Shah, S. P., and Weiss, W. J.

, (2000) High Strength Concrete: Strength, Permeability, and Cracking, Proceedings of the PCI/FHWA International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, Orlando Florida, 2000, pp. 331-340

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE: STRENGTH, PERMEABILITY, AND SHRINKAGE CRACKING Surendra P. Shah Walter P. Murphy Professor Director of the Center for Advanced Cement-Based Materials Northwestern University, Department of Civil Engineering Evanston, IL U.S.A. W. Jason Weiss Assistant Professor Purdue University, School of Civil Engineering West Lafayette, IN U.S.A. ABSTRACT The properties that dictate how concrete will perform are not always related to material composition in the same manner. This paper presents compressive strength, chloride permeability, and restrained shrinkage cracking potential test results from five mixtures to illustrate this fact. For example, decreasing the w/c substantially improves strength, stiffness, and chloride penetration resistance; however, decreasing the w/c may increase shrinkage and the potential for restrained shrinkage cracking. In addition, findings are presented that indicate that admixtures may enhance durability without necessarily increasing strength, therefore specifications must be developed focused on the specific performance characteristic that is desired. INTRODUCTION It is generally assumed that increasing the strength of concrete automatically corresponds to an increase in long-term durability, however this may not necessarily always be true. Mechanical properties, such as strength or stiffness, and durability properties, such as permeability are a function of material porosity (both pore volume and distribution). While strength and ion penetration resistance both increase as pore size and volume are reduced, pore size reduction is accompanied by an increase in shrinkage. A wide range of pore sizes exist in concrete and it appears that the size of the pores may influence specific performance characteristics differently. For example, strength and cracking resistance appear to be related to maximum pore size (flaw size) or total pore volume,1 permeability to the capillary pore size and distribution,2 and volumetric stability (shrinkage) to the small capillary and gel pores.3 Over the years numerous studies have related different aspects of porosity to overall performance. Early work by Powers4 found that the gel space ratio (gel space ratio is a

parameter that is related to measurable properties that describe capillary porosity) could be related to strength and permeability for a large range of w/cs and cement compositions. In a later work, Rossler and Odler5 found that the volume of larger pores was related to strength, however very small pores (less than 20 nm) did not appear to influence the strength of the mixtures they investigated. While it has been discussed in literature that the small pores may not have a significant influence on strength, pores in this size range may effect on hydration rates or the mechanical properties of very high performance concrete. This may be especially true with extremely low w/c mixtures and advanced processing conditions. More recently, studies1 have indicated that at early-ages the mechanical performance can be related to the maximum pore diameter, however as hydration reaches a critical limit the overall porosity appears to correspond to the mechanical properties. Studies measuring the aggressive ion penetration resistance appear to suggest that permeability (penetrability) is dictated by the volume of larger capillary pores and their spatial distribution (connectivity). Despite the seemingly simple correlations, these trends are further complicated in mortars (and concretes) which have a different pore size distribution than the paste presumably due to the development of an interfacial zone or the development of internal porosity during mixing. One of the most common methods that can be employed to alter the internal porosity, and thereby improve performance, is to change the w/c ratio. Another method that can be used to alter the pore structure is the use of finely ground pozzolanic materials. Pozzolanic materials react to convert calcium hydroxide into additional calcium silicate hydrate. In addition, the fine size of these particles allows them to fill in the pore structure and densify the microstructure (especially in the interfacial transition zone). While reductions in w/c and use of pozzolanic materials increase strength and reduce permeability, research has recently been preformed to demonstrate how this can lead to an increase in shrinkage and an increased potential for shrinkage cracking which would have an adverse effect on overall durability.6 While it is commonly assumed that lower w/c concrete exhibits less shrinkage than higher w/c mixtures, this general rule may be misleading and should be qualified. While it is true that concrete made using a low w/c typically exhibits lower drying shrinkage, these mixtures can exhibit a substantial increase in autogenous shrinkage, especially during the first 24 hours of material development.7,8 Autogenous shrinkage describes length changes that are not attributed to mass loss (water loss) or temperature change. Autogenous shrinkage occurs as a result of self-desiccation (internal water consumption) in low w/c mixtures where sufficient water is not provided to complete the reaction with the cement. Although self-desiccation was originally described over sixty years ago9, it was not perceived to be a problem in concrete for many years since high w/cs (>0.42) were used to insure workability. However, widespread use of water-reducing agents (and high-range water reducing agents) have made it possible to utilize low w/c mixtures more routinely and, as a result, autogenous shrinkage must be considered in these mixtures.8 While it is important that cement-based materials exhibit volumetric stability with moisture fluctuations, the true goal of limiting volumetric change is to reduce the

potential for cracking. Determining if concrete will crack in service is difficult however, due to complex interaction of several factors including the materials ability to permit stress relief through creep or micro-cracking, shrinkage rate, and the rate of material property development. In addition, factors such as specimen geometry, curing conditions, and restraint conditions further complicate predicting the potential for cracking.10 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM/MATERIAL COMPOSITION This paper summarizes recent studies that illustrate the influence of the matrix composition on three indicies that can be used to describe concrete performance: namely strength, chloride penetrability, and restrained shrinkage cracking potential. This paper discusses the relationship between the aforementioned indicies and free shrinkage (drying and autogenous) characteristics and illustrates the correlation between porosity measurements and performance to explain the findings. To investigate the influence of binder composition all mixtures used in this study maintained a constant aggregate volume of 65% that was composed of equal proportions of sand and 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) aggregate. Table 1 provides a summary of the material proportions used, however further details of the mixture proportions, materials, and casting processes are available elsewhere in literature.11 The mixture proportions that will be used in this study were chosen to describe the influence of the water-to-cement ratio (w/c), silica fume replacement, and a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) addition on the performance of various mixtures. Table 1 - Mixture Proportions by Weight
Liquid High-Range WaterReducing Admixture Binder Silica Fume*** Aggregates** Liquid/Binder
0.50 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.30

Cement

Mixture Identification

W/C = 0.5 W/C = 0.4 W/C = 0.3 W/C = 0.3-SRA W/B = 0.3-SF

0.500 0.400 0.300 0.285 0.300

0.015 -

0.0125 0.0125 0.0259

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.80

0.20

2.00 1.77 1.52 1.52 1.58

2.00 1.77 1.52 1.52 1.58

* 5% of the Total Water Was Replaced With SRA ** All Mixtures Contain 65% Aggregate by Volume *** Equivalent Dry Weight of Silica Fume

Coarse

Water

SRA*

Fine

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES In this work compressive strength and elastic modulus were determined using 100 mm x 200 mm (4 in. diameter x 8 in. height) cylinders according to ASTM C-39 and ASTM C469 respectively. In addition, rapid chloride permeability testing was performed in accordance with ASTM C-1202 using a 50 mm x 100 mm (2 in. x 4 in. diameter) disk that was taken from a larger cylinder. Strength and permeability specimens were stored in a moist room at 22C and >95% RH until the time of testing (28 days). In addition, specimens were prepared to assess the volumetric stability (shrinkage). Free shrinkage was measured using a modified version of ASTM C-341 as described in the following paragraphs while restrained shrinkage cracking potential was determined using the restrained ring test. The restrained ring test consists of casting a concrete ring with a wall thickness of 35 mm (1.3 in) around a 150 mm (6 in) tall steel ring with an outer diameter of 300 mm (12 in), allowing the specimen to dry, and noting the age at which cracking is observed and the width of the crack after a specified period of time, which was 56 days for this study.12 Shrinkage specimens were stored in a drying environment (40% RH) at a constant temperature of 30C. As mentioned, autogenous shrinkage describes volumetric movements that occur without mass or temperature change in the specimen. At early-ages when the concrete is still fluid, autogenous shrinkage does not cause the development of high residual stress levels if length change is prevented. However, as the concrete begins to develop a rigid structure (i.e., set), residual stresses as can develop if the concrete is restrained from moving freely.13 Autogenous shrinkage measurements are frequently ignored in current standardized testing procedures, however high levels of autogenous shrinkage can occur between the time of set and the time at which the concrete is demolded.8 The design of the experiments for measuring autogenous shrinkage used in this paper has been based on a test method proposed by Tazawa and Mizawaya14 and Dilger et al.15 in which dial gages are used to monitor the overall length change of the specimen while it is still in the mold. Figure 1 illustrates details of the experiment in which a standard size ASTM shrinkage prism geometry (100 mm x 100 mm x 400 mm, 4 in. x 4in. x 16 in.) is prepared in special forms that are intended to permit movement while providing a moisture barrier. Stainless steel gage studs are permitted to protrude through the end of the forms in a mechanical sleeve. The gage studs were embedded in the fresh concrete maintaining a 350 mm (14 in.) gage length between the closest ends of the gage plugs. The concrete was placed in two lifts, vibrated, finished, and a polyester film was placed on the top surface of the specimens along with an acrylic lid. Autogenous shrinkage measurements were taken from the time of initial set as determined using ASTM C-341. Thermal effects were separated from autogenous shrinkage at early ages by measuring the temperature change in the concrete and using the coefficient of thermal expansion to correct for the estimated thermal contribution to length change.16

After demolding at 24 hours, specimen deformations were measured and recorded for both sealed and unsealed specimens to assess the effect of drying and autogenous shrinkage. Unsealed specimens were permitted to dry from all six sides in the 40% RH environment while the sealed specimens were wrapped with two layers of a 5 mil adhesive aluminum tape. The weight of the unsealed specimens reduced as a result of drying while the weight of the sealed specimens remained relatively constant over time (less than 0.05% at 90 days) demonstrating that the tape was sufficient to prevent substantial moisture loss. Autogenous shrinkage describes the movement measured on the sealed specimen (after compensating for thermal movements during the initial 24 hours) while total shrinkage describes the measurement of the unsealed specimens. Drying shrinkage is taken as the difference between the sealed and unsealed specimens.
1/2 in (12.5 mm) Acrylic Forms Specimen Length 16 in (400 mm) Gage Length ~ 14 in (350 mm) Dial Gage Specimen Height and Width 4 in (100 mm) Steel Plate Removable Reaction Plate Gage Plug Polyester Film Between Specimen and Form Work Around All Sides of the Specimen Polystyrene Sheet End Blocks Released at Initial Set

Figure 1. Experimental Apparatus for Measuring Autogenous Shrinkage

DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The following section illustrates the trends that were observed during the course of this investigation. The first section will deal primarily with the influence of the w/c whereas the second section will discuss the impact of a mineral additive (silica fume) and a chemical additive (shrinkage reducing admixture, SRA) on overall performance. Figure 2 illustrates a summary of results obtained from a variety of experiments on mixtures containing three different w/cs (0.5, 0.4, and 0.3). Results from mercury intrusion porisimetry tests indicate that by changing the w/c from 0.5 to 0.4 and 0.3 corresponded to a 15% and 35% reduction in the total pore volumes respectively. As previously described, the reduction in total pore volume corresponds to a 25% and 76 % increase in strength for the 0.4 and 0.3 mixtures respectively as shown in Figure 2a. Similarly an increase in elastic modulus was observed (Figure 2b). In addition, decreasing the w/c resulted in a decrease in chloride penetrability that can again be attributed to the change in capillary pore volume and connectivity. The dramatic decrease in charge passed in Figure 2c is likely attributed to the overheating effects that occur in the high w/c specimens during testing. Figure 2d illustrates that reducing the

free water results in a reduction in drying shrinkage, however this reduction is not very significant since the benefit is counteracted by the reduction in pore size which results in the generation of higher capillary stresses and shrinkage. While these beneficial trends are consistent with numerous previous findings, Figure 2e illustrates that a reduction in the w/c results in a higher autogenous shrinkage at both 24 hours (time of demolding, zero shrinkage according to the existing ASTM C-341 method) and at later ages (autogenous shrinkage was measured to be 200, 440, and 695 for w/c of 0.5, 0.4, and 0.3 at 90 days). In addition, Figure 2f shows that a reduction in w/c results in shrinkage cracking at earlier ages. This is consistent with what would be expected with an increase in total shrinkage, a reduction in stress relaxation (creep), and increase in brittleness, and an increase in stiffness.6,10 It is important to once again note that the volume of aggregate was maintained constant in this investigation and that this trend of increased cracking may be able to be counteracted through an increase in aggregate volume, however further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
Charge Passed (Col. X10 ) 80 60 40 20 0
(a)

40 Comp. Mod. (GPa) 30 20 10 0

(b)

12 9 6 3 0
(c)

Comp. Str. (MPa)

Dry. Shrinkage @ 90 Days ()

Auto. Shrinkage @24 hrs ()

Age of Cracking (Days)

1000 750 500 250 0

(d)

280 210 140 70 0

(e)

12 9 6 3 0
(f)

Figure 2: Influence of Water-to-Cement Ratio on Various Material Properties16,17 While decreasing the w/c provides one method to improve the performance of concrete, this section will review the use of two admixtures that can improve various aspects of concrete performance. Silica fume is a mineral additive that can densify the interfacial zone between the aggregates and the paste and reduce the capillary porosity thereby increasing strength and dramatically reducing permeability (as inferred from RCPT measurements) as shown in Figures 3a and 3b respectively. These findings are consistent

w/c=0.5

w/c=0.4

w/c=0.3

with porosity tests that show a reduction in total pore volume (which is likely to occur due to a reduction in transition zone porosity that reduces connectivity). Use of silica fume was accompanied by an increase in cracking potential. Figure 4 illustrates that the use of silica fume increases the overall autogenous shrinkage at later ages although the autogenous shrinkage at 24 hours was slightly lower than the control mixture (presumably due to the fact that cement was replaced with silica fume resulting in a slower rate of initial reaction). In addition to the use of silica fume, a shrinkage-reducing admixture was used to illustrate that by reducing the surface tension of the liquid in the capillary pores autogenous and drying shrinkage can be reduced. The shrinkage-reducing admixture was observed to have an 12% higher total pore volume that appear to be responsible for a reduction in compressive strength, however permeability was found to be similar (albeit slightly lower). It is also interesting to note that the shrinkage-reducing admixture has the most dramatic effect on reducing shrinkage at early-ages which is likely attribute to the emptying of larger pores. As a result, SRA appears to be effective in reducing both drying and autogenous shrinkage.16
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Charge Passed (Col. x 10 )

100 75 50 25 0

4 3 2 1 0

(a)
No cracking

(b)

Age of Cracking (Days)

12 9 6 3 0

Average Crack Width (mm)

1.2 0.9 0.6 0.3 0

(d)

(c)

Figure 3: Influence of Mineral and Chemical Additives on the Performance of a Low Water-to-Binder Ratio (0.3) Concrete*,17
Note: Restrained shrinkage cracking testing was not performed on the silica fume mixture outlined in Table 1 therefore the age of cracking and average crack width for the silica fume mixture refers to a similar mixture with w/b ratio of 0.29 not 0.30 and a 15% silica fume replacement not 20% with 65% aggregate volume.
*

Plain

Silica Fume

SRA

Autogenous Shrinkage (microstrain)

800

600

Total Shrinkage (microstrain)

1600

1200

400

800

200

w/c = 0.3 w/b = 0.3-SF w/b = 0.3-SRA

0 28 56 84

400

w/c = 0.3 w/b = 0.3-SF w/b = 0.3-SRA

0 28 56 84

Age of Specimen (Days)

Age of Specimen (Days)

Figure 4: Autogenous and Total Shrinkage (w/b = 0.3) Drying Began at 24 Hours16 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS As the water to cement ratio (w/c) of concrete was decreased the strength, stiffness, chloride penetration resistance, and drying shrinkage all improve, however these mixtures can demonstrate higher autogenous shrinkage especially at low ages when the material is gaining strength. As a result, low w/c specimens may be more susceptible to early-age cracking. Silica fume can be shown to reduce chloride penetrability (i.e., increase electrical resistivity), increase strength, and increase stiffness; however these mixtures may be more likely to crack at early-ages. Mixtures containing a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) have a similar (or slightly lower) chloride penetration index and reduced cracking potential despite having similar or lower strength. As a result, a specification criterion based on strength alone or even strength and chloride penetrability is insufficient in the specification of durable concrete since it is essential that the concrete is sufficiently resistant to early-age cracking. Therefore the specification of high durability concrete (especially when low w/c mixtures are used) appears to require a minimum of three parameters that would include strength, permeability (penetration resistance), and early-age crack resistance. Furthermore this paper illustrates that an opportunity may exist to develop concrete mixtures that demonstrate excellent performance through microstructural modification. Future research is intended to focus on developing materials, mixture proportions, and processing techniques targeting specific microstructural improvements. For example, reducing large pores and total porosity is observed to improve mechanical properties, whereas reducing capillary and interconnected porosity can lead to improvements in penetration resistance to aggressive agents. However, research focused on either increasing the diameter of the smallest (gel) pores or reducing the surface tension of internal liquids can result in significant improvements in shrinkage and shrinkage cracking resistance. As a result it appears that the development of the next generation of high performance materials may rely on the ability to manipulate the microstructure (pore size and distribution) of cementitous materials to optimize the performance of concrete for a given application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Support from the Center for Advanced Cement-Based Materials is greatly appreciated. In addition the authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Janet Lovell with the porosity measurements. REFERENCES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Takahashi, T., Yamamoto, M., Ioku, K., Goto, S., Relationship Between Compressive Strength and Pore Structure of Hardened Cement Paste, Advances in Cement Research, Vol. 9, No. 33, January 1997, pp. 25-30 Brown, P. W., and Shi, D., and Skalny, J., Porosity/Permeability Relationships, Material Science of Concrete II, ed. Skalny, J., and Mindess, S., 1991, pp. 83-110 Young, J. F., principal author, TC 69 Physical Mechanisms and Their Mathematical Descriptions, Fourth RILEM International Symposium on Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete: Mathematical Modeling, ed. Z. P. Bazant, 1986, pp. 44-78 Powers, T. C., and Brownyard T. L., "Studies on the Physical Properties of Hardened Portland Cement Paste" PCA Bulletin 22, Chicago, Illinois, 1948 Rossler, M., and Odler, I, Investigations on the Relationship between Porosity, Structure, and Strength of Hydrated Portland Cement Paste. II. Effect of Pore Solution and the Degree of Hydration, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1985, pp. 401-410 Shah, S. P., Weiss, W. J., and Yang, W., "Shrinkage Cracking in High Performance Concrete." Proceedings of the PCI/FHWA International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1997, pp. 217-228 Tazawa, E., and Miyazawa, S., "Influence of Autogenous Shrinkage on Cracking in High-Strength Concrete", Fourth International Symposium on the Utilization of High-Strength/Higher Performance Concrete, Paris France, May 29-31 1996, eds. deLerrard, F., and Lacroix, R., pp. 321-330 Aitcin, P.-C., "Autogenous Shrinkage Measurements", Autoshrink'98, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete, ed. E. Tazawa, Hiroshima, Japan June 13-14, 1998. Lyman, G. C., Growth and Movement in Portland Cement Concrete, Oxford, University Press, London, U. K., pp. 1-139, 1934 Weiss, W. J., Yang, W., and Shah, S. P., "Factors Influencing Durability and Early-Age Cracking in High Strength Concrete Structures", ACI Spring Conference 1999, Chicago IL, to appear in a special publication Weiss, W. J., Prediction of Early-Age Shrinkage Cracking in Concrete Elements. Ph.D. Dissertation, Evanston IL, December 1999 Grysbowski, M., and Shah S., P., Shrinkage Cracking of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, March/April, Vol. 87, No.2, 1990, pp. 138-148 Kovler, K. Testing System For Determining The Mechanical Behavior Of Early Age Concrete Under Restrained And Free Uniaxial Shrinkage, Materials and Structures, RILEM, London, U.K., 27(170), 1994 324-330 Tazawa, E., and Miyazawa, S., "Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete and Its Importance in Concrete Technology", RILEM 22 Creep and Shrinkage - Proceedings of the Fifth International RILEM Symposium, ed. Bazant, Z. P., and Carol, I., pp. 159-168 Dilger, W. H., Wang, C., Niitani, K., "Experimental Study on Shrinkage and Creep of HighPerformance Concrete", Fourth International Symposium on the Utilization of High-Strength/Higher Performance Concrete, Paris France, May 29-31 1996, eds. deLerrard, F., and Lacroix, R., pp. 311319 Weiss, W. J., Borischevsky, B. B., and Shah, S. P., (1999) "The Influence of a Shrinkage Reducing Admixture on the Early-Age Behavior of High Performance Concrete", Fifth International Symposium on the Utilization of High Strength/High Performance Concrete, Sandefjord, Norway, Vol. 2, 1418-1428 Weiss, W. J., Schiel, A., Yang, W., and Shah, S. P, (1998). "Shrinkage Cracking Potential, Permeability, and Strength, for HPC: Influence of W/C, Silica Fume, Latex, and Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures." International Symposium on High Performance and Reactive Powder Concrete, Sherbrooke, Canada, Vol. 1, 349-364

16

17