Loads Dead loads Imposed loads

floor roof Determining load per m and m2 Wind

Structures transmit loads from one place to another Where do loads come from Dead loads - permanent and stationary Structure itself Plant and equipment Some rough figures (note that values are subject to variation depending on specifc material type) Also note values are forces per unit volume not mass per unit volume. Unit Weights of baisc construction materials Aluminium Brick Concrete Steel Timber kN/m3 24 22 24 70 6

Precast concrete beam length 1. Calculate weight of beam per unit length. 2. Calculate total weight of beam in it is 10.5m. First cross sectional area of beam = (0.6 x 0.25) - (0.4 x 0.15) = 0.09m2 From table unit weight of concrete = 24kN/m3 Weight per unit length = 0.09 x 24 = 2.16kN/m Total weight = 2.16 x 10.5 = 22.68kN

Often we are dealing with sheet materials or we know a layer thickness of floor or roof build up. Figures here are per unit area Again when using these type of charts some care is needed to ensure you have the correct figure, or that it corresponds with your design. Unit weight of basic sheet materials Asphalt (19mm) Aluminium roof sheeting Glass (single glazing) Plasterboard and skim Rafters battens roofing felt Sand/cement screed (25mm) Slates Timber floorboards Plaster on wall face kN/m2 0.45 0.04 0.1 0.15 0.14 0.6 0.6 0.15 0.3

Calculate the dead load in kN/m2 of the following floor build up: Timber floor boards 40mm sand/cement screed 125mm reinforced concrete slab timber floor boards screed concrete slab dead load /m2 = 0.15 = 0.6 x 40/25 = 0.96 = 0.125 x 24 = 3.00 = 4.11kN/m2

if we are dealing with a wall acting on a beam we are interested in load per linear unit of the beam

In this example calculate the load per metre on the beam. The build up is a double glazed window on a cavity wall of 102.5mm brick outer face and 100mm plastered lightweight blockwork which is 12kN/m3. brickwork blockwork plaster double glazing = 1.2 x 0.1025 x 22 = 1.2 x 0.1 x 12 = 1.2 x 0.3 = 2 x 1.3 x 0.1 load on beam = 2.71 = 1.44 = 0.36 = 0.26 = 4.77kN/m

Imposed loads - or live loads, movable loads that act on the structure when it is in use. People, furniture, cars, computers and machinery are all imposed loads. Normally we consider imposed loads as floor and roof loads Typical floor loads kN/m2 Art galleries 4.0 Banking halls 3.0 bars 5.0 Car parks 2.5 Classrooms 3.0 Churches 3.0 Computer labs 3.5 Dance halls 5.0 Factory workshop 5.0 Foundaries 20.0 Hotel bedrooms 2.0 Offices (general) 2.5 Offices (filing) 5.0 Private houses 1.5 Shops 4.0 Theatres (fixed seats) 4.0

If a bar should be designed with live load of 5.0 kN/m2 and if an average person is 80kg how many people are expected to be standing in one square metre of floor?

Force exerted by one person Number of people per m2

= 80 x 9.81 = 5000 / 785

= 785 N = 6.4 people/m2

equivalently if your house is designed with 1.5 kN/m2 and the total area was 22m2 how many people could you invite to a party? Force exerted by one person Number of people per m2 Total number of people at party = 785N = 1500 / 785 = 1.9 x 22 = 1.9 people/ m2 = 42 and a bit.

certain types of dancing can cause dynamic effects that increase the effect of load.

Calculating imposed roof loads. What you need to know: 1. Is access to the roof provided? (a load of adjacent floor area is required) 2. Predominant load is snow. which is dependant on geographical location height above sea level shape of roof wind that redistributes snow into drifts

Estimating ground snow loads in Canada. Info from Canadian Cryospheric Information Network Find worst case depth and multiply by density (kg/m3) and 9.81 Tables in National Building Code provide further details

In UK snow load varies from 0.3kN/m2 on south coast to 3.0kN/m2 in Scotland Calculating a snow load in Canada. National Building Code Part 4 4.1.7. S = Ss (Cb x Cw x Cs x Ca) + Sr

Snow load per m2 ground snow load in kPa (kN/m2) roof snow load factor = 0.8??? wind exposure factor slope factor accumulation factor associated rain load National Building Code of Canada appendix c for tables of climatic information

wind exposure factor is 1.0 but can be reduced to 0.75 or in exposed areas north of treeline to 0.5 if building is an exposed location and exposed on all sides no obstructions around building no obstructions on roof such as parapet snow cannot drift onto roof from adjacent surfaces

slope factor based on roof angle a and surface type. is 1.0 if a <= 30 is (70 - a)/40 when a> 30 is 0 if a > 70

if roof is a slippery surface (where snow and ice slide off) slope factor is 1.0 if a <= 15 is (60 - a)/40 when a > 15 is 0 if a > 60

accumulation factor is 1.0 except when for large flat roofs when 1.2 x [1-(30/l)2] but not less than 1.0 for roofs with wind factor = 1.0 1.6 x [1-(120/l)2] but not less than 1.0 for roofs with wind factor = 0.75 or 0.5 w = smaller plan dimension L = larger plan dimension and l is 2 x w - ( w2/L) in metres

can be assigned other values when: roof shapes are arched, curved or domes snow loads in valleys snow drifts from another roof projections on adjacent roofs snow sliding or drainage from adjacent roofs

Theres more: in reality full and partial loading has to be considered In addition to the load calculation above roofs of slope less than 15 and arched or curved roofsmust be designed with accumulation factor 1.0 on one portion while half that load is applied to the remainder .

Calculate snow load on this roof structure What is the snow load per metre length of truss? What is the total snow load on one roof truss? What is the load per metre on the supporting wall? Assume that loads from trusses are evenly distributed

Calculate snow load for Halifax S ground snow Halifax = 1.7 snow load factor = 0.8 wind exposure factor = 1.0 slope factor = (70 - 40) / 40 = 0.75 accumulation factor = 1.0 rain load Halifax = 0.5 S = 1.7 x (0.8 x 1 x 0.75 x 1) + 0.5 S = 1.52kN/m2

S = Ss (Cb x Cw x Cs x Ca) + Sr
Snow load per m2 ground snow load in kPa (kN/m2) roof snow load factor = 0.8??? wind exposure factor slope factor accumulation factor associated rain load

Trusses are at 0.6m centres So snow load per metre length of truss is: 0.6 x 1.52 = 0.9kN/m Note load is vertical so 1m dimension is measured horzontally For 7m truss load is 7 x 0.9 = 6.4 kN

Load per m on wall = 1.52 x 3.5 = 5.32 kN/m

Wind loads act normal (or perpendicular) to building surfaces winds can cause pressure or suction. For this reason building structures must resist horizontal forces as well as vertical forces. In addition some light weight structures can be subject to uplift forces from the wind so need to be adequately held down. Wind loads like snow loads vary depending on: geographic location degree of exposure building height and size building shape wind direction in relations to structure positive or negative pressures in the building

Faster moving air creates lower pressure (bernoulli effect) as in plane wings. The same principle causes forces to act on building surfaces.

Structure for resisting wind loads

These principles should be well understood by now if not Look at: Francis Ching. Building Construction Illustrated Edward Allen. Architects Studio Companion

For structural design it is often necessary to consider several load cases due to the wind blowing from different directions. Designing a building in Halifax calculating wind loads. National Building Code of Canada Part 4 4.1.8. p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

external pressure acting statically and normal to surface reference velocity pressure exposure factor gust effect factor external pressure coefficient

National Building Code of Canada appendix c for tables of climatic information

net pressure on a surface is the difference between internal and external similar to external pressure internal pressure is calculated according to the NBC p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp

internal pressure acting statically and normal to surface reference velocity pressure exposure factor gust effect factor internal pressure coefficient

reference velocty pressure three are shown in table 1 in 10, 1in 30, 1in 100 these are probabilities of pressure occuring so 1 in 10 is used for cladding and stuctural design for vibration and deflection 1 in 30 for structural strength post - disaster buldings use the 1 in 100 pressure values. exposure factor exposure increase with height height m > 0 and <=6 > 6 and <=12 > 12 and <=20 > 20 and <=30 > 30 and <=44 > 44 and <=64 and so on more heights given in nbc exposure factor 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

gust factor 1.0 or 2.0 for internal pressures to be found somewhere in the 500 pages of appendix A!! well use 1.0 for now. 2.0 for the building as a whole and main structural members 2.5 for small elements

external and internal pressure coefficients again appendix A well use 1.0 for now.

Forces due to wind on simple building external pressure p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp 1 in 30 year Pressure Halifax = 0.52 kPa (kN/m2) Walls below 6m so exposure factor is 0.9 Gust factor = 2.0 external and 1.0 internal Pressure coefficient = 1.0 external p = 0.52 x 0.9 x 2.0 x 1.0 = 0.936 kN/m2 internal p = 0.52 x 0.9 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 0.468 kN/m2 so 0.936 - 0.468 = 0.468 kN/m2 acting normal to vertical surfaces windward and 0.936 + 0.468 = 1.4kN/m2 leeward

Forces due to wind on simple building external pressure p = q x Ce x Cg x Cp 1 in 30 year Pressure Halifax = 0.52 kPa (kN/m2) Roof above 6m so exposure factor is 1.0 Gust factor = 2.0 external and 1.0 internal Pressure coefficient = 1.0 external p = 0.52 x 1.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 = 1.04 kN/m2 internal p = 0.52 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 = 0.52 kN/m2 1.04 kN/m2 acting normal to vertical surfaces at roof level normal to roof 1.04 x Sin(40) = 0.67 windward = 0.67 - 0.52 = 0.15 kN/m2 leeward = 0.67 + 0.52 = 1.19(suction)

Next up: A couple of other load types (to know about) Uniform and point loads Safety factors Calculating load on beams Load paths Pin Jointed structures

A couple of other load types (to know about) Uniform and point loads Safety factors Calculating load on beams Load paths

Hydrostatic pressure loads from soils and liquids Increases linearly with depth.

Application of safety factors to loads Loads discussed are realistic estimates of loads or characteristic loads when checking ultimate strength characteristic loads are increased by multiplying by a safety factor. The result is the design load. Safety factors load combination dead and imposed dead and wind dead, imposed and wind dead 1.4 or 1.0 1.4 or 1.0 1.2 imposed 1.6 1.2 wind 1.4 1.2

imposed roof

For example to obtain the maximum compressive design in the support at B two load combinations should be checked and the larger value used

wind imposed floor

1.4 x dead + 1.6 imposed or

dead load

1.2 x dead + 1.2 x imposed + 1.2 wind to obtain maximum tensile design load in the support at A we need to minimise the effect of the dead and imposed loads by using 1.0 x dead + 1.4 x wind

Point load (kN)

Uniformly distributed load (kN/m)

Calculating loads on beams Example Building type - office Floor construction = 4.11kN/m2 Perimeter wall construction = 4.77kN/m2 self weight of beams = 0.6 kN/m safety factors are 1.4 for dead load and 1.6 for live load to find design load floor wall beams imposed 1.4 x 4.11 1.4 x 4.77 1.4 x 0.6 1.6 x 2.5 design load kN/m2 5.75 6.68 0.84 4.00 B6

total design floor load = 5.75 + 4.00 = 9.75kN/m2

Beam B1 (8m span) supports a total width of 6m load from floor = 9.75 x 6 self weight of beam design UDL = 58.50kN/m = 0.84 kN/m = 59.34 kN/m

symmetry indicates reactions will be equal reaction = (59.34 x 8) / 2 = 237.4 kN beam B2 is the same as B1

Beam B3 suports a 3m width of floor plus the perimeter wall Load from floor = 3 x 9.75 load from wall self weight of beam total design UDL = 29.25 kN/m = 6.68kN/m = 0.86kN/m = 36.79kN/m

symmetry indicates reactions will be equal reaction = (36.9 x 8) /2 = 147.6kN

B6

Beam B4 has same UDL as B1 and B2 but span is 6m

B6

Beam B6 Supports perimeter wall and a point load from the reaction of B2. Load from wall self weight of beam design UDL design point load Reaction from symmetry = ((7.54 x 12) + 237.4) / 2 = 163.9kN = 6.68kN/m = 0.86kN/m = 7.54kN/m = 237.4kN

Now work out reactions for B5

Load paths

Working through load path for a simple sign.