal Zeeman effect.
The Zeeman effect is in fact more complex than presented by the classical treatment.
The electron spin is excluded in the classical model.
Thus when a magnetic feld is applied the spin and orbital angular moments will
precess. The resulting energy level splittings cannot be explained classically and so
require a quantum mechanical treatment. As a consequence of this inexplicable be-
haviour, the more general Zeeman effect, including spin was historically misnamed
as the anomalous Zeeman effect.

(a) Single Transition without an (b) Five transitions with an
applied Magnetic Field applied external magnetic feld

Fig.3.5 Transitions With and without a Magnetic Field
The Spin-Orbit Interaction - (Quantum Mechanical Treatment)
In the introductory inclusion of spin in the Schrodinger wave function, it is assumed
that the spin coordinates are independent of the coordinates of the confguration space.
Thus, the total wavefunction is written as a product function

total
=
nl m
(r ,,).(spin).e
i E
n
t / h

total
= R
nl
.e
i E
n
t / h
l , m
l
s, m
s
3.24
The assumption made above implies that there is no interaction between L and S,
ie.

L
, S
= 0
In this case,
total
is an eigenfunction of both L
z
and S
z
and so m
l
and m
s
are good
quantum numbers; in other words, the projections of

r
L and

r
S are constants of the
motion.
But in reality there is an interaction by

r
L and

r
S called the Spin-Orbit interaction,
expressed in terms of the quantity

r
L .

r
S .
Since

r
L .

r
S does not commute with either

r
L or

r
S , Eq.3.24 is no longer correct and
m
l
and m
s
cease to be good quantum numbers.
We picture the spin-orbit interaction as the stationary spin magnetic moment interac-
ting with the magnetic feld produced by the orbiting nucleus.
In the rest frame of the electron, there is an electric feld

r
=
Ze
r
2
r
(cgs)
and a magnetic feld

r
H
e
=
r
j r
r
2
(cgs)
where

r
is directed from the nucleus toward the electron.

Assuming that

r
v is the velocity of the electron in the rest frame of the nucleus, the
current produced by the nuclear motion is

r
j =
Ze
c
r
v
in the rest frame of the electron.
Then

r
H
e
=
Ze
c
r
v r
r
2
=
1
c
r
v
r
The spin moment of the electron precesses in this feld at the Larmor frequency

r
e
=
r
H
e
=
e
m
0
c
2
r
v
r
3.25
with the potential energy

E
e
=
r
s
.
v
H
e
=
r
e
.
r
S 3.26
Eqs.3.25 and 3.26 are valid in the rest frame of the electron.
Transformation to the rest frame of the nucleus introduces a factor of - called the
Thomas factor. [ This can be shown by calculating the time dilation between the
two rest frames].
Hence, an observer in the rest frame of the nucleus would observe the electron to
precess with an angular velocity of

r
L
=
e
2m
0
c
2
r
v
r
3.27
and by an additional energy given by

E =
1
2
r
e
.
r
S 3.28
Eqs.3.27 and 3.28 can be put in a more general form by restricting V to be any central
potential with spherical symmetry.
So that

r
F = r
V
r
= e
r
and so

r
v
r
=
1
e
V
r
r
v r
=
1
e
1
r
V
r
r
v
r
r =
1
em
0
1
r
V
r
r
L
Eq. 3.27 then becomes

r
L
= +
1
2m
0
2
c
2
1
r
V
r
r
L
and the additional energy

E = +
1
2m
0
2
c
2
1
r
V
r
r
L.
r
S 3.29
The scalar product

r
L.
r
S = m
l
hs
For spin = ,

r
L.
r
S = m
l
h.
1
2
h

=
1
2
m
l
h
2
The energy splitting then becomes

E =
h
2
m
l
4m
0
2
c
2
1
r
V
r
For the Coulomb potential the energy splitting can be approximated by

E =
D
c
2
m
l
Ze
2
r
3
3.30
where

c
=
h
m
0
c
is the Compton wavelength and

D
c
=
h
m
0
c
or

c
2
.
A useful result in computation is quoted without proof. The average value of 1/r
3

ie.

1
r
3
=
Z
2
a
0
2
n
2
l (l +1/ 2)(l +1)
3.31
for l 0.
So that the energy splitting becomes

E =
D
c
2
m
l
Z
3
e
a
0
2
n
2
l ( l + 1 / 2)( l + 1)
for l 0.
Angular Momentum Coupling Schemes
We have so far considered only the coupling of the spin and orbital momentum of a
single electron by means of the spin-orbit interaction. We now consider the case of
two electrons for which there are four constituent momenta.
The j - j Coupling Model
This model assumes that the spin-orbital interaction dominates the electrostatic in-
teractions between the particles.
Thus, we write for each particle

r
J
1
=
r
L
1
+
r
S
1
and

r
J
2
=
r
L
2
+
r
S
2
The total angular momentum is obtained by combining

r
J
1
and

r
J
2
:

r
J =
r
J
1
+
r
J
2
and

j = j
1
+ j
2
, j
1
+ j
2
1 ,......., j
1
j
2
We illustrate j-j coupling by applying it to two inequivalent p-electrons.
For each electron

j
1
= j
2
=
1
2
or
3
2
Then the possible ways of combining these are shown in the Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 j-j Coupling of Two Inequivalent p - Electrons
j
1
j
2
j Spectral Terms Number of States in a
Magnetic Field

3/2

3/2

3,2,1,0

3
2
,
3
2
3, 2,1, 0
16

3/2

1/2

2,1

3
2
,
1
2
2,1
8

1/2

1/2

1,0

1
2
,
1
2
1, 0
4

1/2

3/2

2,1

1
2
,
3
2
2,1
8

36 states
In a weak magnetic feld, each state of a given j will split into (2j+1) states corres-
ponding to the allowed values of m
j
.
Although the j-j coupling is used extensively for the description of the nuclear states
observed in nuclear spectroscopy, it is not appropriate for many atomic systems be-
cause of the strong electrostatic and other interactions between the two electrons.
The Russell-Saunders Coupling Scheme
The Russell-Saunders model has been more successful in accounting for atomic
spectra of all but the heavier atoms. The model assumes that, the electrostatic inte-
raction, including exchange forces, between two electrons dominates the spin-orbit
interaction. In this case, the orbital momenta and the spins of the two electrons couple
separately to form

r
L =
r
L
1
+
r
L
2
and

r
S =
r
S
1
+
r
S
2
The total angular momentum is given, as before, by

r
J =
r
L +
r
S
For two inequivalent p-electrons we have: l = 2, 1, or 0 and s = 1 or 0.
For each l and s, the j-values are

l + s , l + s 1 ,........, l s
and for each j value there are (2j+1) values of m
j
. The combinations are given in the
table below.
It will be observed that, although the number of states is once again 36 in a weak
magnetic feld, their energies are not the same as those in the j-j coupling scheme.
Table 3.2 : Russell-Saunders Coupling of Two Inequivalent p-Electrons

l

s

j

Spectral Terms
Number of States in a
Magnetic Field

2

1

3,2,1

3
D
1, 2, 3

15

2

0

2

1
D
2

5

1

1

2,1,0

3
P
0,1, 2

9

1

0

1

1
P
1

3

0

1

1

3
S
1

3

0

0

0

1
S
0

1
36 states
The Lande g-Factor and The Zeeman Effect
The orbital and spin contributions to the magnetic moment are given by

r
l
=
g
l
e
2m
0
r
L = g
l
B
l l + 1
( )
l
and

r
s
=
g
s
e
2m
0
r
S = g
s
B
s s + 1
( )
s
where g
l
= 1 and g
s
= 2.004 2.
Now, when

r
L and

r
S are coupled, we have

r
J =
r
L +
r
S
and

r
=
r
l
+
r
s

r
=

B
h
r
L + 2
r
S
( )
3.32
It is evident from the expressions for

r
J and

r
that the total magnetic moment is not
in general collinear with the total angular momentum, as illustrated in Fig.3.6.

Fig.3.6 The Total Magnetic Moment is not Collinear with the Total
Angular Momentum
Since

r
L and

r
S precess about

r
J , it is apparent that

r
also precesses about

r
J .
However, the effective magnetic moment, that is the component of

r
along

r
J ,
maintains the constant value,

j
=
r
.
r
J
r
J
=

B
h
r
L.
r
J + 2
r
S.
r
J
r
J
=

B
h
r
L.(
r
L +
r
S) + 2
r
S.(
r
L +
r
S)
r
J

=

B
h
L
2
+ 2S
2
+ 3
r
L.
r
S
r
J

=

B
h
L
2
+ 2S
2
+
3
2
J
2
L
2
S
2
( )
r
J
(where

J
2
=
r
L +
r
S
( )
2
= L
2
+ 2
r
L.
r
S + S
2
)

j
=

B
h
(L
2
+ 4S
2
+ 3J
2
3L
2
3S
2
2
r
J

j
=

B
h
r
J
3J
2
+ S
2
L
2
2J
2
j
=

B
h
r
J 1+
J
2
+ S
2
L
2
2J
2

=

B
h
h j( j +1). 1+
j( j +1) + s(s +1) l (l +1)
2 j( j +1)

j
=
B
j( j +1). 1+
j( j +1) + s(s +1) l (l +1)
2 j( j +1)

We defne the Lande g factor as

g = 1+
j( j +1) + s(s +1) l (l +1)
2 j( j +1)
3.33
and the effective magnetic moment becomes

j
= g
B
j( j +1) 3.34
For zero spin, Eq.3.33 reduces to the classical case of g = 1 and for l = 0, g = 2.
Now we are in a position to account for the so-called Anomalous Zeeman effect.
In a weak magnetic feld, the angular momentum

r
J will precess about

r
B such that the
projection of

r
J along the feld direction will be one of the allowed values of

m
j
h .
The corresponding magnetic moment along the feld direction, taken to be the z-
direction, will then be

z
= g
B
m
j
having a magnetic dipolar energy of

E = gm
j
B
B 3.35
In the classical case, g = 1, but in Eq.3.35, g depends upon the quantum numbers l,
s, and j.
We illustrate, in Table 3.3, by calculating the g-factor for an electron in a p-state and
an s-state.
Table 3.3: g-Factor Calculations
orbital state l j g
p 1 3/2 4/3
p 1 1/2 2/3
s 0 1/2 2
In a magnetic feld B, such that
B
B is less than the spin-orbit energy, j and m
j
are
good quantum numbers and the energies of the states split as shown in the Table 3.4
and in Fig.3.7 below:

Fig.3.7 Zeeman Splitting for p and s States
Table 3.4: Calculations of Zeeman Splittings
Orbital state j m
j
g

E = gm
j
in units of
B
B
p 3/2 3/2 4/3 2
p 3/2 1/2 4/3 2/3
p 3/2 -1/2 4/3 -2/3
p 3/2 -3/2 4/3 -2
p 1/2 1/2 2/3 1/3
p 1/2 -1/2 2/3 -1/3
s 1/2 1/2 2 1
s 1/2 -1/2 2 -1
Thus, the so-called anomalous Zeeman effect is what would normally be expected
for an electron having half-integral spin in a weak magnetic feld.
The normal or classical Zeeman effect cannot occur for a single electron in a weak
magnetic feld because of the spin term in Eq.3.33. However, in atoms in which the
spins are paired so that the total spin is zero, the g-value for all spectroscopic states
is the classical value and only three spectral lines are observed.
Atomic Spectra
When fne structure is ignored, it turns out that all wavelengths of atomic hydrogen
are given by a single empirical formula, the Rydberg formula:

1
= R
1
n
f
2

1
n
i
2
where

R = 1.0967758 10
3
-1

Where n
f
= 1 and n
i
= 2,3,4.. gives the Lyman series (Ultra violet)
n
f
= 2 and n
i
= 3,4,5.. gives the Balmer series (Visible)
n
f
= 3 and n
i
= 4,5,6.. gives the Paschen series (infrared)
n
f
= 4 and n
i
= 5,6,7..gives the Brackett series(Far infrared)
etc.

Fig. 3.8 Hydrogen Spectrum
Source:http://www2.kutl.kyushu.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part4_E/P43_E/
Bohr_theory_E.htm
Continuous, emission, and absorption spectra
Fig.3.9 Continuous, Emission and Absorption Spectra
Source: http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/absorption.html
A continuous spectrum results when the gas pressure is high so that the gas emits
light at all wavelengths.
An absorption spectrum results when light passes through a cold and rarefed
gas.
An absorption spectrum is essentially a reversed emission spectrum of the same
element that produced tha emission spectrum.
The absorption and emission spectra of hydrogen are particularly useful is astrophysics
because hydrogen is a adominant element in the universe.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
To explain certain aspects of atomic spectra, Wolfgang Pauli determined that no 2
electrons can have all 4 quantum numbers alike. This is called the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
The Pauli exclusion principle suggests that only two electrons with opposite spins
can occupy an atomic orbital. Stated another way, no two electrons have the same
4 quantum numbers n, l, m, s. Paulis exclusion principle can be stated in some other
ways, but the idea is that energy states have limited room to accommodate electrons.
A state accepts two electrons of different spins.
In full orbitals (orbitals containing 2 electrons of opposite spin) one electron must be
spin up, and the other spin down, and the electrons are said to be paired.
Electronic Configurations For Atoms With More Than One Electron
The Schroedinger wave equation was developed initially for hydrogen, an atom
with only one electron.
In such a case, all orbitals in each energy level have the same energy and are called
Degenerate
In atoms with more than one electron, the electrons repel each other, also the ef-
fective nuclear charge varies with the atomic number and the inner shell electrons
screen the outer ones.
As a result, the orbital energies are shifted somewhat as shown in the fgure below.
Variation of energy levels for atomic orbitals of some elements
H
_2s_ _ _2p

_ 1s
Li

_ _ _ 2p
_ 2s

_ 1s
Be

_ _ _ 2p

_ 2s

_ 1s
B

_ _ _ 2p

_ 2s

_ 1s
C

_ _ _ 2p

_ 2s

_ 1s
N

_ _ _ 2p

_ 2s

_ 1s
O

_ _ _ 2p

_ 2s

_ 1s
F

_
_
_
Source: http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/eleconfg.html

The lower energy orbitals are flled before electrons are added to the next highest
orbital.
Hunds Rule
Hunds rule suggests that electrons prefer parallel spins in separate orbitals of
subshells. This rule guides us in assigning electrons to different states in each sub-
shell of the atmic orbitals. In other words, electrons fll each and all orbitals in
the subshell before they pair up with opposite spins.
Pauli exclusion principle and Hunds rule guide in fguring the electron confgurations
for all elements.
Task 3.1
1. Spin-orbit coupling splits all states into two except the s state. Why ?
2. Explain why the effective radius of helium atom is less than that of a hydrogen
atom.
Formative Evaluation 3.1
1. Determine the shortest and longest wavelengths of Lyman series of hydro-
gen.
2. The study of atomic spectra was a kind of an industry towards the end of 19
th

century and at the beginning of the 20
th
century. Discuss
3. The longest wavelength in the Lyman series for hydrogen is 1215 . Calculate
the Rydberg constant.
4. Electrons of energy 12.2 eV are fred at hydrogen atoms in a gas discharge
tube. Determine the wavelengths of the lines that can be emitted by the hy-
drogen.
5. Determine the magnetic moment of an electron moving in a circular orbit of
radius r aout a proton.
6. Use the results from quantum mechanics to calculate the magnetic moments
that are possible for n = 3.
7. Determine the normal Zeeman splitting of the cadmium red line of 6438
when the atoms are placed in a magnetic feld of 0.009 T.
8. Express L.S. in terms of J, L, and S. Given L = 1 and S = , calculate the
possible values of L.S.
9. A beam of electrons enters a uniform magnetic feld B = 1.2 T. Find the energy
difference between electrons whose spin are parallel and anti parallel to the
magnetic feld.
Assignment 3.1
1. The normalized wavefunction for the ground state of a hydrogen-like atom with
nuclear charge Ze has the form

u(r ) = Aexp(r ) where A and are constants
and r the distance between the electron and the nucleus. Show the following:
(a)

A
2
=

2
(b)

=
Z
a
0
where

a
0
=
h
2
m
e
4
0
e
2
(b) the energy

E = Z
2
E
0
, where

E
0
=
m
e
2h
2
e
2
4
0
2
(c) the expectation values of the potential and kinetic energies are 2E and -E
respectively,
(d) the expectation value

r =
3a
0
2Z
and (f) the most probable value of r is

a
0
Z
2. For the state
210
of hydrogen atom, calculate the expectation values < r >, <1/
r> and <p
2
> and hence fnd the expectation values of the kinetic and potential
energies.
3. Determine the shortest and the longest wavelengths of the Lyman series of the
hydrogen atom. ( Ans.
max
= 1215 and
min
= 912 )
4. Determine the second line of the Paschen series for hydrogen. (Ans. 12,820 )
5. Electrons of energy 12.2 ev are fred at hydrogen atoms in a gas discharge
tube.
Determine the walengths of the lines that can be emittted by the hydrogen.
(Ans.6563 , 1215 1026 )
6. Show that

r
L .
r
S =
1
2
J J + 1
( )
L L + 1
( )
S S + 1
( )
h
2
.
7. Calculate the possible values of

r
L .
r
S for L = 1 and S = .
8. Calculate the energy difference between the electrons that are parallel and anti-
parallel with a uniform magnetic feld b = 0.8 Twhen a beam of electrons moves
perpendicular to the feld. ( Hint

E = B
eh
m
m
s
)
Activity 4: X-Rays
references.
Explain the atomic origin of X-rays
Distinguish characteristic X-Rays from Bremstrahlung radiation
Moseleys relation and its use in solving problems
Use Braggs rule to solve problems
In Learning activity 4, you begin by refecting on the origin of x-rays from an histo-
rical perspective. You learn further that each element has its own characteristic x-ray
spectrum. This property is akin to a similar property you learnt in the previous unit
and consequently has similar scientifc and technological implications.
Reading 1: X-Ray Production
Complete reference : http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/
xtube.html
Abstract :This article is part of a comprehensive series of articles on the physics of
x-rays, covering all objectives of this Learning Activity. The opening article discusses
x-ray production and the links discuss bremsstrahlung radiation, characteristic x-rays,
Moseley law and X-ray diffraction.
Rationale: The presentation by Hyperphysics is as always sharp and to the point. It
is an essential reading.
Reading 2: The Origin of Characteristic X-Rays
Complete reference : http://www4.nau.edu/microanalysis/Microprobe/Xray-Cha-
racteristic.html
Abstract : This article discusses characteristic x-ray production. The links to this
page discuss continuum x-rays, electron shells, electron transitions , Moseleys Law
and other topics beyond the requirements of this course..
Rationale: This is good material and relevant to this course.
Reading 3:X-Ray Diffraction .
Complete reference : http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~heiney/talks/hires/whatis.
html#SECTION00011000000000000000
Date Consulted: Junel 2007
Abstract : In this article, x-ray is concisely presented.
Rationale: The article covers the contents of this activity
Reading 4: X-Ray Diffraction
Reference link: http://e-collection.ethbib.ethz.ch/ecol-pool/lehr/lehr_54_folie2.pdf
Complete reference: http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:qLs7iI81agwJ:e-collec-
tion.ethbib.ethz.ch/ecol-pool/lehr/lehr_54_folie2.pdf+X-RAY+MOSLEYS+LAW
Abstract: This article contains Power Point Slides on practical aspects of X-Ray
Diffraction, X-Ray Tube, X-Ray Spectrum and Mosleys Law. To access the article
start with the complete reference and then click on reference link.
Rationale: The material is relavant to this activity. Please read it.
Reference: http://ie.lbl.gov/xray/mainpage.htm
Description: X-ray spectra of elements on the Periodic table. Spectra are drawn
with a jave applet.
Reference: http://www.eserc.stonybrook.edu/ProjectJava/Bragg/
Description: A java applet of Braggs law and Diffraction. You should vary alter-
nately the x-ray wavelength , the Bragg angle and the interplanner distance d
and for each variation of a parameter study the effect thereof.
Reference : http://www.mineralogie.uni-wuerzburg.de/crystal/teaching/iinter_
bragg.html
Description: An interactive tutorial Bragg Diffraction. Answer the questions for
each interaction.
Resource #1
Title:-A Histrorical Overview of the Discovery of X-rays
URL:- http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1983/7/83.07.01.x.html
Screen Capture:

THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS
In october of 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen (1845-1923) who was professor of
physics and the director of the Physical Institute of the University of Wurburg,
became interested in the work of Hillorf, Crookes, Hertz, and Lenard. The pre-
vious June, he had obtained a Lenard tube from Muller and had already repea-
ted some of the original experiments that Lenard had created. He had observed
the effects Lenard had as he produced cathode rays in free air. He became so
fascinated that he decided to forego his other studies and concentrate solely on
the production of cathode rays.

Abstract: The article provides an historical presentation of the events that lead to
the discovery of x-rays. It begins with the work by Dr.William Gilbert on magnetism
in 1600 and culminates with the discovery of x-rays in 1895 by Roentgen.
Rationale: The material is easy reading but relevant. It is good for you.
Resource #2
Title:- Notes on the X-Ray Tube
URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_tube
Screen Capture:

Coolidge side-window tube (scheme)
Abstract:- This is an encylopediac presentation of x-ray tubes and x-ray genera-
tion.
Rationale: The material including the links there in are most relevant to this Lear-
ning Activity.
Resource #3
Title: X-ray spectra of some elements on the Periodic Table
URL:- http://ie.lbl.gov/xray/mainpage.htm
Screen Capture: Germanium X-Ray Spectrum

Abstract: X-ray spectra of over 60 elements are interactively plotted. Click on
the perioduc table any italicised element and then follow the instructions to ana-
lyse the x-ray spectrum at hand.
Rationale: The material is very good and relevant to this learning activity.
Resource #4
Title:- Basic Diffraction Physics
URL http://www-structmed.cimr.cam.ac.uk/Course/Basic_diffraction/Diffraction.
html#diffraction
Screen Capture:

Abstract: Basic x-ray diffraction physics is reviewed from a diffferent angle.
Rationale: The material is good and relevant.
Resource #5
Title:
URL: http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/x-ray.htm
Screen Capture:
Abstract: A detailed account on X-Rays and x-ray production, continuous and cha-
racteristic x-ray spectra, x-ray diffraction and Braggs law.
Rationale: This article is part of a lecture series on Earth & Environmental Sciences
given by Prof. Stephen A. Nelson of University of Torornto, Canada. The mate-
rial is good and relevant.
Introduction
4.1: X-Ray tube
Adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_
tube
An X-ray tube is a vacuum tube designed to produce X-ray photons. The frst X-ray
tube was invented by Sir William Crookes. The Crookes tube is also called a discharge
tube or cold cathode tube. A schematic x-ray tube is shown below.

Fig.4.1 A Schematic Diagram of an X-Ray Tube
The glass tube is evacuated to a pressure of air, of about 100 pascals, recall that
atmospheric pressure is 10 10
5
pascals. The anode is a thick metallic target, it is
so made in order to quickly dissipate thermal energy that results from bombardment
with the cathode rays.. A high voltage, between 30 to 150 kV, is applied between the
electrodes; this induces an ionization of the residual air, and thus a beam of electrons
from the cathode to the anode ensues. When these electrons hit the target, they are
slowed down, producing the X-rays. The X-ray photon-generating effect is generally
called the Bremsstrahlung effect, a contraction of the German brems for braking,
and strahlung for radiation.
The radiation energy from an xray tube consists of discrete energies constituting
a line spectrum and a continuous spectrum providing the background to the line
spectrum.

Fig.4.2 A More Detailed X-Ray Tube Head Two Types of X-Rays
The incident electrons can interact with the atoms of the target in a number of
ways.
Continuous Spectrum
When the accelerated electrons (cathode rays) strike the metal target, they collide
with electrons in the target. In such a colission part of the momentum of the incident
electron is transferred to the atom of the target material, thereby loosing some of its
kinetic energy,

K . This interaction gives rise to heating of the target.
The projectile electron may avoid the orbital electrons of the target element but may
come suffciently close to the nucleus of the atom and come under its infuence. The
projectile electron we are tracking is now beyond the K-shell and is well within the
infunce of the nucleus. The electron is now under the infuence of two forces, namely
the attractive Coulomb force and a much stronger nuclear force. The effect of both
forces on the electron is to slow it down or decelerate it. The electron leaves the re-
gion of sphere of infuence of the nucleus with a reduced kinetic energy and fies off
in a different direction, because the vector velocity has changed. The loss in kinetic
energy reappears as an x-ray photon, as illustrated in Fig. 4.3. During deceleration,
the electron radiates an x-ray photon of energy

hv = K = K
i
K
f
. The energy
lost by incident electrons is not the same for all electrons and so the x-ray photons
emitted are not of the same wavelength. This process of x-ray photon emission
through deceleration is called Bremsstrahlung and the resulting spectrum is conti-
nuous but with a sharp cut-off wavelength. The minimum wavelength corresponds
to an incident electron losing all of its energy in a single collision and radiating it
away as a single photon.
If K is the kinetic energy of the incident electron, then

K = h =
hc
min
. The cut off
wavelength depends solely on the accelerating voltage.

hv
max
=
hc
min
= eV where V is the accelerating voltage.

Fig.4.3 Deceleration of an Electron by a Positively Charged Nucleus
Characteristic X-Ray Spectrum
Because of the large accelerating voltage, the incident electrons can (i) excite elec-
trons in the atoms of the target. (ii) eject tightly bound electrons from the cores of
the atoms.
Excitation of electrons will give rise to emission of photons in the optical region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. However when core electrons are ejected, the subse-
quent flling of vacant states gives rise to emitted radiation in the x-ray region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The core electrons could be from the K-, L- or M- shell.
If K-shell (n=1) electrons are removed, electrons from higher energy states falling
into the vacant K-shell states, produce a series of lines denoted as K
, K
, ... as
shown Fig.4.4.
Transitions to the L shell result in the L series and those to the M shell give rise to
the M series, and so on.
Since orbital electrons have defnite energy levels, the emitted x-ray photons also
have well defned energies. The emission spectrum has sharp lines characteristic
of the target element.

Upon a close investigation of the x-ray lines L, M series and above shows that the
lines are composed of a number of closely spaced lines as shown in Fig.4.5. split by
the spin orbit interaction,.

Fig.4.4 X Ray Transitions without Fine Structure

Fig.4.5 X Ray Transitions with Fine Structure
Not all transitions are allowed. Only those transitions which fulfl the following
selection rule are allowed: l = 1.

Fig.4.6 Characteristic X-Ray Emission Using a Molybdenum Target
The Moseley Relation
From experiment Mosley was able to show that the characteristic x-ray frequencies
increase regularly with atomic number Z, satisfying the relation

1/ 2
= A Z Z
0
( )
4.1
where Z is the atomic number of the target material and A and Z
0
are constants that
depend upon the particular transition being observed. The term (Z-Z
0
) is called the
effective nuclear charge as seen by the electrons making transition to a given shell.
The frequency of the K
line can be calculated approximately using Bohr atomic

theory. The wavelength of lines emitted by hydrogenic atoms is given by the Rydberg
formula.

1
= RZ
2
1
n
l
2
n
u
2
4.2
where n
u
and n
l
are principal quantum numbers of the upper and lower states of the
transition, Z is the atomic number of the one-electron atom.
For the K

line the effective nuclear charge is (Z-1), n
l
= 1 and n
u
= 2, so that Eq.4.2
becomes

K
=
c
= cR Z 1
( )
2 1
1
2

1
2
2
K
=
3cR
4
Z 1
( )
2
4.3
A plot of

K
1/ 2
versus Z yields a straight line. Eqn 4.3 is another way of expressing
Moseleys relation.
X-Ray Diffraction
A plane of atoms in a crystal, also called a Bragg plane, refects x-ray radiation
in exactly the same manner that light is refected from a plane mirror, as shown in
Fig.4.7.

Fig.4.7 X-Ray Refection From a Bragg Plane
Refection from successive planes can interfere constructively if the path difference
between two rays is equal to an integral number of wavelengths. This statement is
called Braggs law.

Fig 4.8 Diffraction of X-Rays from Atomic Planes
From Fig. 4.8, AB = 2dsin so that by Braggs law, we have
2dsin = n 4. 4
where in practice, it is normal to assume frst order diffraction so that n = 1.
A given set of atomic planes gives rise a refection at one angle, seen as a spot or a
ring in a diffraction pattern also called a diffractogram.
By varying the angle theta, the Braggs Law conditions are satisfed by different d-
spacings in polycrystalline materials. Plotting the angular positions and intensities of
the resultant diffracted peaks of radiation produces a pattern, which is characteristic
of the sample. Where a mixture of different phases is present, the resultant diffrac-
togram is formed by addition of the individual patterns.
Based on the principle of X-ray diffraction, a wealth of structural, physical and chemi-
cal information about the material investigated can be obtained. A host of application
techniques for various material classes is available, each revealing its own specifc
details of the sample studied.
I am illustrating the X-Ray diffraction technique using a part of our own work on
mineralogical studies of local minerals. I am presenting x-ray diffractograms of selec-
ted iron sulphide samples from the Lake Victoria gold feld, Tanzania. The technique
used here is that of Powder Method whereby the sample is ground into powder and
rotated in an x-ray beam. At any one orientation, only planes whose refected x-rays
interfere constructively will give rise to a signal in the detector. By rotating the sample
in the x-ray beam a whole set of crystal planes will be brought into view.
The x-ray diffraction of the Nyamlilima sample, Fig.4.9, reveals that the sample
comprises the mineral phases quartz, monoclinic pyrrhotite and pyrite whereas the
sample from Mwamela, Nzega, Fig.4.10, consists of only hexagonal pyrrhotite and
quartz mineral phases. Admittedly, the analysis of the Nyamlilima sample is incom-
plete; there is an intense and yet unidentifed refection at 2 30.
The chemistry of the mineral phases mentioned above is as follows: quartz is SiO
2
,
pyrite is FeS
2
( this mineral is notorious for deceiving inexperienced gold seekers and
so it also bears the nickname of a poor mans gold), pyrrhotite also known as magnetic
pyrite, the chemical composition varies from FeS to Fe
0.8
S, where the monoclinic
phase is the most ordered and the hexagonal phase the least ordered.
Fig.4.9 A Diffractogram of an Iron Sulphide Sample from Nyamlilima, Geita,
Tanzania
Fig.4.10 A Diffractogram of an Iron Sulphide Sample from Mwamela, Nzega,
Tanzania
1. In the discovery of xrays, it is said that Roentgen replaced the screen with a
photographic plate and employed his wife Bertha to place her hand on the pho-
tographic plate while he directed the rays at it for ffteen minutes. Frau Roentgen
was taken back and somewhat frightened by the frst x-ray plate of a human
subject which enabled her to see her own skeleton. Discuss.
2. A TV tube operates with a 24 kV accelerating voltage, what is the maximum
energy for x-rays from the TV set? Calculate the wavelength
min
for the conti-
nuous spectrum of x-rays emitted when 35 keV electrons fall on a molybdenum
target.
3. Determine the wavelength of the K
line for molybdenum, Z = 42.

4. Determine the electronic confguration for an atom with Z = 20.
5. Obtain the ground state terms of He and Li.
6. In a cubic crystal, using x-rays of = 1.5 , a frst order (100) planes refection
is observed at a glancing angle of 18. What is the distance between the (100)
planes.
Assignment 4
1. A TV tube operates with a 20 kV accelerating potential. What is the maximum
energy of the x-rays produced?
2. The accelerating voltage of an x-ray tube is 60 kV. Calculate the minimum x-ray
walength generated by tube.
3. Determine the wavelength of the K line for a molybdenum Z = 42 target.
(Ans. = 0.721 )
4. An experiment measuring the K lines for iron and copper yields the following
data:Fe : 1.94 and Cu : 1.54 . Calculate the atomic number of each of the
elements.
5. In Figs.4.9 and 4.10, given that the x-ray wavelength = 1.54 and n = 1,
calculate the d-values for the planes responsible for the refection of the most
intense ( 100%) lines of pyrrhotite and quartz.
6. A 0.083 eV neutron beam scatters from an unknown sample and a Bragg refection
peak is observed centred at 22. Calculate the inter planar spacing.
The material in this Learning Activity can easily be adapted and taught to Secondary
school students.
XI.CompiledListofallKeyConcepts
(Glossary)
Coulomb Scattering: A collision of two charged particles in which the Coulomb
force is the dominant interaction.
Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/coulomb-scattering
Impact parameter : the shortest distance of a particle trajectory from the pri-
mary vertex in the transverse plane to the point where the particle decays.
Source: http://hep.uchicago.edu/cdf/cdfglossary.html
Scattering cross section - The area of a circle of radius b, the impact parameter.
Dfferential Scattering Cross section: is defned by the probability to observe a
scattered particle in a given quantum state per solid angle unit, such as
within a given cone of observation.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)
Planetary orbit - the path that a planet makes around the sun under the in-
fuence of gravitational force.
Source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit.
Atomic shell an arrangement of electrons in an atom, in compliance with appro-
priate physical laws.
Bohr radius - The size of a ground state of hydrogen atom as calculated by Niels
Bohr using a mix of classical physics and quantum mechanics.
Source: http://education.jlab.org/glossary/bohrradius.html
Rydberg constant - a constant that relates atomic spectra to the spectrum of hy-
drogen. Its value is 1.0977 10
7
per metre.
Source: http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0025952.html
Rydberg formula : is an impirical relation that gives all wavelengths of atomic
Hydrogen.
Quantum number- A quantum number is any one of a set of numbers used to
specify the full quantum state of any system in quantum mechanics. Each quantum
number specifes the value of a conserved quantity in the dynamics of the quantum
system.
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_number
Quantisation of Angular Momentum- The Angular momentum quantum number
can take only certain values in multiples of

h . This phenomenon is also referred to
as space quantisation
Angular Momentum Coupling:- The orbital and spin angular momentum of a
particle can interact through spin-orbit interaction. The procedure of construc-
ting eigenstates of total angular momentum out of eigenstates of separate angular
momenta is called angular momentum coupling.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum_coupling
Stokes Law - an expression for the frictional force exerted on spherical objects
with very small Reynolds numbers (e.g., very small particles) in a continuous
viscous fuid:

r
F = 6r
r
v where:

r
F is the frictional force, r is the radius of the
particle, is the fuid viscosity, and

r
v is the particles velocity.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes_law
Bremsstrahlung radiation Radiation ( X-rays) produced by slowing down
energetic electrons (or any charged particles) upon impact on a target (or an absor-
ber). Source: http://www.ionactive.co.uk/glossary/Bremsstrahlung.html
Braggs Law - the result of experiments into the diffraction of X-rays or neutrons
off crystal surfaces at certain angles.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braggs_law
XII. ListofCompulsoryReadings
Reading 1
Complete reference : Atomic Models
From: wikipedia
URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_physics
Accessed on the 20th April 2007
Abstract : This reading is compiled from wikipedia page indicated above and
the links available in the page. Titles on Daltons model of the atom, Thompsons
plum pudding model, Rutherfords alpha scattering experiment that led to the pla-
netary model of an atom and quantum mechanics are discussed.
Rationale: The material in this compilation is essential to the frst activity of this
module.

Reading 2
Complete reference: Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom
URL : http://musr.physics.ubc.ca/~jess/hr/skept/QM1D/node2.html
DateConsulted: June 2007
Abstract : In three webpages the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is presented
concisely. You are advised to begin with the page referenced here and then use the
next link to go to the derivation of the Bohr radius and click next again for calcula-
tion of energy levels.
Rationale: The material is presented in a manner that it is easy to follow.
Reading 3
Complete reference: Theory of Rutherford Scattering
URL : http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/rutcon.html#c1
Abstract: The physics of scattering as it relates to the Rutherford Model of the atom is
beautifully presented. You will have to follow the outline as presented in this page
and click on each link as presented in the outline.
Rationale: The material presented in this link is essential and relevant to this course
Reading 4
A Look Inside the Atom
Complete Reference: http://www.aip.org/history/electron/jjhome.htm
Abstract: This is an account of the work by J.J.Thomson on Cathode rays that
culminated in the discovery of the electron as a fundamental part of atom. Follow
the links by clicking next.
Rationale: The article is qualitative but very informative and relevant to this
course.
Reading 5
Nobel Prize Lecture on Cathode Rays
Complete Reference: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1905
lenard-lecture.html
Abstract: In the context of what you already know now, this is a light reading but
informative article on cathode rays and misconceptions at the time.
Rationale: The presentation is by a Physics Nobel Prize winner, Philipp Lenard,
1905. This is good motivational material for you.
Reading 6
The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Complete reference: http://hep.wisc.edu/~prepost/407/millikan/millikan.pdf
Abstract: This is a good quantitative article on the practical aspects of the Millikan
Oil Drop Experiment.
Rationale: The material is good and relevant to the course.
Reading 7
Complete reference : URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html
Abstract : Highly illustrated physics of the hydrogen atom, energy levels, electron
transitions, fne and hyperfne structures all are very well discussed.
Rationale: This article covers topics in line with this Learning Activity.
Reading 8
Complete reference : Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
URL : http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/bohr.html
Abstract: This article discusses the Emission Hydrogen Spectrum and includes
solved practice problems.
Rationale: This article covers topics in line with this module and the practice pro-
blems makes this reading very important.
Reading 9
Hydrogen Atom
Complete reference : An Introduction to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and
Molecules
URL: http://www.chemistry.mcmaster.ca/esam/Chapter_3/intro.html
Abstract : This is section three of an article by Prof. Richard F.W. Bader Professor
of Chemistry / McMaster University / Hamilton, Ontario. It discusses the
hydrogen atom, the evolution of probability densities and hence orbitals and fnaly
the vector model of the hydrogen atom.
Rationale: The material covered in this article is good and relevant to this Learning
Activity.
Reading 10
Mathematical Solution of the Hydrogen Atom
URL: http://www.mark-fox.staff.shef.ac.uk./PHY332/atomic_physics2.pdf
Abstract : This article provides the methodology of solving the Hydrogen atom
problem as a quantum mechanical problem.
Rationale: The article is very relevant to this course as you will see how the three
quantum numbers n, l, and m come out naturally.
Reading 11
Fine Structure of Hydrogen Atom
Complete Reference: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qmech/lectures/node107.html
Abstract: This article is part of a series of lecture notes in non relativistic quantum
mechanics.
Rationale: The material is good but requires a strong link with knowledge in
quantum mechanics.
Reading 12
X-Ray Production
Complete reference : http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/xt
be. html
Abstract :This article is part of a comprehensive series of articles on the physics of
x-rays, covering all objectives of this Learning Activity. The opening article discusses
x-ray production and the links discuss bremsstrahlung radiation, characteristic x-rays,
Moseley law and X-ray diffraction.
Rationale: The presentation by Hyperphysics is as always sharp and to the point. It
is an essential reading.
Reading 13
The Origin of Characteristic X-Rays
URL : http://www4.nau.edu/microanalysis/Microprobe/Xray-Characteristic.html
Abstract : This article discusses characteristic x-ray production. The links to this
page discuss continuum x-rays, electron shells, electron transitions , Moseleys Law
and other topics beyond the requirements of this course..
Rationale: This is good material and relevant to this course.
Reading 14
X-Ray Diffraction .
URL : http://www.physics.upenn.edu/~heiney/talks/hires/whatis.html#SECTIO
N00011000000000000000
Date Consulted: Junel 2007
Abstract : In this article, x-ray is concisely presented.
Rationale: The article covers the contents of this activity
Reading 15
X-Ray Diffraction
URL: http://e-collection.ethbib.ethz.ch/ecol-pool/lehr/lehr_54_folie2.pdf
Complete reference: http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:qLs7iI81agwJ
e-col l ect i on. et hbi b. et hz. ch/ ecol -pool / l ehr/ l ehr_54_fol i e2. pdf+X
RAY+MOSLEYS+LAW
Abstract: This article contains Power Point Slides on practical aspects of X-Ray
Diffraction, X-Ray Tube, X-Ray Spectrum and Mosleys Law. To access the article
start with the complete reference and then click on reference link.
Rationale: The material is relevant to this activity. Please read it.
XIII. CompiledListOf(Optional)
MultimediaResources
At least two, copyright free, relevant, resources other than a written text or a web
site. These could be a video fle, an audio fle, a set of images, etc. For each re-
source, Module Developers should provide the complete reference (APA style),
as well as a 50 word abstract written in a way that motivates the learner to use the
resources provided. The rationale for the resource provided should also be explai-
ned (maximum length : 50-75 words). An electronic version of each resource is
required.
Reference: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl
Date consulted: December 2006
Description: A beautiful applet whereby you create your own atom. Upon entering
the Physics 2000 Home page, click on Table of contents and then go to Science
Trek and click on Electric Force. Place your cursor about 5 cm away from the pro-
ton. Click and drag the created electron at say 45 or greater towards the nucleus
and let go. Then watch the electron make an elliptical orbit around the proton. You
will be surprised at the number of non colliding orbital electrons you can create
around the nucleus.
Reference: http://www.waowen.screaming.net/revision/nuclear/rsanim.htm
Description: A simulation of the Rutherford alpha particle scattering experiment
against a gold target. In this simulation the nucleus is represented by a yellow dot
and the alpha particle by a red dot which is smaller than the yellow dot. A scat-
tering event is realized by the learner following the instructions regarding choice
of the energy of the alpha particle, dragging the red dot and clicking the fre bar.
Implementation of one set of the instructions constitutes one experiment. The
next experiment starts by clicking the next bar to rest the position of the alpha
particle. After several scattering events you need to clear tracks. The alpha particle
energy is restricted between 8 and 25 MeV.
Reference:http://www.physics.brown.edu/physics/demopages/Demo/modern/demo/
7d5010.htm
Abstract: An animation of the experimental set up of Rutherford alpha scattering
is shown.
Reference: http://www.control.co.kr/java1/masong/absorb.html
Description: A Java applet for an absorption spectrum of a Bohr atom
Reference: http://www.eserc.stonybrook.edu/ProjectJava/Bragg/index.html
Description: The applet shows two rays incident on two atomic layers of a crystal,
e.g., atoms, ions, and molecules, separated by the distance d. The layers look like
rows because the layers are projected onto two dimensions and your view is paral-
lel to the layers. The applet begins with the scattered rays in phase and interferring
constructively. Braggs Law is satisfed and diffraction is occurring. The meter
indicates how well the phases of the two rays match. The small light on the meter
is green when Braggs equation is satisfed and red when it is not satisfed.
The meter can be observed while the three variables in Braggs are changed by
clicking on the scroll-bar arrows and by typing the values in the boxes. The d and
q variables can be changed by dragging on the arrows provided on the crystal lay-
ers and scattered beam, respectively.
XIV. CompiledListofUsefulLinks
At least 10 relevant web sites. These useful links should help students understand the topics covered in the module.
For each link, the complete reference (Title of the site, URL), as well as a 50 word des-
cription written in a way to motivate the learner to read the text should be provided.
The rationale for the link provided should also be explained (maximum length : 50
words). A screen capture of each useful link is required.
Useful Link #1
Title: Atomic Models
URL: http://mhsweb.ci.manchester.ct.us/Library/webquests/atomicmodels.htm
Screen Capture:
Description: A well illustrated description of the atomic theories through time is
given .
Rationale: supplements the content in activity 1
Useful Link #2
Title: Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen
URL: http://physics.gmu.edu/~mary/Phys246/10Spectrophotometer.pdf
Screen Capture:
Description: A good description of hydrogen spectrum is available at this link .
Date Consulted: May 2007
Useful Link #3
Title: Hydrogen Atom
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_atom
Screen Capture:
Description: The physics of hydrogen atom is described in this article.
Rationale: Hydrogen atom is a good starting point for the description of atomic
spectra in general. Therefore it is essential to have fundamental grasp of the physics
and there fore additional reading material of this kind is necessary.
Date Consulted: May 2007
Useful Link #4
Title: How light is made from the ordered motion of electrons in atoms and molecules
URL: http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~soper/Light/atomspectra.html
Screen Capture:
Description: How ordered motion of electrons gives rise to discreet energy levels
and hence light is provided here.
Rationale: Relevant to Activity three of the module.
Date Consulted: 2007-05-28
Useful Link #5
Title: NIST Atomic spectra Database
URL: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/index.html
Screen Capture:
Description: This database provides access and search capability for NIST critically
evaluated data on atomic energy levels, wavelengths, and transition probabilities
that are reasonably up-to-date. A table of ground levels and ionization energies for
the neutral atoms is given. You can also fnd here links to related databases of NIST.
Date Consulted: May 19, 2007
XV. SynthesisoftheModule
Atomic Physics
In this module you have learnt about an important topic in physics, namely Atomic
Physics. The subject matter of the module is a principal component of the so called
Modern Physics a scientifc discipline that came into being in the late 19th century and
early 20th century. You you have been guided through the historical development of
atomic theories, through the work of Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr. These
four scientists have a very special place in the development of Atomic Physics. The
work by Dalton and Thompson laid the ground on which Rutherford and Bohr built
upon to the extent that the models developed by the latter two scientists are usable
to some extent today. Hence you have acquired skills to solve problems relating to
Rutherfords and Bohrs models of the atom.
In Learning Activity 2 of this module you have been guided through the gas discharge
phenomenon and the onset of cathode rays. This phenomenon was a puzzle to the
scientists of the day but led to an important discovery of the electron, the frst sub-
atomic particle to be discovered. Towards the end of the Learning Activity you have
been guided through Millikans oil drop experiment that led to the discovery that
electric charge is particulate or quantised.
In Learning Activity 3, you have been guided through the evolution of atomic spectra
and learnt about the uniqueness of an atomic spectrum for every element. The uni-
queness of atomic spectra has scientifc and technological implications.
In Learning Activity 4, you have been guided through the origin of x-rays, the de-
velopment of x-ray spectra and the uniqueness of x-ray spectrum for every element.
Towards the end of the unit we discussed and have solved problems using Moselys
law. Finally you have learnt about the use of x-rays as an analytical tool.
XVI. SummativeEvaluation
1. (a) Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates. State them and give their
mathematical representation. (b) Derive an expression for the radius of the nth
orbit of the electron in a hydrogenic atom of atomic number Z, where n denotes
a principal quantum number.(c ) Calculate the radius of the Ground state orbit
for hydrogen.
2. Describe how J.J.Thompson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron
and derive the exprsession

q
m
=
E
B
2
R
where the symbols have the satandard
meaning.
3. (a) Distinguish between orbital angular momentum and spin angular mo-
mentum. Hence defne the total angular momentum of an electron in an atom.
(b) Consider the two ways in which and

r
S vectors add to form the vector

r
J when l = 1 and s = . If the angle between

r
L and

r
S is , show that

cos =
j( j + 1) l ( l + 1) s( s + 1)
2 l ( l + 1)s( s + 1)
4. A hydrorgen atom state is known to have the quantum number l=3.(a) What are
the possible n, m
l
, m
s
quantum numbers? (b) What are the quantum numbers
n,l, m
l
, m
s
for the two electrons of the helium atom in its ground state? (c )
State Pauli exclusion. Use the principle to determine the quantum state of the
outermost electron in the magnesium atom (Z = 12).
5. (a)Distinguish between excitation energy and ionization potential. Illustrate
your answer by referring to the hydrogen atom. (b) Suppose an electron from an
inner shell is completely removed from an atom. How does the required energy
compare with the ionization potential of the atom? Explain. (c) A sodium ion is
neutralized by capturing an electron of energy 1 eV. What is the wavelength of
the emitted radiation if the ionization potential of sodium is 5.4 volts?
6. (a)In the investigation of structure of the atom, Rutherford performed one impor-
tant experiment. Give a brief description of the experiment. What was the main
conclusion from the experiment? (b) What is the closest distance of approach
that a 5.3 MeV alpha particle can make with an initially stationary gold nucleus?
(Z
AU
= 79)
7. A beam of 100 keV electrons is incident on a Mo (Z=42) target. Binding energies
of the core electrons for K and L shells in Mo are given in the table below:

Shell K L
I
L
II
L
III
Orbital 1s 2s 2p 2p
Binding Energy , keV 20.000 2.866 2.625 2.520
Calculate the wavelengths of the K X-rays emitted.
Answer Key
1. (a) Bohr postulates: Postulate 1: Coulomb force balanced by centripetal force,
postulate 2: L = n

h ; postulate 3:

E
n
=
m
e
q
e
4
8h
2
0
2
1
n
2
;
postulate 4:

E = E
i
E
f
.
(b) Bohr radius

r
n
=

0
nh
2
m
e
Ze
2
. (c) In the ground state n = 1, so that the Bohr
radius is r
1
.
2. In the Thompson tube the electric force is balanced by the magnetic force.
3. (a) Orbital angular momentum

r
L is due to rotation of electron in its orbit. Spin
angular momentum

r
S has no classical analogue. Total angular momentum is
the vector sum of

r
L and

r
S .
(b) Vector sum of

r
L and

r
S
Applying cosine rule to the triangle made by vectors J, L, and S we have

cos =
J
2
L
2
S
2
2LS
But

L = l ( l + 1)h ;

S = s( s + 1)h and

J = j( j + 1)h
Upon substitution we have

cos =
j( j + 1) l ( l + 1) s( s + 1)
2 l ( l + 1)s( s + 1)
.
4.(a) If l = 3, then m
s
= 1/2 , m
l
= 0, 1, 2, 3, n = 4.
(b)
Quantum
number
Electron 1 Electron 2
n 1 1
l 0 0
m
l
0 0
m
s
+1/2 -1/2
(c ) No two electrons can occupy an energy state defnied by the same quantum
numbers.
Outermost electrons
Quantum
number
Electron 1 Electron 2
n 3 3
l 0 0
m
l
0 0
m
s
+1/2 -1/2
5. (a) Excitation energy is energy required to raise an atom from one lower energy
state to a higher level, whereas Ionisation potential is energy required to com-
pletely remove an outermost electron from the atom.
(b) Ionisation potential is less Energy required to remove an electron from an inner
shell.
(c ) Energy of Emitted radiation = (5.41 - 1) eV, hence = hc/E = 2.82 x10
-7
m.
6 (b) Using

cot / 2
( )
=
4
0
T
2Ze
2
b where T = 5.3 MeV and Z = 79.
=>

b =
3.795
0
cot / 2
( )
this expression is adequate since is unknown.
7. Transitions are subject to the selection rule l = 1.

=
c
=
hc
h
=
hc
E
i
E
f
=
12.4 keV .
o
A
E
i
E
f
where E
i
is the initial energy and E
f
is
the fnal energy.
Module Assessment
The sum of the Scores in the Tasks, Assignements in the four Learning Activities
should consistitute 40% of the total score in the module and the Summattive Eva-
luation should consistitute 60%.
XVII. References
Foot C.J.(2005) Atomic Physics, Oxford University Press, Chapters 1 and 2..
Willmont, J.C. (1975), Atomic Physics, Wiley.
Beiser A., (2004) Applied Physics, 4th ed., Tata McGraw_Hill edition, New
Delhi, India.
Bernstein, J.Fishbane, P.M. and Gasiorowicz, Modern Physics, Prentice Hall.
Anderson, E.E. 1971, Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics, W.B.Saunders
Co. Philadelphia.
Cohen-Tannoudji,C., Diu, B., Laloe, F. 1977, Quantum Mechanics, John Wiley
and Sons Inc., Paris.
Gasiorowicz, S. 1974, Quantum Physics, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York:
Liboff, R.L. 1980, Introductory Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co. Inc., New York.
Landau, L.D. and Lifshiftz, E.M., 1958, Quantum Mechanics Non-Relativistic-
Theory, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Inc., London.
Merzbacher,E., 1961, Quantum Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New
York
Rae, A.I.M., 1986, Quantum Mechanics, Adam Hilger/English Language Book
Society, Bristol.
XVIII.MainAuthoroftheModule
About the author of this module
Christopher Amelye KIWANGA
Associte Professor of Physics
The Open Universty of Tanzania
P.O.Box 23409
DAR ES SALAAM
TANZANIA.,
E-mail: ckiwanga@yahoo.com , kiwanga5@hotmail.com .
Breif Biography: I am a Graduate from Lancaster University, UK where I gained
the Ph.D and M.Sc in Physics while the B.Sc I obtained from the University Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.
For my Ph.D and M.Sc I worked in Physical Electronics having written a thesis on
Field Electron Emission on Surfaces Coated with Selenium and a dissertation on
Chromium Diffusion in Gallium Arsenide respectively.
Upon return to Tanzania, I worked on Applications of -Radiation to the analysis
of Sulphides from the Lake Victoria Gold Field.
I have taught at the University of Dar es Salaam for 29 years and at the Open Uni-
versity of Tanzania for six years todate.
You are always welcome to communicate with the author regarding any question,
opinion, suggestions, etc in respect of this module.
XIX.FileStructure
Name of the module (WORD) file :
Atomic Physics.doc
Name of all other files (WORD, PDF, PPT, etc.) for the module.
Compulsory readings Atomic Physics.pdf
Abstract : The seven compulsory readings proposed for this module are compiled
in one pdf fle.

Atomic Physics

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Prof. C.A.

KIWANGA (in memoriam)

where n is the Principal Quantum number, a

is the Associated Laguere Polynomial defned by

( as well as R ) are separately normalized.

African Virtual University 64

and the wavefunction

African Virtual University 66

In the frst Bohr radius,

is directed from the nucleus toward the electron.

African Virtual University 85

line can be calculated approximately using Bohr atomic

line for molybdenum, Z = 42.

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