I am analysing a plane frame. I specify a prismatic section with IX.

The analysis stops with the error message that I need to specify IZ. What is the need to specify IZ?
For plane frames with no beta angle, what is needed is IZ, not IX. IX is the torsion constant. IZ is the moment of inertia about the Z axis. Members of a plane frame with a beta angle of zero will bend about the Z axis, which explains the need for IZ. They are not prone to twisting, and that is why IX is not needed. Table 1.1 from the Technical Reference manual, which shows the properties required for various types of structures, is reproduced below.

What is the purpose of the "member release" command? What is the basis for the terms MX, MY and MZ in this command?
By default, STAAD assumes the connection between any 2 members to be fully capable of transmitting all 3 forces and all 3 moments from one member to the other. This is usually achieved in practice by moment resistant connections, such as between a concrete beam and a concrete column which are monolithically cast. If you want the connection to be of the type which does not permit one or more forces/moments to be transmitted, use member releases. A shear connection is such an example. The degrees of freedom FX through MZ that you release are based on the local axis of the member at whose end the release is specified.

See section 5.22.1 and the figures in Section 1.19 of the STAAD.Pro Technical Reference manual for additional information.

Can you please explain the concept behind member offsets?

When creating a model consisting of beams and columns, generally, the START or END face of the member is assumed to be located at the nodal point. In other words, the distance from the respective node to the start or end face of the member is treated as zero. Thus, for example, if member 47 is defined as being connected between nodes 12 and 13, then, the start face of the member is located at node 12, and the end face at node 13.

This assumption may not always reflect the true physical condition on the structure. For example, when a beam meets a column, the common node between the beam and column is usually defined as being at the shear center (centerline for symmetrically shaped) of the column.

But, physically, the start face of the beam is not at that node, but at half the column depth away from the node. One may choose to ignore this "shift" if the column depth is negligible in comparison to the span of the beam. However, if one wishes to take advantage of the high stiffness that the half-depth region of the column offers, he/she may consider this using the member offset command. The member offset is a way of declaring that the region, whose length is defined by the offset, is a rigid zone. Hence, if the offset values in X, Y and Z coordinates are a, b and c, the length of that region is d=sqrt(a*a + b*b + c*c). The face of the member is then assumed to be "d" away from the node.

The member end forces that STAAD reports are at the face of the member, not at the node, when an offset is specified. If the offset is applied at the base of a column, then the member end force may not be equal in magnitude to the corresponding support reaction terms. If one is interested in checking static equilibrium based on the free body diagram at that support, the member end forces must be transferred from the member face to the support node taking into consideration the rigid link defined by the offset.

Shouldn't there be a way to set the MEMBER TENSION attribute once for the model and have the program always look back on that line for the list of members which have been assigned this property? Obviously, the same goes for MEMBER TRUSS.
In fact, that is exactly what STAAD is designed to do already. There is no need to keep re-specifying the MEMBER TENSION command, unless you want to specify a different list of such members. So, specify it once for the first analysis, and you don't have to specify it again. Same goes for the MEMBER TRUSS command.

The STAAD graphical interface is showing a steel column in my model in an incorrect orientation. I have checked my input file (and also by double clicking on the actual member) and all of my columns consistently start at the lower node and go in the +y direction, all have a beta of 0, and all have the same member property. I have the exact same data for this graphically-incorrect column as the one below it that shows up the correct orientation. Yet another column shows a slightly skewed column orientation as if I had assigned it something other than 0 or 90 degrees, and I know for a fact that I haven't done this.
a - Is the graphical interface a reliable representation of my input? b - If yes, can you think of some other possible sources of this particular error? If you look at the coordinates of the columns which appear to be oriented in the wrong way, chances are that you will find the Z coordinate of the 2 ends to be different by a very minute value, such as 0.001. For example, one end may have a Z value of 5.999 while the other end may be at 6.000. If so, you could do the following to correct it. Select the Geometry-Beam page along the left side of the screen, and it will display the node coordinates in the tables on the right hand side. In those tables, make the necessary correction so both ends of the column have the same Z coordinate. The potential cause of this difference in coordinates is the following. The program has something called a Base Unit system. You can find this by starting the program, and before opening any file, go to the File menu, select Configure, and see if it says "English" or "Metric". If the model you are going to create is in Metres and KNs, you ought to have the base units in Metric. If the model you are going to create is in

Feet and Kips, you ought to have the base units in English. Mixing unit systems causes the program to perform internal unit conversions which can result in loss of digits because the built-in conversion factors have only upto 8 digits of accuracy. In fututure versions of STAAD, there will be a feature which will enable you to select the "offending" column and make the Z coordinate of its 2 ends to be equal so it becomes truly vertical.

I have a beam member for which I have assigned a single angle from the American steel table. When I look at the member properties output for that member, the values that STAAD reports for moments of inertia Iz and Iy do not match the values I see in the AISC steel publication for that angle section.
The numbers reported in the STAAD output for Iz and Iy are the moments of inertia about the principal axes of the single angle. The values in the AISC publication that you are comparing them with are most probably the values about the geometric axes. That is very likely the cause of the mis-match.

I understand that one should use the REPEAT LOAD command and not the LOAD COMBINATION command when analysing a model for cases where the MEMBER TENSION or MEMBER COMPRESSION command has been used. Talking about load combinations, in Section 5.35 of the STAAD Technical Reference Manual, notes Item (2) mentions that the LOAD COMBINATION command is inappropriate for a PDELTA analysis, and that one should use REPEAT LOADs instead. This appears to be true for NON-LINEAR analysis also. Why?
Before we can explain why, we first need to understand a few facts about loads in STAAD. There are two types of load cases in STAAD : Primary load cases, and Combination load cases.

Primary load cases

A primary load case is one where the load data is directly specified by the user in the form of member loads, joint loads, temperature loads, element pressure loads, etc. It is characterized by the fact that the data generally follow a title which has the syntax LOAD n where "n" is the load case number. For example, LOAD 3 MEMBER LOAD 2 UNI GY -3.4 JOINT LOAD 10 FX 12.5

LOAD 4 ELEMENT LOAD 23 PR GY -1.2

LOAD 5 TEMPERATURE LOAD 15 17 TEMP 40.0 -25.0 Combination load case Here, the user does not directly specify the load data, but instead asks the program to add up the results of the component cases - which are defined prior to the combination case - after factoring them by the user specified factors. It is characterized by the title which has the syntax LOAD COMBINATION n where "n" is the case number of the combination load case.

LOAD COMBINATION 40 3 1.2 4 1.6 5 1.3 What is a REPEAT LOAD type, and Which category does is belong to? A Repeat Load type is a Primary load case. That is because, when the program runs into this command, it physically creates the load data for this case by assembling together the load information from all the component load cases (after factoring them by the respective load factors) which the user wants to "REPEAT". Thus, when you specify LOAD 10 REPEAT LOAD 4 1.4 5 1.7 STAAD creates a physical load case called 10 whose contents will include all of the data of load case 4 factored by 1.4, and all of the data of load case 5 factored by 1.7. If we use the same data used in the definition of the primary load case above, STAAD internally converts the REPEAT LOAD case 10 to the following : LOAD 10 ELEMENT LOAD 23 PR GY -1.68 TEMPERATURE LOAD 15 17 TEMP 68.0 -42.5 What is the difference between a REPEAT LOAD case and LOAD COMBINATION? The difference lies in the way STAAD goes about calculating the results - joint displacements, member forces and support reactions. For a load combination case, STAAD simply ALGEBRAICALLY COMBINES THE RESULTS of the component cases after factoring them. In the example shown above, it gathers the results of load case 3, factors them by 1.2, gathers the results of load case 4, factors them by 1.6, gathers the results of load case 5, factors them by 1.3,

and adds them all together. In other words, in order to obtain the results of load 10, it has no need to know what exactly is it that constitues load cases 3, 4 and 5. It just needs to know what the results of those cases are. Thus, the structure is NOT actually analysed for a combination load case. With a REPEAT LOAD case however, the procedure followed is that which occurs for any other primary load case. A load vector {P} is first created, and later, that load vector gets pre-multiplied by the inverted stiffness matrix. [Kinv] {P} to obtain the joint displacements. Those displacements are then used to calculate the member forces and support reactions. Thus, the structure IS analysed for that load case {P}.

Why should the difference in the way STAAD treats a REPEAT LOAD case vs. a COMBINATION LOAD case matter? Normally, if you are doing a linear static analysis - which is what a PERFORM ANALYSIS command does - it should make no difference whether you specify REPEAT or COMBINATION. However, if you are doing a PDELTA analysis, or a NONLINEAR analysis, or cases involving MEMBER TENSION and MEMBER COMPRESSION, etc., it matters. That is because, in those situations, the results of those individual cases acting simultaneously IS NOT the same as the summation of the results of those individual cases acting alone. In other words, (Results of Load A) + (Results of Load B) is not equal to (Results of Load (A+B)) Take the case of a PDelta analysis. The P-Delta effect comes about from the interaction of the vertical load and the horizontal load. If they do not act simultaneously, there is no P-Delta effect. And the only way to make them act simultaneously is to get the program to compute the displacement with both loads being present in a single load case. A REPEAT LOAD case achieves that. A COMBINATION load case does not.
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Home > Forums > Structural Engineers > Activities > Structural engineering other technic

How to manage too much wind load on stairc

thread507-223855 ForumSearchFAQsLinksJobsWhitepapersForum MVPs Chandan321 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 1

I am designing a steel staircase tower 4m x 6m in plan area and 63m in height, divided int 2.4m high flights. The following are the details of the structure ---- At each landing level, there are 4 steel beams all around. ---- The steel staircase tower is supported on 4 pedestals. ---- I have used k brace at all elevations in both directions. ---- Basic wind speed is 50m/s. ---- I have applied wind load as per standard Indian codes. ---- I have divided the height of the structure into 4 groups as per wind pressure zones. ---- I have applied wind load on all beams, columns and bracings in each direction separat ---- I have used a shielding factor for farther frames ---- Dead load = 1.2KN/m2, Live load = 3 KN/m2

I am getting too much tension in the anchor bolts at the top of the pedestals. I know from previous project information that 8 bolts of 1.5 inches would be sufficient. But, my tension way too much high.

Guys, I want your suggestions on how to reduce the wind load on the structure so that I c reduce the tension in the anchor bolts. Find A Job or Post a Job Opening Click Here. phuduhudu (Structural)

13 Aug 08 3

Surely the staircase structure accesses a building at each storey and can be stabilised off t building. I can imagine that you would get massive tensions of a 63m high tower with a pl width of 4m. If the structure is stabilised off the building then you will only need locating bolts.

Carl Bauer www.bauerconsultbotswana.com

hokie66 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 5

Instead of assuming that your wind loading is incorrect, I would first check whether your "previous project information" is correct or not. What uplift force are you getting at each leg? Do you mean a total of 8-1.5" bolts (2 at each corner)? csd72 (Structural) Use a higher grade anchor bolt. Chandan321 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 7

13 Aug 08 9

Thanks to all of you guys for your prompt suggestions on my problem. Here are my views:

---- Carlbauer, I started off using your assumption of stabilising off the building, but my lea has specifically asked my to design the stairway independently. ---- Hokie66, my uplift force is nearly 2200 KN for each pedestal. I have 3 bolts equally spaced along each side of the base plate, totalling 8 bolts for one pedestal. ---- csd72, no one has ever used more than 1.5" bolts for such structure. So, I want to be very sure that there is no other alternative before I increase the size of the bolts. csd72 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 11

I am saying a higher stress grade rather than size, you can get anchors up to 120ksi. phuduhudu (Structural)

13 Aug 08 11

I would expect a lot of uplift for a tower those dimensions but 2200kN sounds like too muc That is a base moment of 17600kNm for the whole tower about the short side giving an equivalent uniform load of 560kN over the height of the tower. That is 1.5kN/m2 of tower the long side. That would be too much even for a solid clad tower. You may be adding too many wind loads in by double counting members.

The other question is, if it is independent there is going to be considerable sway at the top How will you detail the link to the building it is serving such that it doesn't load it?

Carl Bauer www.bauerconsultbotswana.com

kslee1000 (Civil/Environme)

13 Aug 08 11

If you have such high uplift, obviously you will need huge/heavy concrete footing to count the overturning effect. Can you embed the columns directly into the footing?

Also, for wind case, does the code allow for overstress? JAE (Structural) I recently designed a similar stair tower (similar size). We used diagonals at every level and tied the tower to the building at its roof and let the vertical framing serve as trusses spanning between base and roof.

13 Aug 08 12

While you may be able to somehow bully your design to be strong enough, I doubt you w be able to design it to be adequatly stiff enough to avoid it banging against the building. Just my 2 cents. I'd connect it to the building - laterally only.

civilperson (Structural)

13 Aug 08 13

The shielding that is assumed is probably not effective for members more than 4 diameters/thickness behind the shielding member. Try adding diagonals between the columns at the lower half of the staircase. Thus the force is resisted by a 4 meter deep tru Chandan321 (Structural) Thanks to all of you once again for the valuable insights. ---- csd72, I appologize for misreading your post. Actually, the client has already specified permissible tensile and shear capacities for bolts, thus fixing the grade.

13 Aug 08 13

---- carlbauer, your summary calculations were very helpful in getting the bigger picture. I checked the loads to make sure I did not apply them on duplicate members. To give you a idea of the magnitude of the wind loads, my wind load varies from bottom to top as below Columns: From 0.34 KN/m at bottom to 0.46 KN/m at top Beams: From 0.68 KN/m at bottom to 0.93 KN/m at top Bracings: From 0.27 KN/m at bottom to 0.37 KN/m at top

The above loads are applied at the windward frame, and shielding factor of 0.7 is used wh applying them on leeward frames.

I have defined all the bracings as truss members, released moments at the ends of beams where they meet columns. Also, I have released the moments at the lower end of the stee column where it sits on top of the concrete pedestal.

The sway at top and link to the building was a very good observation. I really did not think it at this point, but will think about it and let you know.

---- kslee1000, my steel columns rest on 600 mm square concrete pedestals (750 mm high The pedestals are embedded into a huge mat foundation below. However, my problem is w designing the bolts for tension. The code does not seem to address the issue of overstress

---- JAE, good to know that you have designed a similar structure. I have the following poi : By diagonals, do you mean X bracing? : Have you provided the X bracings in both East-west and North-South directions? : Could you elaborate on "let the vertical framing serve as trusses spanning between base roof". I mean, what special member specifications did you define in the software to achiev this, like defining truss members or releasing moments etc.

Chandan321 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 13

---- civilperson, by "adding diagonals", do you suggest me to remove the K bracings and replace them with X bracings. civilperson (Structural)

13 Aug 08 13

Model the vertical frames as trusses, connect the joints of beam/column with diagonal members which could be X-braces or simply full length diagonals, (receiving both tension a compression force). Do not forget 30, 45, & 60 degree wind direction which has compone in both axis with NO shielding. Wind also has a vertical direction,(not all wind is horizonta adding force to platforms and platform/stair supports. (A minimum of 15 degrees off of horizontal is assumed in tall structures used in refineries). lkjh345 (Structural)

13 Aug 08 14

Echoing others, I really question try to cantilever a tower this tall off of the foundation with supporting it (laterally) back to what ever structure it is serving.

My guess is that in anything but the lightest breeze, the tower will sway so much people w feel uncomfortable using it. kslee1000 (Civil/Environme)

13 Aug 08 14

Globally speaking, for free standing tower, I will get ride of the concrete pedestal, and brin the columns directly to the mat foundation with proper corrosion control measurements. Or do as JAE suggested - analyze the tower as a truss spanning in between the building ro and its own base. If the stair is to serve the building, it will be somehow connected together on the top. By proper detailing/design, you maybe able to live with the original anchor bolt pattern, or ev less.

JAE (Structural) Chandan321,

13 Aug 08 18

My apologies - I went back and looked at the model and discovered that we used moment connections between all the beams and columns.

The attached jpg shows the model. But the idea was the same - span from foundation to upper level, with the entire framework of 4 columns and beams working like a large vertica tube.

http://files.engineering.com/getfile.aspx?folder=946ab980-42cc-43aa-b317-d4

sdz (Structural)

13 Aug 08 23

I did a quick hand check and an uplift of 2200kN per column sounds about right for the figures provided. Changing the bracing and beam to column connection detail will have litt effect on that. I agree with JAE that deflection (sway) will likely be a limiting requirement. Trying to cantilever a tower of these dimensions is a bad idea. Perhaps you should print or email this thread to whoever gave you the instructions to desig it this way.

hokie66 (Structural)

14 Aug 08 1

If the stair tower is to serve a building, certainly connect it to the building as others suggested. I thought from your OP that it may be an observation deck or similar. I think have the idea that the tower will sway if free-standing. But that may not matter too much is a fire tower or something, as the users would not likely brave it in high winds, and if the did, they would be accustomed to the movement. Chandan321 (Structural)

14 Aug 08 9

Guys, thanks to all of you and your suggestions. Backed up with all your arguments, I talke to my lead and he agreed to take support from the adjacent structure at 2 points. With my revised model, I could reduce the tension in the bolts to around 500 KN, which is very reasonable. After reading all of your posts, I have a few questions:

---- civilperson, If I want to analyse the structure as a truss between the roof and the base should I define all my columns, beams and bracings as truss members in my modeling software STAAD. Or, is there any other way to define moment releases. If so, which memb ends should I release moments at.

---- JAE, thanks for sending the jpg file. What are the green symbols at the top of the structure.

---- slkjh345, kslee1000, dz and hokie66, thanks for your arguments which helped me take support from the adjacent structure. Now, the adjacent structure can only support the staircase in one direction only. Is it OK if I assume pin joints at the the points of support w the adjacent structure. kslee1000 (Civil/Environme)

14 Aug 08 9

You can provide direct connections in direction that the building can support, and provide diagonals to stabilize the stair tower in the other direction. The support can be treated as p connection, or spring, depending the geometries and stiffness of the support/bracing members. Chandan321 (Structural) Thanks kslee1000 for the suggestions.

14 Aug 08 10

---- If I want to do a conservative design for the stair tower, should I pin the supports with the adjacent structure. ---- A pin would mean that the stair tower would get resistance in the other direction also, which may not be fully correct. So, should I release translational degree of freedom along non-supporting direction. kslee1000 (Civil/Environme)

14 Aug 08 11

If the direction (not supported by the building) is the LONG (strong) direction of the tower you can try, maybe the results are tollerable, to release the support in that direction. Also, the tower base (moment connection) would be a big help. JAE (Structural) Chandan321,

14 Aug 08 13

The green symbols are the RISA model boundary conditions (i.e. supports). These occurre at the bottom of the model (at the footings) and near the top where the cross beam was connected into the main building. With boundary condition reactions I could then check th existing building members to verify that they could adequately take the lateral forces from tower into the building diaphragms.

Chandan321 (Structural) Thanks kslee1000 and JAE for the help.

14 Aug 08 18

Thanks to all of you for your time and the valuable suggestions you have given in the past few days. Looks like my staircase tower can be reasonably designed, and the anchor bolts carry reasonable tension. Will look forward to your help in future too. hokie66 (Structural) Chandan, Why can't the building support the stair tower in both directions? Chandan321 (Structural)

14 Aug 08 21

15 Aug 08 1

hokie66, my main structure spans North-South longitudinally. My staircase tower stands adjacent to the south end of the main structure, with the flights running East-West. The landings are connnected to the main structure in the North-South direction. Thus I am planning to take support from the main structure in the North-South direction. Is there any way that you think I can take support in the East-West direction also? hokie66 (Structural)

15 Aug 08 3

I see. I would probably do it your way, with that southern wall of the stair tower diagonal braced, but you could consider diagonal braces horizontally outside the landings on each e at the levels where you are bracing the tower north-south. Chandan321 (Structural)

15 Aug 08 8

hokie66, thanks for the suggestion of horizontal bracing. Do you think X bracing has any advantage over K bracing in these type of structures. civilperson (Structural)

15 Aug 08 12

X bracing loads the members with axial load. K bracing induces moments. No superiority either way, just added calculations for combined stresses. Chandan321 (Structural) civilperson, thanks for the tip about bracings. hokie66 (Structural)

15 Aug 08 13

15 Aug 08 18

Just to be clear about your bracing method, K bracing can mean different things to differen people. To me, K bracing goes from node to node, and the members are designed for tension and compression. I call bracing which goes from node to beam chevron or vee bracing, depending on its orientation. X bracing, well that is obvious, and can be either all tension or T-C.

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Dear Debyan, Your two statments "1)This analysis is accurately done by the piping stress department and is given as stress data to the civil and structural engineering department." This is correct. We (Structural Engineers) should never ever take responsibility of calculating or assuming like 30% or 10% of anything for Pipe Stress loads. PIPE-STRESS loads for Large Diameter PIPES are the governing loads. Other loads like DL, LL, Wind, Earthquake loads are relatively small. I have always work (OIL REFINERIES) in companies with PIPE-STRESS group bigger than Structural Department. I have done PIPE-RACKS for Oil-Refineries with large Diameter Pipes. Magnitude of ANCHOR FORCES was so big that to get right Steel Framing with Bracing was a challange. We went back to PipeStress group and told them that their Pipe-Stress loads are too-high and no

reasoonable steel framing sizes are possible even with lots of bracing. They revise their PIPE-STRESS analysis and reduce the ANCHOR FORCES. Then only we could do a Pipe-Rack design with reasonable sizes. Another things very imortant is after you have done STAAD/PRO frame analysis of Pipe-Rack with all loads including Pipe-Stress loads, check your maximum displacements of Pipe-Racks. Go and report your max. lateral displacements of Pipe-Racks to PIPE-STRESS Engineer. They are doing (Some Times) Pipe-Stress analysis without accounting for this lateral displsacements of let us say 10m (35 ft.) high PIPE-Rackks. They some times expact 35 ft high Pipe-Rack to move only 1/4 inch or 7 mm. Now you as a Structural Engineer design a 10 m high pipe-rack supporting large dia pipes (Anchor Forces) for a 7 mm max lateral displacements at top. I do not think with best bracing you will find reasoonable steel member sizes. This is the coordination required between Pipe-Stress Department and Structural Department. 2)"But usually these stress datas come later and by that time civil and structural dept has usually gone far ahead." I do not think Structural Department should for any reason get ahead of PipeStress group. I use to tell in Project meetings and my Supervisor that I can can not complete my PIPE-RACK design and issue Structural Drawings because I do not have Pipe-Stress loads. End of story as we say in USA. This is a Public-Safety issue and nothing less is expacted from us Structural Engineers.

Your following statement given here is not my experience: "A bit of addition to the discussion : The structural deflection does not go back into piping analysis. As far as piping is considered the support is infinitely rigid, until and unless some flexibility is deliberately provided. Support displacements can induce stresses in the piping." I have worked on many tall (12.2 m high) and wide (4.5 m) PIPE-RACKS for CNRL Canadian Oil Sands project. A very large Oil supply poject up north in Alberta Canada. All PIPE-STRESS Loads I got from PIPE-STRESS group did include and I say it again did include PIPE-RACK flexibility (Lateral Deflection of Pipe-Rack). Certainly these lateral deflection of Pipe-Racks induce significant stresses in Pipes and can influence Pipe Sizes but that is the correct design. What we do is we give ( General Structural Design Criteria) PIPE-STRESS group a lateral-deflection value based on height of Pipe-Rack. What we call DRIFT-RATIO.

Drift Ratio usually is around = H/200 prefered by Structural Group. OR = H/300 Liked by Pipe-Stress group but makes for Stiff Framing of Pipe-Racks and increases the cost of Structure on the project. Now let us take a typical 10m high Pipe-Rack and use H/300 drift ratio. Lateral Deflection of PIPE-RACK will be Delta = 10x3.28x12/300 = 1.312 inches or 33.32 mm Now PIPE-STRESS group will have their CAESAR II (Pipe-Stress software) run made with 33.32 mm lateral deflection. I am sure this will induce significant stresses in Pipes and affect their design but they need to do that and they always do, that is my experience. We I run my STAAD/PRO Frame analysis of Pipe-Rack I willl iterate on Member Sizes and Bracing to make sure my Max. Lateral Deflection is less than = H/300 or 33.32 mm. Regards.

Pipe rack Design Philosophy

In this page I will talk about the pipe rack design philosophy. Pipe rack is the main artery of any plant. This carries the pipes and cable trays (raceways) from one equipment to another equipment within a process unit (called ISBL piperack) or carries the pipe and cable trays from one unit to another unit (called OSBL pipe rack). Some times you will also find the AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS on the pipe rack. There are different types of pipe rack:

Continuous Piperacks (conventional pipe rack) system Non-continuous Piperacks system Modular Pipe rack

Conventional / Continuous Pipe rack Continuous Piperacks (conventional pipe rack) system: This is essentially a system where multiple 2-

dimensional (2D) frame assemblies (commonly called bents), comprised of two or more columns with transverse beams, are tied together in the longitudinal direction utilizing beam struts (for support of transverse pipe and raceway elements and for longitudinal stability of the system) and vertical bracing to form a 3D space frame arrangement. Piperacks supporting equipment such as air-cooled heat exchangers must utilize the continuous system approach. Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design: Due to the fast track nature associated with most of the projects, often the final piping, raceway, and equipment information is not available at initiation of the piperack design. Therefore, as a Civil/Structural Engineer, you should coordinate with the Piping group, Electrical, Control Systems, and Mechanical groups to obtain as much preliminary information as possible. When received, all design information should be documented for future reference and verification. In the initial design, the Engineer should use judgement when applying or allowing for loads that are not known, justifying them in the design basis under "Design Philosophy" (a part of your calculation) The following should be reviewed for design information:

Plot plans and equipment location plans 3D model showing piping layout, cable tray layout, Piperack bent spacing and elevation of support levels in the transverse direction , Elevation of longitudinal beam struts and locations of vertical bracing. and location of pipe bridge, if any.

Piping orthographic drawings. Vendor prints of equipment located on the rack, e.g., air coolers and exchangers.The vendor prints should include the equipment layout, mounting locations and details, access and maintenance requirements, and the magnitude and direction of loads being transmitted to the piperack.

Electrical and control systems drawings showing the routing and location of electrical and instrumentation raceways and/or supports. Underground drawings that show the locations of buried pipes,concrete structures and foundations, duct banks, etc. in the area of the piperack. Pipe rack construction material (Steel, Cast-in-situ concrete, Pre-cast concrete) shall be as per project design criteria.

Please note that, Unless specifically explained in the project design criteria, no allowance or provisions should be made for future additions for pipe or raceway space and related loading. Step-2: Design loads consideration: Following loads are to be considered for the pipe rack design: Piping Gravity load (D): In the absence of defined piping loads and locations, an assumed minimum

uniform pipe load of 2.0 kPa should be used for preliminary design of piperacks. This corresponds to an equivalent load of 6 in (150 mm) lines full of water covered with 2 in (50 mm) thick insulation, and spaced on 12 in (300 mm) centers. This assumption should be verified based on coordination with the Piping Group, and concentrated loads should also be applied for any anticipated large pipes. When the actual loads and locations become known, as the project develops, the structural design should be checked against these assumed initial load parameters and revised as required. A concentrated load should then be added for pipes that are 12 in (300 mm) and larger in diameter. The concentrated load P should be: P =(W - s x p x d), s = Spacing of piperack bent, p = pipe weight considered (kPa), d = pipe

diameter W = pipe concentrated load. Where consideration of uplift or system stability due to wind or seismic occurrences is required, use 60% of the design gravity loads as an "all pipes empty" load condition. Loading due to hydrostatic testing of lines should be considered in the design if applicable. Coordinate the testing plan(s) with Construction, Startup, and/or the Piping Group as necessary, in order to fully understand how such loads will be applied to the piperack structure. Under most normal conditions, multiple lines will not be simultaneously tested. The hydro-test loads do not normally need to be considered concurrently with the other non-permanent loads, such as live load, wind, earthquake, and thermal. Typical practice is to permit an overstress of 15% for the hydro-test condition. Because of these considerations, the hydro-test condition will not normally govern except for very large diameter pipes. Electrical Tray and Conduits (D): Electrical and control systems drawings and/or the project 3D model should be reviewed to determine the approximate weight and location of electrical trays, conduits, and instrumentation commodities. Unless the weight of the loaded raceways can be defined, an assumed minimum uniform load of 1.0 kPa should be used for single tier raceways. Self weight of Pipe rack (D): The weight of all structural members, including fireproofing, should be considered in the design of the piperack. Weight of Equipment on pipe rack (D): Equipment weights, including erection, empty, operating, and test (if the equipment is to be hydro-tested on the piperack), should be obtained from the vendor drawings.The equipment weight should include the dead weight of all associated platforms, ladders, and walkways, as applicable.Special Loads: Special consideration should be given to unusual loads, such aslarge valves, expansion loops, and unusual piping or electrical configurations. Live Load (L): Live load (L) on access platforms and walkways and on equipment platforms should be considered, as applicable. Snow Load (S): Snow load to be considered on cable tray and on large dia pipes. This load shall be calculated per project approved design code and project design criteria. Generally, you need to consider 100% snow load on top tier and 50% on other tier of pipe racks.

Wind Load (W): Transverse wind load on structural members, piping, electrical trays,equipment, platforms, and ladders should be determined in accordance with project approved design code. Longitudinal wind should typically be applied to structural framing, cable tray vertical drop (if any), large dia pipes vertical drop (if any) and equipment only. The effects of longitudinal wind on piping and trays running parallel to the wind direction should be neglected. Earthquake Loads (E): Earthquake loads in the vertical, transverse, and longitudinal directions should bedetermined in accordance with the project design criteria. Vertical, transverse, and longitudinal seismic forces generated by the pipes, raceways, supported equipment, and the piperack structure should be considered and should be based on their operating weights. Pipes must be evaluated for seismic loads under both full and empty conditions and then combined with the corresponding gravity loads. Friction Loading (Tf): Friction forces caused by hot lines sliding across the pipe support during startup and shutdown are assumed to be partially resisted through friction by nearby cold lines. Therefore, in order to provide for a nominal unbalance of friction forces acting on a pipe support, a resultant longitudinal friction force equal to 7.5% of the total pipe weight or 30% of any one or more lines known to act simultaneously in the same direction, whichever is larger, is assumed for piperack design. Friction between piping and supporting steel should not be relied upon to resist wind or seismic loads. Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): Piperacks should be checked for anchor and guide loads as determined by the Pipe Stress Group. It may be necessary to use horizontal bracing if large anchor forces are encountered. For conventional pipe rack systems, it is normally preferred to either have the anchors staggered along the piperack so that each support has only one or two anchors, or to anchor most pipes on one braced support. For initial design, when anchor and guide loads are not known, use a longitudinal anchor force of 5.0 kN acting at midspan of each bent transverse beam (refer project design criteria). Guide loads are usually small and may be ignored until they are defined by the Pipe Stress Engineer. For non-continuous pipe rack systems, piping may be transversely guided or anchored at both cantilever frames and anchor bays. Longitudinal anchors may be located only at anchor bays. Please note that, all friction forces and anchor forces with less magnitude, (say ~ 5.0 kN), applied to the top flange of the beam, may be considered as resisted by the total beam section. When anchor loads have large magnitude and are applied to the top flange of the beam, the effect of torsion must be addressed.If the beam section is inadequate to take care of this torsional force, alternatives to be considered, such as provide horizontal bracings at the load locations. Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack: You need to create the load combinations per your project design criteria. However, I have refered here some load combinations. Please note the following:

Earthquake load is a factored load. For load combinations that include wind or earthquake loads, use only the nonfriction portion (anchor and guide portion) of the thermal loads, i.e., friction loads are not combined with wind or seismic loads. Friction loads are considered to be selfrelieving during wind and earthquake and should only be combined with anchor and guide loads when wind or earth-quake loads are not considered.

Hydrostatic test loads need not be combined with wind and earthquake loads unless there is a reasonable probability of the occurrence of either of these loads during hydrostatic testing.

For calculation of foundation soil bearing pressures or pile loads, stability checks against overturning, sliding, and buoyancy, and deflection checks, the following unfactored load combinations (ACI 318) shall be used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. D D + L + SL + Tf + Ta D + Tf + Ta D + 1.3W + Ta D + L + 0.5SL + 1.3W +Ta D + L + S +0.65W + Ta 0.9De + 1.3W + Ta D + E/1.4 + Ta D + 0.2S + E/1.4 + Ta

10. 0.9De + E/1.4 + Ta Load Combinations for design of foundations (ACI 318): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1.4D 1.4D + 1.7L +1.7S 1.4D + 1.4Tf +1.4Ta 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7S + 1.4Tf + 1.4Ta) 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7S + 1.4Ta) + 1.6W 1.2D + 0.2S + 1.0E + 1.2Ta 0.9De + 1.6W + 1.2Ta 0.9De + 1.0E + 1.2Ta

Steel Design load combinations: (AISC - LRFD) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1.4D 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5S + 1.2Tf + 1.2Ta 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5L + 1.2Tf + 1.2Ta 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W + 1.2Ta 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5S + 1.2Ta

6. 7. 8.

1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S + 1.2Ta 0.9De + 1.6W + 1.2Ta 0.9De + 1.0E + 1.2Ta

De is the minimum dead load on the structure. FINAL ANCHOR AND GUIDE LOAD CHECK: Where the design of transverse beams has been based on anchor loads as explained in step-2,a final check of beams (and other affected members) should be made when final definition of these loads is available from the Pipe Stress Engineer.Based on the Engineer's experience and judgement, an overstress in any element (of up to 10%) can be considered, provided proper justification is given. Where such overstress cannot be properly justified, modifications should be made to the piperack structure in order to bring the stress levels within the normal allowables. Modifications could entail the addition of horizontal bracing to the transverse beams to resist significant loads from the anchor(s), replacing and/or adding members, strengthening members (i.e.,cover plating, etc.), and/or relocating the anchor and guide load(s). ALLOWABLE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DEFLECTION: Allowable deflections of piperack structures shall be as per project design criteria. However, you can consider the following as limit of deflection:Lateral deflection produced by load combinations that include wind or seismic forces:Piperacks supporting equipment: h/100, unless a more stringent requirement is given by the manufacturer of the equipment.Piperacks supporting piping and raceway only: h/200 or as per project design criteria.Lateral deflection produced by sustained static forces such as pipe and anchor loads: h/200 or as per project design criteriaVertical deflection of beams due to gravity pipe loads:as per project design criteria h is the total height of the pipe rack structure. Step-4: Framing of Continuous/Conventional Pipe rack: Frames Main piperacks are usually designed as moment-resisting frames in the transverse direction. In the longitudinal direction, there should be at least one continuous level of beam struts on each side. For piperacks with more than one tier, the beam struts should be located at a level that is usually equal to one-half tier spacing above or below the bottom tier. Vertical bracing in the longitudinal direction should be provided to carry the longitudinal forces, transmitted through the beam struts, to the baseplate / foundation level. Transverse Beam

Transverse beams must be capable of resisting all forces, moments, and shears produced by the load combinations. Transverse beams are generally a moment-resisting frame, modeled and analyzed as part of the frame system. The analysis model must reflect the appropriate beam end conditions. In the design of beams, consideration should be given to

Large pipes that are to be hydro-tested. Anchor and friction load with large magnitude (see step-2, anchor and friction load)

Central Spine: For steel piperacks with spans of more than 6 m, a center spine consisting of a system of horizontal braces and struts located at midspan of each level of piping should be considered . This additional light horizontal framing greatly increases the capacity of the transverse pipe support beams to resist friction and anchor forces, and also serves to reduce the unbraced length of the beam compression flange in flexure and to reduce the unbraced length of the beam about the weak-axis in axial compression. This concept reduces the required beam sizes and provides a mechanism for eliminating or minimizing design, fabrication, or field modifications that could otherwise be required due to late receipt of unanticipated large pipe anchor forces. Longitudinal Beam Strut For typical continuous piperack systems, the longitudinal beam struts should be designed as axially loaded members that are provided for longitudinal loads and stability. Additionally, the longitudinal beam struts that support piping or raceway should be designed for 50% of the gravity loading assumed for the transverse pipe or raceway support beams, unless unusual loading is encountered. This 50% gravity loading will account for the usual piping and raceway take-offs. Normally, the gravity loading carried by the beam struts should not be added to the design loads for the columns or footings since pipes or raceway contributing to the load on the beam struts would be relieving an equivalent load on the transverse beams. Concentrated loads for large pipes may be treated as in step-2. For any continuous piperack system where the anticipated piping and raceway take-offs are minimal or none, the 50% loading criteria does not apply. In such cases, the beam struts should be designed primarily as axially loaded members. Do not provide beam struts if they are not needed for piping or raceway support, or for system stability. Conversely, the 3D model should be checked to verify that beam struts subjected to unusually large loads (such as at expansion loops) have been given special consideration. All longitudinal beam struts, including connections, should be designed to resist the axial loads produced by the longitudinal forces.

When designing the longitudinal beam struts for flexural loads, the full length of the beam should be considered as the unbraced length for the compression flange. Vertical Bracing When moment-resisting frame design is not used in the longitudinal direction, vertical bracing should be used to transmit the longitudinal forces from the beam struts to the foundations. Knee-bracing or K-bracing is most often used for this purpose. Unless precluded by equipment arrangement or interferences, bracing should be placed equidistant between two expansion joints. Design calculations and drawings must reflect a break in the beam strut continuity between adjacent braced sections through the use of slotted connections or by eliminating the beam struts in the bays designated as free bays. The maximum length of a braced section should be limited to 48m to 50m. If the braced bay is not located equidistant from the free bays, the maximum distance from the braced bay to a free bay should be limited such that the maximum total longitudinal growth or shrinkage of the unrestrained segment does not exceed 40 mm. Column The columns must be capable of resisting all loads, moments, and shears produced by the load combinations.A moment-resisting frame analysis should normally be used to determine the axial load, moment, and shear at points along the columns.The frame analysis model should be based on the following:

Consider column base as hinge. Use 4 bolt connections for safety purpose

For design of steel columns subjected to flexural loads, the distance between the base and the first transverse beam or the knee brace intersection should be considered as the compression flange unbraced length.

(Non-conventional Pipe rack)

In this page I will talk about the Non-continuous piperack system.

I hope you have read the Conventional pipe rack system design philosophy. If not, please read that section before.

Non- Continuous Pipe rack: This is a system comprised of independent cantilevered, freestanding 2D frames not dependent on longitudinal beam struts for system stability. This system, where feasible, should result in lower total installed cost (TIC). Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design: Method of Data collections is same as continuous pipe rack. Please look into 3D model and collect all the data as required. Step-2: Design loads consideration: Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design: Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Longitudinal seismic will be applied on anchor bay only. Friction Loading (Tf): Friction forces caused by hot lines sliding across the pipe support during startup and shutdown do not apply on individual frame, as frame will deflect along the pipe direction. Therefore, this force will be considered on anchor bay only. Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack: For Load combinations and allowable deflection of non-conventional pipe rack, refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Step - 4: Frames of non-conventional pipe rack:

(Modular Pipe rack)

In this page I will talk about the Modular piperack system. I hope you have read the Conventional pipe rack system design philosophy. If not, please read that section before. Modular Pipe rack Sometimes clients look for modular pieprack / modular structure for their plants. But do you know what is a module? Module is a series of standard units that function together. Examples are: Building modules: Structural Frames completely fitted with Miscllaneous equipment and architectural finishes. Piperack Module: Structural Frames completely fitted with pipes, Cable trays and miscellaneous equipment. Now the question is , why do we go for modular structure sometimes? Here are some reasons:

If the project site is at remote location, then it will be very difficult to get good local contractor. Parallel construction activities are possible (foundation and module fabrication) and gain in time schedule Controlled construction environment is possible Controlled quality controlled In some countries, labour cost at site is more than labour cost at fabrication / module assembly shop. So, if you fabricate and fit all the pipes , cable trays etc. at shop, then you can save the project cost.

However, there are some disadvantages also and these are:

Late changes in design has huge effect on structure and module assembly. Transportation cost from module shop to site may be very high. Transportation time needs to be considered in total project schedule.

Pipe-rack Module Transportation: Module can be transported by roadways and waterways. I have some experiences in roadways piperack module transportation. In Alberta province (Canada) 100 ft (long) x 24 ft (wide) x 29ft-6 in (high from road surface) PRM can be transported by truck from module yard to site. Please click here for different module shipping envelope. Pipe-rack Module Lifting: 4 point lifts are preferred and 8 point lifts are second preference. 6 and 10 point lifting are difficult and should be avoided. 4 point lifts reduce rigging cost and associated man-power during setting. 4 point lifts result higher crane capacity and safer lifts due to shorter boom requirements. Regardless of the length, typical self supporting bridge truss style pipe rack modules use 4 lift points located at the top of the modules columns in the webs. By lifting at the same location that the module is

supported in-situ, the force distribution throughout the module is similar to the in-situ design, except that the module columns are in compression in-stu and reversed to tension during a lift. Please click here for 4-point module lifting. Following are some steps to design the Modular pipe rack: Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design: Method of Data collections is same as Conventional pipe rack system. Please look into 3D model and collect all the data as required. Step-2: Design loads consideration: Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design: Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Friction Loading (Tf): For Friction load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Transportation loads: When pipe-rack modules are transported on the road, different types of horizontal loads are generated. During up-hill or down-hill movement of the truck , we generally considered a horizontal load of value 30% of total load (o.30 x dead weight) acts towards the longitudinal direction of the module. During a truck turn or due to superelevation of the road, a horizontal load is also generated (centrfugal force) and value of that load is also 0.30 x weight of module (30% of total dead load) acting transverse direction of modules. But both the horizontal loads (longitudinal and transverse direction) do not act together. Other than these horizontal loads, we also consider wind load and vertical impact load. Summary of transportation load:

Vertical Impact Load (IV) 50% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Horizontal Impact in Longitudinal direction (IL) 30% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Horizontal Impact in Transverse direction (IT) 30% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Wind load (WLT) Wind load is applied on pipe rack module structure, pipe and cable tray, in Transverse direction.

You need to check the Factor of safety againgst overturning during transportation and value should be more than 1.5. Erection loads and lifting points: In this case we generally consider a vertical impact load (load factor = 1.5) on module. Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack: For Load combinations and allowable deflection of Modular pipe rack for in-situ analysis and design, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Modular pipe rack to be analysed for transportation and for lifting also. Lifting load combinations: LC1 = 2.0 x Total dead load (ultimate load combinations for member design per Canadian steel code CISC / NBC -95) Transportation load combinations (ultimate load combinations per CISC-Canadian steel code / NBC -95 for member design)): LC1: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IL LC2: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IT LC3: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x Wind LC4: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IT + 1.05 x Wind LC5: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IL + 1.05 x Wind Above load combinations are for reference only. You need to follow your project design criteria for the pipe-rack analysis and design. Step - 4: Frames of Modularl pipe rack:

Pipe rack Design Philosophy (Non-conventional Pipe rack)

In this page I will talk about the Non-continuous piperack system. I hope you have read the Conventional pipe rack system design philosophy. If not, please read that section before. Non- Continuous Pipe rack: This is a system comprised of independent cantilevered, freestanding 2D frames not dependent on longitudinal beam struts for system stability. This system, where feasible, should result in lower total installed cost (TIC). Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design: Method of Data collections is same as continuous pipe rack. Please look into 3D model and collect all the data as required. Step-2: Design loads consideration: Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design: Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Longitudinal seismic will be applied on anchor bay only. Friction Loading (Tf): Friction forces caused by hot lines sliding across the pipe support during startup and shutdown do not apply on individual frame, as frame will deflect along the pipe direction. Therefore, this force will be considered on anchor bay only. Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack: For Load combinations and allowable deflection of non-conventional pipe

rack, refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Step - 4: Frames of non-conventional pipe rack:

Please click here for typical non-continuous pipe rack system.

Conventional Pipe rack Modular Pipe rack

Pipe rack Design Philosophy (Modular Pipe rack)

In this page I will talk about the Modular piperack system. I hope you have read the Conventional pipe rack systemdesign philosophy. If not, please read that section before. Modular Pipe rack Sometimes clients look for modular pieprack / modular structure for their plants. But do you know what is a module?Module is a series of standard units that function together. Examples are: Building modules: Structural Frames completely fitted with Miscllaneous equipment and architectural finishes. Piperack Module: Structural Frames completely fitted with pipes, Cable trays and miscellaneous equipment. Now the question is , why do we go for modular structure sometimes? Here are some reasons:

If the project site is at remote location, then it will be very difficult to get good local contractor. Parallel construction activities are possible (foundation and module fabrication) and gain in time schedule Controlled construction environment is possible Controlled quality controlled In some countries, labour cost at site is more than labour cost at fabrication / module assembly shop. So, if you fabricate and fit all the pipes , cable trays etc. at shop, then you can save the project cost.

However, there are some disadvantages also and these are:

Late changes in design has huge effect on structure and module assembly. Transportation cost from module shop to site may be very high. Transportation time needs to be considered in total project schedule.

Pipe-rack Module Transportation: Module can be transported by roadways and waterways. I have some experiences in roadways piperack module transportation. In Alberta province (Canada) 100 ft (long) x 24 ft (wide) x 29ft6 in (high from road surface) PRM can be transported by truck from module yard to site. Please click here for different module shipping envelope. Pipe-rack Module Lifting: 4 point lifts are preferred and 8 point lifts are second preference. 6 and 10 point lifting are difficult and should be avoided. 4 point lifts reduce rigging cost and associated man-power during setting. 4 point lifts result higher crane capacity and safer lifts due to shorter boom requirements. Regardless of the length, typical self supporting bridge truss style pipe rack modules use 4 lift points located at the top of the modules columns in the webs. By lifting at the same location that the module is supported in-situ, the force distribution throughout the module is similar to the in-situ design, except that the module columns are in compression in-stu and reversed to tension during a lift. Please click here for 4-point module lifting. Following are some steps to design the Modular pipe rack: Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design: Method of Data collections is same as Conventional pipe rack system. Please look into 3D model and collect all the data as required. Step-2: Design loads consideration:

Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design: Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Friction Loading (Tf): For Friction load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system. Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Transportation loads: When pipe-rack modules are transported on the road, different types of horizontal loads are generated. During up-hill or down-hill movement of the truck , we generally considered a horizontal load of value 30% of total load (o.30 x dead weight) acts towards the longitudinal direction of the module. During a truck turn or due to superelevation of the road, a horizontal load is also generated (centrfugal force) and value of that load is also 0.30 x weight of module (30% of total dead load) acting transverse direction of modules. But both the horizontal loads (longitudinal and transverse direction) do not act together. Other than these horizontal loads, we also consider wind load and vertical impact load. Summary of transportation load:

Vertical Impact Load (IV) 50% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Horizontal Impact in Longitudinal direction (IL) 30% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Horizontal Impact in Transverse direction (IT) 30% of (self weight of structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray) Wind load (WLT) Wind load is applied on pipe rack module structure, pipe and cable tray, in Transverse direction.

You need to check the Factor of safety againgst overturning during transportation and value should be more than 1.5. Erection loads and lifting points: In this case we generally consider a vertical impact load (load factor = 1.5) on module. Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack: For Load combinations and allowable deflection of Modular pipe rack for insitu analysis and design, refer Conventional pipe rack system, Modular pipe rack to be analysed for transportation and for lifting also. Lifting load combinations: LC1 = 2.0 x Total dead load (ultimate load combinations for member design per Canadian steel code CISC / NBC -95) Transportation load combinations (ultimate load combinations per CISCCanadian steel code / NBC -95 for member design)): LC1: LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IL 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IT 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x Wind 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IT + 1.05 x Wind 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IL + 1.05 x Wind

Above load combinations are for reference only. You need to follow your project design criteria for the pipe-rack analysis and design. Step - 4: Frames of Modularl pipe rack:

Please click here for typical modular pipe rack sketch.

Conventional Pipe rack conventional Pipe rack

http://www.civildesignhelp.info/pr.html

Non-

Anchor Bolt Design Philosophy

In this page, I will tell you about the design philosophy of anchor bolt design and also to define the different terms used for anchor bolt design. Anchor bolt is the most important part to transfer the load from superstructure to sub-structure (say Foundation system). So, though anchor bolt design is very simple, but still you have to give more care to design this small element as load transfer mechanism. Otherwise, super structure and sub-structure, designed separately, will not behave as a single structure, in other words, a failure of total structural system. Whenever you start the design of anchor bolt, you will see the words like "Cast in place anchor", "Post installed expansion anchor", "Preloaded anchor", "Ductile design", "Anchor Bolt Projection" "Edge distance for shear", and "edge distance for tension". Please look below for the definition of some of the different terms: Cast in place anchor: When a headed bolt, headed stud, or hooked bolt is installed before placing concrete, is called "Cast in place anchor". See project standard for dimensions and areas. The recommended minimum embedment depth for cast-in anchors varies from eight (8) to twelve (12) bolt diameters (see project design code). The design engineer should note that minimum embedment requirements have an impact on concrete thickness, especially in designs such as area slabs and building slabs. Cast-in anchors have many benefits, including the following:

They are capable of supporting very large loads. Drilling or cutting of reinforcement is not required for installation. Strength is not sensitive to installation procedures and techniques. Supplementary reinforcement may be easily included in the design.

Some disadvantages are as follows:

Labor and materials are required to create templates for placement in the form-work. Re-work is costly when anchors are incorrectly placed (location and elevation).

Fabrication lead time is required to support concrete placement.

Please click here for details of different types of anchor bolts used in the different projects. Post installed expansion anchor: When an anchor rod is installed after placing concrete, making a hole in concrete with drill-bit, is called "Post installed expansion anchor". This type of anchors rely on bond to transfer load to the concrete. Post-installed anchors have many benefits, including the following:

Savings in labor and materials on templates required for cast-in anchors Placement locations that may be adjusted as required to accommodate attachments Flexibility in the construction schedule

Some disadvantages include:

Performance that is highly dependent on installation procedures and techniques Potential for cut or damaged reinforcing bars if drilling is required for installation Limited load capacities Difficulty including supplementary reinforcing in the design Prohibited preloading

In these cases we generally use HILTI Anchor (adhesive or grouted anchor). Preloaded anchor: An anchor is subjected to a large tensile force by intentionally elongating the entire length of the bolt. A nut is generally advanced along the bolt threads until the desired tensile force is achieved. In general, there are no standard criteria for preloading anchor bolts. The level of the required preload generally depends on the specific application of the anchor bolt. In general, preloaded bolts will require a sleeve or bond breaker to permit elongation to occur along the entire length of the bolt. Without a sleeve or bond breaker, the concrete would bond to the shank of the bolt during construction. The bond may not be completely broken during the preloading process. Over time, the bond may become completely broken and may cause a significantly reduced preload in the bolt.

Anchor bolts used for equipment supports should be preloaded to the equipment manufacturer's recommendations when specified. This is especially true for bolts anchoring rotating or vibrating equipment. Anchor bolts of ASTM F1554 Grade 36, A307, or A36 material (i.e., regular carbon steel bolts) should have only a nominal preload applied. It is recommended that they be tightened to a snug tight condition. Snug tight is defined as tightness attained by a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of a man using an ordinary spud wrench. When bolts are anchoring equipment or are subject to possible loosening during operation, a locking device should be provided. Acceptable locking devices include double nuts or jam nuts, interrupted threads, and tack welds (for weldable materials only). The three basic methods used for applying a preload to a high-strength anchor boltusing hydraulic tensioners, torquing to a specified level, and using turn-of-the-nut methodare described in detail below.

Hydraulic Tensioners: Hydraulic tensioners should be used when a precise preload on large diameter anchor bolts is required. The tensioner applies a direct load to the bolt by threading onto the projected end of the bolt and then jacking against the adjacent concrete surface. Once the jacking is complete, the nut is hand tightened down to a snug position to lock the tension in the bolt. The anchor bolt must project a minimum of one diameter past the end of the nut to allow for use of the tensioner. The residual preload should be specified, as there will be a loss of pretensioning (depending on the length and diameter of the bolt) when the tensioner is released. Torquing to a Specified Level: Applying a specified torque to an anchor bolt is another method of obtaining a preload. This method results in a preload that varies significantly as a function of field conditions (cleanliness of bolt, existence of lubrication, etc.) and is no longer recognized by AISC. Therefore, use of a predetermined torque for preloading purposes is not recommended (with the exception of equipment manufacturer requirements). Turn-of-the-Nut Method: This method is described in the AISC Specification for Structural Joints for ASTM A325 and A490 bolts. The specification lists the required nut rotation from the snug tight condition for bolt lengths up to 12 diameters.

Refer to the relevant specification for requirements for hardened washers. For example, AISC Specification for Structural Joints describes the requirements for ASTM F436 washers for certain preload applications. Elongation Checks For Preloaded Bolts: Where precise preloads are required, the elongation of the anchor bolts may be checked as a verification that the proper preload has been applied. Elongation checks are usually performed only when tensioners are used as the preloading device. Dial gauges can be used to measure the projection of the bolt from a reference surface before and after preloading. The required elongation for a given preload can be calculated as follows: For plain rod: de = (P*L) / (Ab*E)

For full threaded rod: de = (P*L) / (At*E) For partial thread rod: de = (P/E)*[(Lt/At) + (Ls/Ab)] where de = Elongation of anchor bolt, mm. P = Desired preload, kN L = Effective length of bolt, mm. (usually taken from centers of nut to anchor nut) Ab = Nominal cross sectional area of bolt (area of shank), mm2 E = Young's Modulus of Elasticity, MPa Lt = Length of thread below nut, mm Ls = Length of shank, mm. At = Area of threaded section, mm2 The preload is generally considered acceptable if the actual elongation is within + 5 percent of the calculated value for the given preload. Sleeves: Two basic types of sleeves are partial depth and full depth anchor bolt sleeves. Partial depth sleeves typically have a corrugated profile and are made from high density polyethylene (say, Plastic Wilson or equal). Full depth sleeves are typically made from a steel pipe section with a steel bearing plate seal welded to the embedded end. Sleeve diameters are generally two to four times the diameter of the anchor bolt. Sleeves serve two purposes:

First, partial depth and full depth sleeves afford the opportunity to move the top of the bolt slightly when trying to align the attachment. However, the presence of a sleeve does not imply that an anchor bolt may be freely bent or otherwise deformed in order to account for placement that was out of construction tolerance. Second, a full depth sleeve may be used in conjunction with preloaded bolts. The sleeve permits elongation along the entire length of the bolt, and the bearing plate transfers the tension force from the anchor bolt to the concrete. It must be emphasized that the bearing plate must be sized to ensure that the anchor does not pull through or cause the plate to deform excessively. Also, the nut on the bottom of the anchor plate must be held securely in place to prevent loosening during construction activities.

In most applications, the sleeves are cut flush with the top of concrete and then filled with nonshrink grout after the attachment has been placed and aligned. Prior to grouting the sleeves, precautions must be taken to prevent water from freezing inside the sleeves. Anchor Bolt Projection The length of an anchor bolt that projects from the concrete surface where the length is measured from the concrete surface to the free end of the anchor bolt. Any thickness of grout placed on the concrete surface must be included in the projection length. Baseplate Leveling Systems Some of the most common methods used for leveling base plates, are, the use of shim stacks and leveling nuts. It must be emphasized that the shims and leveling nuts should be removed before preloading the bolts. Leveling nuts may be used only on anchor bolts where preloading is not required. Use of leveling nuts on anchor bolts that are preloaded would result in bolt tension only in the region between the leveling nut and the top nut. Ductile Design The ability of an element to deform beyond the point of elastic yield prior to total failure is called ductility. Ductile design referring to an anchor with design strength equal to the design strength of the steel element. All potential concrete failure modes must have design strengths greater than the steel

element (supplemental reinforcing may be used to increase the design strength of concrete failure modes). Design discussions for Cast in place anchor: As with all designs, anchor bolt designs must meet the project design criteria and project commitments to codes and standards. Here, this discussions follow the provisions of ACI 318-05, Appendix D, for the design of cast-in anchors. Much consideration is given to ductility in the design of anchor bolts. In general, steel is a ductile material and plain concrete is not. For anchorage to concrete, ductility usually means that in the event of overload, the ductile steel anchor will yield before the concrete can fail in a brittle manner. In this discussion, ductile designs are also referred to as developed anchors. Ductile designs are therefore preferable for most applications. During anchor bolt design, you may find that proper ductile design is not possible for some reasons and following are some cases:

Piers/pedestals or other concrete elements where the edge distances and bolt spacings preclude development of the steel anchor strength The addition of supplemental reinforcing can often provide restraint and confinement capable of producing a ductile design. Large diameter bolts specified by machine manufacturers - Machine anchor sizes are often much larger than the sizes that would be required for strength considerations only. In such cases, supplemental reinforcement should be provided in order to come as close as practicable to a ductile design. Note that manufacturers sometimes specify ductile anchors as part of their design criteria. Supports for architectural, mechanical, and electrical components - This case consists primarily of post-installed adhesive or grouted-in anchors for medium to light duty service. Supports for structures or equipment where anchors are not required to be designed for an applied load - Such cases would include posts subject to gravity load only, equipment skids subject to gravity load only, etc. In these cases, anchors should be provided with minimum recommended embedment depths given in Project design criteria.

Anchors must be designed for Tension load , Shear Load and combination of Shear and Tension. Following are some method of transferring Shear and

Tension Load to concrete: Shear Load: There are several alternatives for transferring shear from an attachment to the concrete.

Anchor Shear: An anchor may be loaded in shear, and, in turn, transfer the shear to the concrete. Welded studs are most commonly used to transfer shear in this manner. Welded studs have the advantage of being securely welded to the attachment. An anchor bolt inserted through a hole in an attachment requires special consideration to assure shear transfer from the attachment to the anchor. Usually, the bolt holes in the attachment will be oversized to accommodate anchor installation tolerances. Oversized holes make it unlikely to achieve bearing at all anchors in a given attachment. There are two methods to deal with oversized holes:First, the number of anchors considered to resist the shear may be limited to half of the total no of anchor used;second, washers without oversized holes may be provided and then welded to the attachment to transfer the shear to the anchor. Friction: For cases where a sustained compressive force exists between the attachment and the concrete surface, friction will be developed. Project criteria and codes must be reviewed to determine if it is permitted to rely on frictional resistance.The friction load should be based on the dead load and any portion of the live load that causes the shear. Care must be taken not to overestimate the dead load. If the applied shear load exceeds the shear that can be transferred by friction, additional means must be provided to transfer the applied shear that is in excess of the friction. Shear-Friction: Shear-friction may be developed as a result of the anchors effectively clamping the attachment to the concrete surface. In this case the anchor must be designed for the tension resulting from shear friction as well as any tension applied directly. Shear Lugs: Shear lug is the preferred methods of shear transfer when friction is not an option or is not sufficient to resist the applied shear. This method requires pre-formed pockets in the concrete. The shear lug is generally a steel element, welded to the attachment, that transfers the shear directly to the concrete through bearing. Shear lugs are most commonly single cantilever plates but may be wide flange shapes or box sections for very large loads. Use of cantilever shear lugs greater than the thickness of the attachment plate is not recommended,

and shear lugs should be designed using a minimum of 50 mm. embedment into the concrete. Fillet welds are preferred over penetration welds by fabricators for attaching shear lugs to baseplates. For the case of extremely large shear loads, shear lugs made from wide flange sections or box sections may be necessary. The behavior of large shear lugs with deep embedments will be dependent on the stiffness of the shear lug and the stiffness of the attachment. Tension Load: Tension may be transferred from an attachment to the anchor by a number of means. Most commonly, the anchor is welded directly to the attachment, as with welded studs, or secured with nut and washer, as with column base plates. Where attachments are provided with oversized holes, a plate washer may be required to ensure that there is adequate bearing and that the anchor does not pull through the attachment. Now to complete the design of cast in place anchors, you can create your own calculation sheet based on ACI 318-05, Appendix D as explained step by step. I hope this page will be very helpful to you.

Design of Concrete Ring Beam for Storage Tank

In this page I will talk about the design philosophy of ring beam for storage water tank. The granular fill foundation of the tank shall be designed per project design criteria / specification. This type of foundation is mostly common to all project site. However, sometimes we design concrete ring beam around the tank foundation. Following are some reasons for design of concrete ring beam, though this is more costly and take longer to construct than granular fill ring:

Sometimes clients ask to provide concrete ring beam around tank foundation. Prevent uplift of the tank due to wind or earthquake Prevent edge failure of the soil at the tank shell Prevent local uplift of the tank due to internal pressure.

Now you will follow the following steps to start the foundation load calculation and design: Step-1 : Review of Tank detail drawing (Vendor Drawing) You need to review tank drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information:

Tank Dimension, Diameter and Height Type of Roof (Floating or fixed roof), weight of roof Detail of tank shell and weight of tank shell Detail of tank base plate, location of base sump, annular plate and total weight of base plate Detail of anchor bolt (BCD, no of bolt and dia of bolt) and anchor bolt fixing detail Location and detail of man-hole at bottom portion of tank Product density and and maximum height of product Maximum height of water inside the tank for the hydrotest* Internal pressure or suction Live load Wind Shear and moment on tank shell Seismic shear and moment on tank shell

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location and Elevation Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on tank (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the tank Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan.

Step-3 : Loads on concrete ring beam and on the confined compacted granular fill in-side the ring:

You need to place concrete ring beam in such a way that outer surface of the tank shell should be the center of ring beam. Consider the following loads on ring beam and on granular compacted fill inside the concrete ring. Geotechnical Data: Before starting the design, you need to collect the following information about soil:

Allowable Bearing Pressure Density of Soil Co-efficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko)

Loads on Ring beam:

Total weight of tank shell (vertical load), kN / m (DL) Total weight of roof , for fixed roof case. For floating roof, part of the roof weight will come on the ring beam, kN / m (DL) Total live load on roof , for fixed roof case. For floating roof, part of the live load will come on the ring beam, kN / m (LL) Part of annular base weight on ring beam, kN / m2 (DL) Part of product / test water load on ring beam, kN / m2 (PL) Seismic shear and wind shear on ring beam, kN / m Part of internal pressure / suction load on ring beam, kN / m2(IP)

Loads on compacted granular fill inside the ring beam:

Floating roof weight on compacted granular fill, kN / m2(DL) Annular base weight on compacted granular fill, kN / m2 (DL) Live load on floated roof, kN / m2 (LL) Product / test water load on compacted granular fill, kN / m2(PL) Internal pressure / suction load on compacted granular fill, kN / m2 (IP)

Following load combimations can be used for soil bearing pressure check (at bottom of ring beam level) :

Load Combination: LC1 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure Load Combination: LC2 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal Pressure + Live Load Load Combination: LC3 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure + Wind Load

Load Combination: LC4 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure + Seismic Load Load Combination: LC5 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure + Live Load + Wind Load Load Combination: LC6 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure + Live Load + Seismic Load Load Combination: LC7 - Self weight of soil / Beam + Self weight of tank + Test water weight

Load combinations for Ring beam design for Hoop tension:

Load Combination: UC1 - 1.7 x (Surcharge load of confined soil) + 1.7 x Surcharge load of (Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure) Load Combination: UC2 - 1.7 x (Surcharge load of confined soil) + 1.7 x Surcharge load of (Self weight of tank + Product weight + Internal pressure)+ 1.4 x surcharge of Live Load Load Combination: UC3 - 1.7 x (Surcharge load of confined soil) + 1.7 x Surcharge load of (Self weight of tank + test water weight)

Step-4 : Determination of concrete ring beam size: The ring wall should be a minimum 300 mm thick and extend to a suitable bearing stratum, whch may be natural ground or built-up compacted granular material. It should be 500 mm below ground level and extend below frost line. The bearing capacity of the soil below the ringwall should be calculated using a strip foundation analysis loaded with vertical load as mentioned in step-3. API 650, appendix-B, clause B.4.2.2 states that it is desireable that the ringwall width be such that the average unit soil loading under the ring wall will be approximately equal to the earth pressure under the confined earth at the same depth (in maximum liquid level condition). Once, the ringwall thickness is determined from above condition, it should be reviewed to ensure that excessive quantities of concrete are not used for tanks with low liquid levels and that the permissible ground pressure for the width of the wall is not exceeded. Please note that, soil bearing pressure under the ring beam and under the confined earth at same depth should not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure for any of the above described load and any load combinations.

Step-5 : Determination of Hoop Tension on concrete ring beam and reinforcement calculation: The concrete ring beam shall be designed for hoop tension. This hoop tension will be generated from surcharge load due to confined soil and loads on confined soil. Load calculation: Surcharge due to confined soil: Sursoil = 0.5 x (height of ringwall)2 x soil density x Co-efficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko) Surcharge due to uniform load on confined soil: Surudl = (Load on confined soil) x (height of ringwall) x Co-efficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko) Total Hoop tension (T) = (Sursoil + Surudl) x (0.5 x centerline diameter of ring beam) Factored Hoop Tension load can be calculated as per step-3. Required area of Hoop reinforcement is, Ast = (Factored Hoop tension) / (0.9 x yeild stress of rebar---fy) The ringwall must also be designed to take care circumferential bending moments due to the vertical load being applied eccentrically to the ringwall center line. The ringwall should be reinforced on both faces, with vertical reinforcement (stirrups) closest to the concrete surfaces. Not more than 50% of the hoop reinforcement should be lapped at any one position. Step-6 : Anchor Bolt Design: Anchor bolt shall be checked per design criteria and Tenssion & Shear load supplied by vendor. If wind and shear forces are not supllied by vendor, you need to calculate the anchorage load from API 650. Anchor bolt shall be designed for ductility failure. If required, additional reinforcement to be provided around the anchor bolt. For a typical concrete ring beam detail click here.

I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic design of a concrete ring beam for storage tank.

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Design Philosophy for Transformer Pit

In this page I will talk about how to detemine the size of oil containment for transformer. Following is a typical picture of a transformer and its foundation with oil containment.

Now, you will follow the below steps to determine the foundation and size of spilled oil containment. Step-1 : Review of Transformer drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)
You need to review transformer drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information:

Transformer Erection weight (De) Transformer Operating weight (Do) Plan dimension of Transformer base Height of transformer and location of oil tank Total volume of oil in the oil tank

Transformer Center of Gravity location in empty condition and operating condition for Seismic load calculation and application Anchor bolt detail (size, location, projection, etc..) and transformer supporting details

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation and containment. Verify transformer Foundation and containment location and Elevation Electrical and Instrument duct banks Bus duct support and foundation detail, on and around the transformer pit Locations of underground pipes Location of fire hose and sprinkler around the transformer Locations and extent of fire wall and construction type of fire wall Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan.

Step-3 : Soil / Geotechnical information: Following Geotechnical information are required to start the foundation and spilled oil containment:

Soil allowable Bearing pressure or pile capacity (Tension, compression and Lateral force capacity) Soil density Active soil pressure co-efficient of soil Earthquake soil pressure co-efficient Ground water table location Frost depth (for winter snow)

Step-4 : Transformer Pedestal sizing criteria: Transformer pedestal shall be sized according to the following criteria: Face-to-face pedestal size shall be the larger of the following: (a) (b) Bolt c/c distance + 175mm Bolt c/c distance + 8 x bolt diameters

(c) (d) (e)

Bolt c/c distance + sleeve diameter + 150mm Size of base frame + 200mm Bolt c/c distance + 2 x (minimum bolt edge distance)

It is desirable to make the pedestal deep enough to contain the anchor bolts and keep them out of the mat. Step-5 : Transformer spilled oil containment sizing criteria: Containment size shall be calculated for worst condition. It is assumed that worst condition will be happened when total oil is in the containment + Transformer on fire + Heavy rain fall. So, total containment volume will be, addition of following items:

Volume of transformer oil (mentioned in the equipment drawing) Transformer on fire: When transformer is on fire (refer IEEE-980 annexB or NFPA-850 chapter-6 ) all the hose pipe (deluge system) will spray the water on all four sides and top of the transformer. So total volume of water will be: Water volume = (Total surface area of the transformer (all 4 sides) + top plan area of transformer) xrate of water flow from hose pipe per unit area x total fire rating time. Rain water: Total volume of rain water shall be calculated for total fire time. So volume of rain water = Rain fall intensity (mm/hr) x Plan area of containment x total fire rating time.

Generally, you will find that containment area is full of stones (40 mm down). In this case, we consider that 35% void is available to accommodate the above volume of oil and water mix. So, you need to increase the capacity of the containment accordingly. Step-6 : Anchor Bolt Check:
Design of anchor bolts shall be based on the following considerations. Corrosion allowance should be considered when required by the project design criteria.

Tension Check: The maximum tension force in the anchor bolts (Tmax) may be calculated according with following formula:

Tmax = M / (Ny x BCD) - (De / Do) / Nb Where, M = total maximum moment on foundation BCD = Bolt c/c distance Ny = No. of bolt row Nb = no. of anchor bolt Use De or Do whichever is critical. Shear Check: When anchor bolts are utilized to resist shear, the unit shear per bolt shall be calculated as follows: Vmax = V / Nb where, V = total shear force on anchor bolt.

Frictional resistance to shear between the transformer base plate and the concrete or grouted bearing surface shall be utilized to resist shears induced by wind or by other static loads. Frictional resistance shall not be employed to resist shear induced by seismic loads. For seismic-induced shear, adequate mechanical means shall be provided to resist horizontal shear, either by means of properly detailed anchor bolt / bolt hole arrangements or through a combination of anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other anchorage devices. The static coefficient of friction between steel and concrete or between steel and cementitious grout shall be considered as 0.4 or specified in project design criteria. Tension Shear Interaction check: When anchor bolts are subjected to combined shear and tension loads, the design shall be based on satisfying interaction formula (say Appendix-d of ACI 318). Please note that anchor bolt edge distance, spacing and load capacity shall be as per project design criteria. Step-7 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design: You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria. However, I have created this load combination based on ACI 318:

Load combination for Foundation sizing and Pile load calculation (un-factored load calculation):

LC1: LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5:

Do (De) + Wind De + Seismic Do + Wind Do + Seismic

Load combination for Pedestal and containment mat foundation design (factored load calculation):

LC6: 1.4*(Do) LC7: 0.75 [1.4 De] 1.6 Wind LC8: 1.2 De +1.0 E LC9: 0.75 (1.4 Do ) 1.6 Wind LC10: 1.2 (Do) 1.0 E

The weight of the foundation and of the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all of these load combinations. Step-8 : Loads on containment wall Containment wall shall be designed for following loads and load combinations:

Active soil pressure on the wall Surcharge load on wall due to live load on soil. You need to discuss with construction about any site crane movement around the transformer pit. Earthquake load on wall due to soil movement. Use Monobe Okabe Equation for Earthquake load calculation.

Typical foundation and oil containment drawing for a Transformer

For requirement of firewall refer NFPA-850 chapter-5. Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on foundation Different criterias for the pedestal sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt A sample load combinations.

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:

A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for foundation sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy, uplift of foundation due to frost and overturning) or pile load (tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values. A calculation sheet for foundation, pedestal and containment wall reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

Discussions: Question from visitor: Do I need to consider soil passive pressure on transformer wall for sliding check, when the transformer pit is in high seismic zone? Recommendation from Subhro: It is advisable not to consider any passive pressure on wall for sliding check, when pit is in high seismic zone. If it is absolute necessary to consider the passive pressure on wall for sliding check, you must consult with geotechnical engineer for recommendations. Recommendations courtsey: Soumyabrata Roychowdhury, Civil/Structural Engineer I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic loads for transformer foundation and containment pit design

Foundation Design Philosophy for Flare Stack

In this page , I will discuss about the Guyed stack Foundation only. Self standing stack is almost similar to vertical vessel / tower. Hence, for those types, you can refer vertical vessel / tower foundation page. Guyed Stack:

From the above sketch you can see the stack, Guy sets and Deadmen. Each guy set has 3 guys connected with the stack at a particular level at one end at 120 degree apart and other end connected with Deadman. This deadman is nothing but a mass concrete foundation, which is counter acting the guy tension. So now, you can easily understand that you will design two types of foundations, one for stack and another for guy support i.e. Deadmen. To start the foundation design, you need to follow the below steps: Step-1 : Review of Stack drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)
You need to review stack drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information: For Stack:

Stack Dead weight (De) Stack underside base plate level Anchor bolt location (Bolt circle Dia) with respect to center of stack and also bolt offset with respect to Plant North line. Anchor bolt supporting detail ( Anchor bolt size and detail of anchor chair) and Base plate detail Wind Shear and Moment Seismic Shear and Moment (if the Project site is at Seismic zone)

Temperature load (TL) Snow load (SL)

For Deadman:

Location of all the deadmen with respect to Stack center line Bottom level of Guy wire fixing base plate Tension at Guy wire support due to wind Tension at Guy wire support due to seismic Tension at Guy wire support due to Temperature Tension at Guy wire support due to Snow and Ice load Anchor bolt detail (size, location and projection) and Guy wire fixing (detail of fixing base plate) detail with deadman.

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location, Elevation and finished grade level Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on stack (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the Stack Location of miscellaneous skid mounted equipment around the stack Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan.

Step-3 : Pedestal Sizing Criteria: For Stack: Concrete pedestals supporting Stack shall be sized according to the following criteria: Face-to-face pedestal size shall be the larger of the following:

Bolt circle + 175mm Bolt circle + 8 x bolt diameters

Bolt circle + sleeve diameter + 150mm Diameter of baseplate + 200mm Bolt circle + 2 x (minimum bolt edge distance)

Pedestals shall be octagonal in shape for ease of construction. For ease of forming, use multiples of 25mm for each octagonal side. For Deadman: Concrete pedestals connected with Guy wire shall be sized according to the following criteria: Face-to-face pedestal size shall be the larger of the following:

Bolt c/c distance + 175mm Bolt c/c distance + 8 x bolt diameters Bolt c/c distance + sleeve diameter + 150mm Baseplate size + 200mm Bolt c/c distance + 2 x (minimum bolt edge distance)

Pedestals shall be rectangular in shape for ease of construction. For ease of forming, use multiples of 25mm for each rectangular side. It is desirable to make the pedestal deep enough to contain the anchor bolts and keep them out of the mat. Step-4 : Anchor Bolt Check:
Design of anchor bolts shall be based on the following considerations. Corrosion allowance should be considered when required by the project design criteria.

For stack Tension Check: The maximum tension force in the anchor bolts (Tmax) may be calculated according with following formula: Tmax = 4*M / (Nb x BCD) - (De) / Nb Where, M = total maximum moment on foundation BCD = Bolt circle diameter

Nb = no. of anchor bolt The above formula provides a conservative value of Tmax compared to the concrete transformed section method. Shear Check: When anchor bolts are utilized to resist shear, the unit shear per bolt shall be calculated as follows: Vmax = V / Nb where, V = total shear force on anchor bolt.

When over sized anchor bolt holes are provided in the vessel base plates or when anchor bolt sleeves that are not grout-filled are used, anchor bolts should be designed to resist tension only. Frictional resistance to shear between the vessel base plate and the concrete or grouted bearing surface shall be utilized to resist shears induced by wind or by other static loads. Frictional resistance shall not be employed to resist shear induced by seismic loads. For seismic-induced shear, adequate mechanical means shall be provided to resist horizontal shear, either by means of properly detailed anchor bolt / bolt hole arrangements or through a combination of anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other anchorage devices. The static coefficient of friction between steel and concrete or between steel and cementitious grout shall be considered as 0.4 or specified in project design criteria. For Deadman Foundation At deadman anchor location, anchor bolts shall be checked for Tension only. If concrete around the anchor bolt is not sufficient enough to resist tension in anchor bolt from ductility point of view, provide additional reinforcement around the anchor bolt to transfer the force from bolt to foundation mat by non-contact splicing method (ACI 318 appendix-D) Tension Shear Interaction check: When anchor bolts are subjected to combined shear and tension loads, the design shall be based on satisfying interaction formula (say ACI 318 appendixD ).

Please note that anchor bolt edge distance, spacing and load capacity shall be as per project design criteria. Step-5 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design: You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria.

Please note that the weight of the foundation and the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all the load combinations. Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on Stack foundation and on deadman anchor foundation Different criterias for the pedestal sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:

A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for foundation sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy and overturning) or pile load (tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values. A calculation sheet for foundation and pedestal reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic foundation loads of Stack and Deadman anchor.

Foundation Design Philosophy for Vertical Vessel / Tower

In this page I will talk about Vertical vessel/Tower equipment foundation load calculation. Following are some pictures of Vertical vessel /Tower:

Picture-1 (Left) - A tall tower vessel resting on skirt and on Foundation. Picture-2 (Right) - A small vertical vessel resting on legs and on fpundation. Now you will follow the following steps to start the foundation load calculation and design: Step-1 : Review of vessel drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)
You need to review Vessel drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information:

Vessel Erection weight (De1): Vessel Empty weight (De2): Vessel Operating weight (Do): Vessel Hydrotest weight (Dt): Wind Shear and Moment Seismic Shear and Moment (if the Project site is at Seismic zone) Total Height of vessel Vessel Center of Gravity location for Seismic load calculation and application Anchor bolt location (Bolt circle Dia) with respect to center of vessel and also bolt offset with respect to Plant North line. Anchor bolt supporting detail ( Anchor bolt size and detail of anchor chair) Base plate detail

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location and Elevation Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the vessel Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan.

Step-3 : Description of Foundation Loads: Please follow this section to understand the different loads on foundation: Vessel Erection weight (De1): The erection weight is the fabricated weight of the
vessel, plus internals, platforms, etc., that are actually erected with the vessel. Data from Equipment drawing.

Vessel Empty weight (De2): The empty weight is the in-place weight of the completed
vessel, including the fabricated weight of the vessel, plus the weight of internals, piping, insulation, and platforms, but excluding the weight of fluids or products which will be contained in the vessel during operation. Data from Equipment drawings.

Vessel Operating weight (Do): Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of Fluid inside the vessel. Data from Equipment drawings. Vessel Hydrotest weight water
(Dt):

Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of test

Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp): Please Coordinate with the
Pipe Stress Group for determination of nozzle loads and loads due to pipe supports attached to the vessel.

Wind Shear and Moment: You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During wind load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. Compare both the data (vendor load data and your calculated data) and apply the critical one for foundation design. Seismic Shear and Moment (if the Project site is at Seismic zone): You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During seismic load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. Compare both the data (vendor load data and your calculated data) and apply critical one for foundation design. Step-4 : Pedestal Sizing Criteria: Concrete pedestals supporting vertical vessels shall be sized according to the following criteria: Face-to-face pedestal size shall be the larger of the following:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Bolt circle + 175mm Bolt circle + 8 x bolt diameters Bolt circle + sleeve diameter + 150mm Diameter of baseplate + 100mm Bolt circle + 2 x (minimum bolt edge distance)

Pedestals having a diameter or least dimension across sides that is equal to or greater than 1.5m shall be octagonal in shape. All other pedestals shall be square in shape. For ease of forming, use multiples of 25mm for each octagonal side or side of square. It is desirable to make the pedestal deep enough to contain the anchor bolts and keep them out of the mat. Step-5 : Anchor Bolt Check:
Design of anchor bolts shall be based on the following considerations. Corrosion allowance should be considered when required by the project design criteria.

Tension Check: The maximum tension force in the anchor bolts (Tmax) may be calculated according with following formula: Tmax = 4*M / (Nb x BCD) - (De1 or De2) / Nb Where, M = total maximum moment on foundation BCD = Bolt circle diameter Nb = no. of anchor bolt Use De1 or De2 whichever is critical. The above formula provides a conservative value of Tmax compared to the concrete transformed section method. Shear Check:

When anchor bolts are utilized to resist shear, the unit shear per bolt shall be calculated as follows:

Vmax = V / Nb

where, V = total shear force on anchor bolt.

When oversized anchor bolt holes are provided in the vessel base plates or when anchor bolt sleeves that are not grout-filled are used, anchor bolts should be designed to resist tension only.

Frictional resistance to shear between the vessel base plate and the concrete or grouted bearing surface shall be utilized to resist shears induced by wind or by other static loads. Frictional resistance shall not be employed to resist shear induced by seismic loads. For seismic-induced shear, adequate mechanical means shall be provided to resist horizontal shear, either by means of properly detailed anchor bolt / bolt hole arrangements or through a combination of anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other anchorage devices. The static coefficient of friction between steel and concrete or between steel and cementitious grout shall be considered as 0.4 or specified in project design criteria. Tension Shear Interaction check: When anchor bolts are subjected to combined shear and tension loads, the design shall be based on satisfying interaction formula (say Appendix-d of ACI 318). Please note that anchor bolt edge distance, spacing and load capacity shall be as per project design criteria. Step-6 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design: You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria. However, I have created this load combination based on ACI 318: Load combination for Foundation sizing and Pile load calculation (un-factored load calculation):

LC1: Do + Dp

LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5: LC6:

(De1 or De2) + Wind De2 + Seismic Do + Dp + Wind Do + Dp + Seismic Dt + 025*Wind

Load combination for Pedestal and Foundation design (factored load calculation):

LC7: 1.4*(Do + Dp) LC8: 0.75 [1.4 De2 (or 1.4 De1)] 1.6 Wind LC9: 1.2 De2 +1.0 E LC10: 0.75 (1.4 Do + 1.4 Dp) 1.6 Wind LC11: 1.2 (Do + Dp) 1.0 E LC12: 0.75 (1.4 Dt) 1.6 (0.25 W)

The weight of the foundation and of the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all of these load combinations. Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on foundation Different criterias for the pedestal sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt A sample load combinations.

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:
o

A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for foundation sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy and overturning) or pile load (tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values. A calculation sheet for foundation and pedestal reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

For typical Platform and foundation for a Vertical Vessel / Tower click here
Discussions: Question from visitor: What is the reference of anchor bolt tension calculation formula? Answer from Subhro: Refer "ASCE task committee on anchor bolt design" clause #3.5.1.1 - vessel anchor bolt design. Question from visitor: How do I calculate the wind load on vertical vessel? Answer from Subhro: Refer "Wind load and anchor bolts design for petrochemical facility by ASCE"

I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic foundation loads of a Vertical Vessel / Tower.

Foundation Design Philosophy for Horizontal Vessel

In this page I will talk about Horizontal vessel / Horizontal Drum equipment foundation load calculation. Following is a picture of Horizontal vessel / Drum:

Now you will follow the following steps to start the foundation load calculation and design:

Step-1 : Review of vessel drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)

You need to review Vessel drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information:

Vessel Erection weight (De1): Vessel Empty weight (De2): Vessel Operating weight (Do): Vessel Hydrotest weight (Dt): Wind Shear and Moment in transverse direction Seismic Shear and Moment in transverse direction (if the Project site is at Seismic zone) Vessel operating temperature and confirm with Mechnaical discipline Total length of vessel and spacing of saddle supports Vessel Center of Gravity location with respect to saddle Anchor bolt location on fixed and sliding saddle Detail of equipment saddle (fixed and sliding)

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location and Elevation Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the vessel Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan. Description of Foundation Loads:

Step-3 :

Please follow this section to understand the different loads on foundation: Vessel Erection weight (De1): The erection weight is the fabricated weight of the
vessel, plus internals, platforms, etc., that are actually erected with the vessel. Data from Equipment drawing.

Vessel Empty weight (De2): The empty weight is the in-place weight of the completed
vessel, including the fabricated weight of the vessel, plus the weight of internals, piping, insulation, and platforms, but excluding the weight of fluids or products which will be contained in the vessel during operation. Data from Equipment drawings.

Vessel Operating weight (Do): Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of Fluid inside the vessel. Data from Equipment drawings. Vessel Hydrotest weight water
(Dt):

Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of test

Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp): Please Coordinate with the
Pipe Stress Group for determination of nozzle loads and loads due to pipe supports attached to the vessel.

Wind Shear and Moment (W): You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During wind load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. Transverse and longitudinal wind load shall be calculated per design project criteria. No allowance shall be made for shielding of winds by nearby equioment. The calculated design moments and shears due to wind load should be compared to those shown on the vessel drawings and maximum loads shall be used for foundation design. Seismic Shear and Moment (E) (if the Project site is at Seismic zone): You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During seismic load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. The longitudinal seismic force shall be resisted by the fixed end pier only unless the piers are tied together by tie beams below the base plates. Transverse seismic forces shall be resisted by both piers using saddle or base plate reactions as the basis for computing base shear. The calculated design moments and shears due to seismic should be compared to those shown on the vessel drawings and maximum loads shall be used for foundation design. Thermal Load (T): The thermal load is defined as the load which results from thermal expansion or contraction of the exchanger/vessel in the longitudinal direction. The maximum thermal force is equal to the maximum static friction force (frictional resistance) acting at the equipment sliding support before the saddle begins to move. The frictional resistance equals the coefficient of friction (see project design criteria) times the vertical support reaction.

The thermal load considered in foundation design shall be the smaller of the following: 1. The maximum pier reaction at the sliding end times the coefficient of friction of the sliding surfaces 2. The force required to deflect each pier one-half the amount of the total thermal expansion between supports (assuming thermal loads of equal magnitude, but opposite directions, act on each pier). Generally, for short piers, the frictional force discussed in item (a) above governs the design.

Step-4 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design: You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria. However, I have created this load combination based on ACI 318: Load combination for Foundation sizing and Pile load calculation (un-factored load calculation):

LC1: LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5: LC6:

Do + Dp + T (De1 or De2)+ Wind De2+ Seismic Do + Dp + Wind + T Do + Dp + Seismic + T Dt + 025*Wind

Load combination for Pedestal and Foundation design (factored load calculation):

LC7: 1.4*(Do + T + Dp ) LC8: 0.75 [1.4 De2 (or 1.4 De1)] 1.6 Wind LC9: 1.2 De2 +1.0 E LC10: 0.75 (1.4 Do +1.4 T + 1.4 Dp) 1.6 Wind LC11: 1.2 (Do +T + Dp) 1.0 E LC12: 0.75 (1.4 Dt) 1.6 (0.25 W)

The weight of the foundation and of the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all of these load combinations. Step-5 : Anchor Bolt Check: Maximum shear and tension on anchor bolt shall be calculated based on above load combinations and shall be compared with project acceptable value. Anchor bolt embedment length shall be checked per any project approved code (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D).

Step-6 : Pedestal Sizing and reinforcement:

Unless controlled by other factors, the minimum pier dimensions in each direction should equal to the dimensions of the base plate plus 100mm. Piers shall be sized in 50mm increments. The minimum thickness of the pier should be approximately 10% of the pier height, with a minimum of 250mm.

Pier size should be adjusted to ensure the factored vertical force on the pier does not exceed the value of 0.1Agfc (Refer ACI 318 section 10.3.5) Piers should be designed as axially loaded cantilever flexural members When the size of the pier cannot be adjusted and the value of the axial load exceeds 0.1Agfc, the piers should be designed as compression members subjected to combined flexure and compressive axial load. For piers with slenderness ratio equal to or exceeding 22, moment magnification effects should be considered (refer section 10.13 of ACI 318). In calculating the slenderness ratio, a "K" factor of 2 should be used. The P-M column interaction check may also be considered in pier design. Shears on piers along both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the equipment shall be checked per code requirements (refer ACI 318, Chapter 11).

Reinforcement should normally be arranged symmetrically. Both the fixed end and sliding end piers shall be sized and reinforced identically. For pier height less than 7 feet, the vertical reinforcement may be extended from the foundation with no dowels being required. A double tie shall be placed at the top of piers, spaced 50mm and 125mm below the top of concrete (or below the bottom of grout), to protect the top of concrete piers against cracking.

Step-7 : Slide plate :

Slide plates are placed at the sliding end pier to allow longitudinal movement of exchangers and vessels due to the thermal growth. The steel slide plate on the sliding end is generally coated with Dow Corning G-n Metal Assembly Paste or similar lubricant in order to reduce the coefficient of friction. Slide plates should be galvanized or painted to prevent corrosion. For large movements and/or heavy horizontal vessels, it may be necessary to use slide plates with low coefficient of static friction, such as lubrite, teflon, etc. Design of lubrite and teflon slide plates shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the slide plate manufacturer, as the coefficient of static friction varies with the temperature and pressure at the bearing surface. Typical coefficients of friction () are as follows

0.15, for mild steel slide plates coated with Dow Corning G-n Metal Assembly Paste 0.20, for mild steel to mild steel without lubricant 0.06, for teflon slide plates with bearing pressure over 100 psi

Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on foundation Different criterias for the pedestal sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt A sample load combinations.

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:

A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for foundation sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy and overturning) or pile load (tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values. A calculation sheet for foundation and pedestal reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

For typical foundation for a Horizontal Vessel click here

I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic foundation loads of a Horizontal Vessel.

Foundation Design Philosophy for Shell & Tube Exchanger

In this page I will talk about Shell & Tube Exchanger equipment foundation load calculation. Following is a picture of Shell & Tube Exchanger:

Now you will follow the following steps to start the foundation load calculation and design: Step-1 : Review of vessel drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)

You need to review Vessel drawings from foundation design point of view and check whether you have all the following information:

Vessel Erection weight (De1) Vessel Empty weight (De2) Vessel Operating weight (Do) Vessel Hydrotest weight (Dt) Weight of Tube Bundle Wind Shear and Moment in transverse direction Seismic Shear and Moment in transverse direction (if the Project site is at Seismic zone) Vessel operating temperature and confirm with Mechnaical discipline Total length of vessel and spacing of saddle supports Vessel Center of Gravity location with respect to saddle Anchor bolt location on fixed and sliding saddle Detail of equipment saddle (fixed and sliding)

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location and Elevation Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the vessel Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan. Description of Foundation Loads:

Step-3 :

Please follow this section to understand the different loads on foundation: Vessel Erection weight (De1): The erection weight is the fabricated weight of the vessel, plus internals, platforms, etc., that are actually erected with the vessel. Data from Equipment drawing.

Vessel Empty weight (De2): The empty weight is the in-place weight of the completed vessel, including the fabricated weight of the vessel, plus the weight of internals, piping, insulation, and platforms, but excluding the weight of fluids or products which will be contained in the vessel during operation. Data from Equipment drawings. Vessel Operating weight (Do): Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of Fluid inside the vessel. Data from Equipment drawings. Vessel Hydrotest weight test water (Dt): Vessel Empty weight (De2) + Weight of

Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp): Please Coordinate with the Pipe Stress Group for determination of nozzle loads and loads due to pipe supports attached to the vessel. Wind Shear and Moment (W): You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During wind load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. Transverse and longitudinal wind load shall be calculated per design project criteria. No allowance shall be made for shielding of winds by nearby equioment. The calculated design moments and shears due to wind load should be compared to those shown on the vessel drawings and maximum loads shall be used for foundation design. Seismic Shear and Moment (E) (if the Project site is at Seismic zone): You will find this load data in vendor drawings. However, you have to calculate this load based on project design basis. During seismic load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the vessel. The longitudinal seismic force shall be resisted by the fixed end pier only unless the piers are tied together by tie beams below the base plates. Transverse seismic forces shall be resisted by both piers using saddle or base plate reactions as the basis for computing base shear. The calculated design moments and shears due to seismic should be compared to those shown on the vessel drawings and maximum loads shall be used for foundation design. Thermal Load (T): The thermal load is defined as the load which results from thermal expansion or contraction of the exchanger/vessel in the longitudinal direction. The maximum thermal force is equal to the maximum static friction force (frictional resistance) acting at the equipment sliding

support before the saddle begins to move. The frictional resistance equals the coefficient of friction (see project design criteria) times the vertical support reaction. The thermal load considered in foundation design shall be the smaller of the following:

The maximum pier reaction at the sliding end times the coefficient of friction of the sliding surfaces The force required to deflect each pier one-half the amount of the total thermal expansion between supports (assuming thermal loads of equal magnitude, but opposite directions, act on each pier).

Bundle Pull Load (Lb): The bundle pull load is applicable only to foundations supporting exchangers with a removable tube bundle. It is the longitudinal force which results from the tube bundle removal operation during maintenance.This force shall be applied at the center of bundle elevation. In case of stacked exchangers, the more (most) critical load due to bundle pull, applied at the center of the respective bundle, shall be used. The force due to bundle pull shall be resisted by the fixed end pier only. Bundle pull load may be omitted if a bundle pulling extractor is used for removal of the bundle. The method of bundle removal should be listed in the project design criteria. Unless the project design criteria dictates otherwise, the bundle pull load is considered to be 100% of the bundle weight. Bundle pull load should be considered as live load for assigning load factors. Step-4 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design: You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria. However, I have created this load combination based on ACI 318: Load combination for Foundation sizing and Pile load calculation (un-factored load calculation):

LC1: LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5: LC6:

Do + Dp + T (De1 or De2)+ Wind De2+ Seismic Do + Dp + Wind + T Do + Dp + Seismic + T Dt + 025*Wind * LC7: De2+ Lb

Load combination for Pedestal and Foundation design (factored load calculation):

LC8: 1.4*(Do + T + Dp ) LC9: 0.75 [1.4 De2 (or 1.4 De1)] +1.6 Wind LC10: 1.2 De2 +1.0 E LC11: 0.75 (1.4 Do +1.4 T + 1.4 Dp) 1.6 Wind LC12: 1.2 (Do +T + Dp) + 1.0 E LC13: 0.75 (1.4 Dt) + 1.6 (0.25 W) LC14: 1.4*De2+ 1.7*Lb

The weight of the foundation and of the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all of these load combinations. Step-5 : Anchor Bolt Check: Maximum shear and tension on anchor bolt shall be calculated based on above load combinations and shall be compared with project acceptable value. Anchor bolt embedment length shall be checked per any project approved code (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). Step-6 : Pedestal Sizing and reinforcement: Unless controlled by other factors, the minimum pier dimensions in each direction should equal to the dimensions of the base plate plus 100mm. Piers shall be sized in 50mm increments. The minimum thickness of the pier should be approximately 10% of the pier height, with a minimum of 250mm.

Pier size should be adjusted to ensure the factored vertical force on the pier does not exceed the value of 0.1Agfc (Refer ACI 318 section 10.3.5) Piers should be designed as axially loaded cantilever flexural members When the size of the pier cannot be adjusted and the value of the axial load exceeds 0.1Agfc, the piers should be designed as compression members subjected to combined flexure and compressive axial load. For piers with slenderness ratio equal to or exceeding 22, moment magnification effects should be considered (refer section 10.13 of ACI 318). In calculating the slenderness ratio, a "K" factor of 2 should be used. The P-M column interaction check may also be considered in pier design.

Shears on piers along both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the equipment shall be checked per code requirements (refer ACI 318, Chapter 11). Reinforcement should normally be arranged symmetrically. Both the fixed end and sliding end piers shall be sized and reinforced identically. For pier height less than 7 feet, the vertical reinforcement may be extended from the foundation with no dowels being required. A double tie shall be placed at the top of piers, spaced 50mm and 125mm below the top of concrete (or below the bottom of grout), to protect the top of concrete piers against cracking.

Step-7 : Slide plate :

Slide plates are placed at the sliding end pier to allow longitudinal movement of exchangers and vessels due to the thermal growth. The steel slide plate on the sliding end is generally coated with Dow Corning G-n Metal Assembly Paste or similar lubricant in order to reduce the coefficient of friction. Slide plates should be galvanized or painted to prevent corrosion. For large movements and/or heavy vessels, it may be necessary to use slide plates with low coefficient of static friction, such as lubrite, teflon, etc. Design of lubrite and teflon slide plates shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the slide plate manufacturer, as the coefficient of static friction varies with the temperature and pressure at the bearing surface. Typical coefficients of friction (m) are as follows:

* 0.15, for mild steel slide plates coated with Dow Corning G-n Metal Assembly Paste * 0.20, for mild steel to mild steel without lubricant * 0.06, for teflon slide plates with bearing pressure over 100 psi Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on foundation Different criterias for the pedestal sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt A sample load combinations.

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:

A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for foundation sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy and overturning) or pile load (tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values. A calculation sheet for foundation and pedestal reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

For a typical foundation for Shell & Tube Exchanger click here

Foundation Design Philosophy for Rotating Equipment

References has been taken from,
1. Design of structures and foundations for vibrating machines by S. Arya,

M. O'Neill and G. Pincus 2. Foundation analysis and design by J. E. Bowels 3. Dynamics of bases and foundations by D. Barkan 4. Design of Machine Foundations - Lecture Notes of Professor M.H. El Naggar, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, N6A 5B9 In this page I will talk about the rigid block foundation for Centrifugal (Pump) and Reciprocating machines (Compressor). We are considering the concrete block is infinitely rigid and thus a lump mass model can be considered in computer 3D modelling. To start the design of a block foundation, we need to follow the following steps to collect the design data: Step-1 : Review of pump / compressor drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing) The machine data pertinent to the dynamic analysis and design of the block foundation should be obtained from vendors.

Plan dimension of pump / compressor base frame Height of rotor / shaft center line from the bottom of skid Anchor bolt location, size and embedment depth Weight of machine parts and the rotor parts (pump / compressor rotor and motor rotor) Location of center of gravity both vertically and horizontally Operating speed of machines and power rating of motor (RPM) Magnitude and direction of unbalanced forces. For reciprocating machines both primary and secondary unbalanced forces and couples and respective CG locations needs to be checked. Limit of deflection and vibration amplitudes at center line of rotor.

Step-2 : Collection of Geotechnical / soil data (Pl discuss with soil consultant and look into project design criteria) The Geotechnical data are used for evaluating the soil / pile stiffness and damping coefficients, and are required for both static and dynamic design and analysis of of block foundations. Following soil parameters are required:

Soil weight density Poisson's ratio Dynamic shear modulus (G) Shear wave velocity (vs) Dynamic modulus of sub-grade reaction (ks) Allowable soil bearing pressure or pile load carrying capacity for design of foundation

Step-3 : Categorization of rotating machines based on machine speed: The rotating machines are categorized based on machine speed. Following are different categories of machines:

Low Speed machine: The low speed machines operate at a speed range of less than 500 RPM. High tuned foundations, having first natural frequency more than machine's operating speed, should be designed for this type of machines. In this case machine do not pass the resonance during machine start up and coast down condition. Intermediate speed machine: The intermediate speed machines operate at a speed range 500 RPM to 1000 RPM. Foundations should be designed for this type of machines high tuned or low

tuned side whchever more practical. If the foundation is low tuned, dynamic amplitude shall be checked during start up and coast down condition. High Speed machine: The high speed machines operate at a speed range of more than 1000 RPM. Low tuned foundations, having first natural frequency less than machine's operating speed, should be designed for this type of machines. In this case machine will pass the resonance during machine start up and coast down condition. Dynamic amplitude shall be checked during start up and coast down condition. You need to ensure that there is no adverse effect to machine operation during the resonant conditions. Variable Speed machine: The variable speed machines operate at a speed range as prescribed by vendor. Foundations should be designed for this type of machines high tuned or low tuned side whchever more practical. A detail dynamic analysis of foundation is required for a range of machine operating speeds to ensure that the dynamic design criteria are met.

Step-4 : Preliminary sizing of foundations: A block foundation consists of massive concrete blocks, piers and mat foundation. The preliminary sizinng of block should be based on the following:

Weight of the block foundation should be at least 4 times the weight of reciprocating machines and 3 times the weight of centrifugal machines. The width of foundation should be at least 1.5 times the vertical distance from the bottom of foundation to the center line of the shaft / rotor. The center of mass of machine foundation (machine+foundation system) should coincide with the centroid of the soil foundation or pile group resistance. Horizontal eccentricity should be limited to 5% of the corresponding foundation dimension. For a rigid mat, following criteria to be followed:
o

o o

Minimum thickness of the mat will be 600 mm or 1/5 th of least foundation dimensions or 1/10 th of largest foundation dimensions, whichever is greater . Maximum thickness of the mat will be 1500 mm Minimum thickness of mat, t = 0.0012 x (ks x (a)4)1/3 ft, ks = soil dynamic modulus of subgrade reaction, lbs/in3, from soil

report, a = maximum cantilever projection (inches), measured from face of block (Refer: Foundation analysis and design by J E Bowles) Step-5 : Requirement for dynamic analysis of foundations: Dynamic analysis of concrete foundations are not required for all the foundations supporting rotating equipment. You need to refer your project design criteria for the conditions for dynamic analysis. Following are the general criteria for not performing any dynamic analysis of foundation supporting rotating equipment:

Dynamic analysis is not required if the weight of machine is less than 25kN. Dynamic analysis is not required if the power rating of motor is less than 200hp.

If you are not doing any dynamic analysis of concrete block foundation, then follow Step-4 for foundation sizing and put it into 3D model for any interference check. If you are doing the dynamic analysis of concrete block, then follow the following steps. Step-6 : Calculation of un-balanced forces for dynamic analysis of foundations: If unbalance force is not mentioned in the Vendor equipment drawing, then you will calculate the force as follows: Un-balance force for pump: Fpump = mp-rotor x e x w2 Un-balance force for motor: Fmotor = mm-rotor x e x w2 Where, mp-rotor = weight of pump rotor, mm-rotor = weight of motor rotor

w = circular frequency = 2 x pi x (f / 60), f = speed of machine from vendor drawing (RPM). e = rotor eccentricity, depends on machine speed Eccentricity Table ( Refer reference -1)

Machine Pump / compressor Pump / compressor Motor Motor Motor

Operating Speed (f in RPM) f < 3000 f > 3000 f < 1500 1500< f < 3000 f > 3000

Eccentricity e (mils) (1.8-107) / (f)2 (12000/f)1/2 1.5 1 0.5

Now you are having all the information to start the foundation analysis and design. You can put all the above data in any computer software program (say - Dyna5) or use any text books to calculated the natural frequencies of foundation. You can also use the different tables that I have attached here (click for the table). Natural frequency analysis of foundation: This rigid block has six degree of freedom. So, you will calculate all the following uncouple natural frequencies:

1. Sliding Frequency along horizontal X-direction

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Sliding Frequency along horizontal Y-direction Sliding Frequency along vertical Z-direction Rocking Frequency about X, rotational mode Rocking Frequency about Y, rotational mode Rocking Frequency about Z, rotational mode

When the CG of foundation system is far above the foundation base, coupling effect needs to be considered to calculate the foundation natural frequency. In this case sliding mode and rocking mode frequencies overlap each other and as a result foundation dynamic analysis may be more critical. You can calculate the coupled natural frequency using the formula mentioned in the table. Coupled condition: 1. Sliding along X & Rocking about-Y and 2. Sliding along Y & Rocking about X Once, analysis is completed, please check the foundation for the following conditions: Resonance Frequency Check: Calculate resonanace frequency and check that the ratio of machine frequency vs resonance frequency (f / fd) is either less than 0.8 or greater than 1.2 in all six degrees of freedom. Resonance frequency can be calculated as follows: fd = fn / (1-2 x D2) where, fn = foundation natural frequency, D = Damping ration (see table 5 and 12) Soil Bearing Pressure / Pile Capacity Check Soil bearing pressure or pile load should not exceed 75% of the allowable. Please avoid any foundation upliftment in seismic / wind condition. Maximum Velocity check: Maximum velocity should fall in "Good Condition" per table-1 of attached table Environmental condition

Maximum displacement amplitude of vibration at foundation level should lie within or below "Zone-B" of figure -1 and it should fall below the Zone "Troublesome to persons" of figure -2 in the attached table. Reinforcement: Reinforcement shall be provided per project approved design code. However, you can use minimum reinforcement as follows: 0.2% rebar on all face of concrete block and mat. 1% rebar for all concrete pedestal. Rebar spacing should not be more than 300 mm. Anchor Bolt: Anchor bolt shall be checked for start-up and coast down contion. For a typical pump foundation drawing click here I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic design of a Pump foundation.

Foundation Design Philosophy for Equipment on Skid

In this page I will talk about the foundation design philosophy for Equipment on skid. These equipment are static in nature and are resting on Channel section or Wide beam section. A very simple analysis and design is required to produce a Foundation for equipment on skid. You need to follow the following steps to complete the foundation design: Step-1 : Review of Equipment Drawing (Vendor Equipment Drawing)

Plan dimension of Equipment base frame Height of Equipment Anchor bolt location, size and embedment depth

Empty weight of Equipment (De) Operating weight of equipment (Do) Location of center of gravity both vertically and horizontally

Step-2 : Verification of foundation location, elevation and external fittings loads You need to review Plot plan, Equipment location drawings and 3 -D Models and check whether you have all the following information:

Verify the area available for foundation. Verify Foundation location and Elevation Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp) Location and size of Platforms around the Equipment, if any Locations of underground pipes Electrical and Instrument duct banks Locations and extent of adjacent foundations Verify the location and extent of new/existing foundations not shown in 3D model or plot plan.

Step-3 : Description of Foundation Loads: Please follow this section to understand the different loads on foundation: Equipment Empty weight : The empty weight is the in-place weight of the Equipment,
including the fabricated weight of the equipment, plus the weight of internals, piping and insulation, but excluding the weight of fluids or products which will be contained in the equipment during operation.

Equipment Operating weight : Fluid inside the Equipment

Equipment Empty weight (De2) + Weight of

Pipe supports and Nozzle loads on Equipment (Dp): Please Coordinate with the
Pipe Stress Group for determination of nozzle loads and loads due to pipe supports attached to the Equipment.

Wind Shear and Moment: Most of the time you will not find this load data in vendor drawings. You need to calculate this load based on project design basis. During wind load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the equipment. Seismic Shear and Moment (if the Project site is at Seismic zone): Most of the time you will not find this load data in vendor drawings. You need to calculate

this load based on project design basis. During seismic load calculation, you need to consider the pipes and platforms attached with the equipment. Step-4 : Block Sizing Criteria: Concrete foundation block supporting equipment, shall be sized according to the following criteria: Face-to-face Block size shall be the larger of the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Bolt center line distance + 200mm Bolt center line distance+ 8 x bolt diameters Bolt center line distance + sleeve diameter + 150mm Out to out dimension of skid + 100mm each side Bolt center line distance + 2 x (minimum bolt edge distance)

It is desirable to make the pedestal deep enough to contain the anchor bolts.

Step-5 : Anchor Bolt Check: Design of anchor bolts shall be based on the following considerations. Corrosion allowance should be considered when required by the project design criteria. Tension Check: The maximum tension force in the anchor bolts (Tmax) may be calculated according with following formula: Tmax = M / (Nb x BCD) (Equipment weight) / Nb Where, M = total maximum moment on foundation due to wind or seismic BCD = Bolt center line distance

Nb = no. of anchor bolt Shear Check: When anchor bolts are utilized to resist shear, the unit shear per bolt shall be calculated as follows:

Vmax = V / Nb

where, V = total shear force on anchor bolt.

When oversized anchor bolt holes are provided in the vessel base plates or when anchor bolt sleeves that are not grout-filled are used, anchor bolts should be designed to resist tension only.

Frictional resistance to shear between the equipment skid and the concrete or grouted bearing surface shall be utilized to resist shears induced by wind or by other static loads. Frictional resistance shall not be employed to resist shear induced by seismic loads. For seismic-induced shear, adequate mechanical means shall be provided to resist horizontal shear, either by means of properly detailed anchor bolt / bolt hole arrangements or through a combination of anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other anchorage devices. The static coefficient of friction between steel and concrete or between steel and cementitious grout shall be considered as 0.4 or specified in project design criteria. Tension Shear Interaction check: When anchor bolts are subjected to combined shear and tension loads, the design shall be based on satisfying interaction formula (say, Appendix-d of ACI 318). Please note that anchor bolt edge distance, spacing and load capacity shall be as per project design criteria.

Step-6 : Load combinations for foundation sizing / Pile loads and Foundation design:

You need to create the load combination per your project design criteria. However, I have created this load combination based on ACI 318: Load combination for Foundation sizing and Pile load calculation (un-factored load calculation):

LC1: LC2: LC3: LC4: LC5:

Do + Dp (De) + Wind Do + Seismic Do + Dp + Wind Do + Dp + Seismic

Load combination for Pedestal and Foundation design (factored load calculation):

LC6: 1.4*(Do + Dp) LC7: 0.75 [1.4 De] 1.6 Wind LC8: 1.2 Do +1.0 E LC9: 0.75 (1.4 Do + 1.4 Dp) 1.6 Wind LC10: 1.2 (Do + Dp) 1.0 E

The weight of the foundation and of the soil on top of the foundation shall be included as dead load in all of these load combinations. Now from above steps, you have learnt the following:

Different types of loads on foundation Different criterias for the concrete block sizing Maximum tension and shear force on each anchor bolt A sample load combinations.

To complete the foundation design, your work will be to create following calculation sheets:
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A calculation sheet for anchor bolt embedment length check (ex: ACI 318 appendix-D). A calculation sheet for Concrete block sizing (considering soil bearing pressure, Sliding, Buoyancy and overturning) or pile load

(tension, compression and shear on each pile) calculation and check with soil consultant for acceptable values.
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A calculation sheet for foundation and pedestal reinforcement calculation per your project design criteria.

I hope this page will be very helpful to you to understand the basic foundation loads of a Skid Mounted Equipment.