Project GUISE Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples

Chris Field and David Beams University of Texas at Tyler 2005, David M. Beams Introduction: An electric potential difference (voltage) is created between two dissimilar metals when they are brought into contact; this phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect. The voltage is proportional to the absolute temperature at the junction between the metals and is dependent upon the metals in contact. A thermocouple is a temperature-sensing device constructed from wires of two dissimilar metals brought together at a point junction. Fig. 1 shows a thermocouple composed of metals A and B whose output voltage VO is the potential difference between the metals VAB at the junction temperature Tj. Metal A Junction
+ VAB(Tj ) _

+ VO -

Metal B Fig. 1. A thermocouple formed by the connection of two dissimilar metals. In practice the voltage VO cannot be directly measured. Connecting a measurement instrument to the thermocouples terminals introduces two new junctions whose thermocouple voltages appear in series with the thermocouple voltage VAB(Tj), producing an output voltage VO'. This is shown in Fig. 2 where a measurement instrument (voltmeter) with input terminals composed of Metal C is connected to the thermocouple. Metal A + VAB ( Tj ) Metal B + VBC ( Ta ) VAC ( Ta ) + Metal C Measurement Instrument Metal C + VO ' -

Junction

Fig. 2. Additional thermocouple junctions are produced by connection of a measurement instrument to a thermocouple. The voltage registered by the measurement instrument VO' is given by:
V O ' = V AB T j + V BC (Ta ) V AC (Ta )

( )

(1)

where: Tj is the temperature of the junction of thermocouple A-B; Ta is the ambient temperature of the measurement instrument; VBC(Ta) is the potential difference of metal B with respect to metal C at Ta; VAC(Ta) is the potential difference of metal A with respect to metal C at Ta; VAB(Tj) is the potential difference of metal A with respect to metal B at Tj.

Accurate measurement of Tj with a thermocouple requires compensation for the thermocouple voltages of the additional junctions of Fig. 2. One method (shown in Fig. 3) places a second thermocouple of the same type in series with the original thermocouple. The second thermocouple junction is held at a constant reference temperature Tref. Addition of the second thermocouple makes the composition of both connections to the measurement instrument identical and their thermocouple voltages are therefore selfcanceling. Metal A + V (Tj) AB _ Metal B Metal B V (Tref ) AB _ + Metal A VAC (Ta) + _ VAC (Ta) + _ Metal C Measurement Instrument Metal C + VO ' -

Fig. 3. Use of a second thermocouple at a constant reference temperature to compensate for the thermocouple voltages developed at the terminals of the measurement instrument. The voltage VO' in Fig. 3 is given by:
V O ' = V AC (Ta ) V AB (Tref ) + V AB T j V AC (Ta ) = V AB T j V AB (Tref

( )

( )

(2)

The temperature of the reference thermocouple junction is commonly 0C, established by immersion in a slurry of water and ice. The reference junction is therefore commonly known as a cold junction and the method of Fig. 3 is called cold-junction compensation. Maintaining a reference temperature environment for the second thermocouple is impractical for many applications. Another method of compensation requiring neither the reference thermocouple nor the reference-temperature environment is shown in Fig. 4. This technique depends upon a voltage source whose output is a function of the ambient temperature. VAC(Ta) _ + Metal C _ + VCJ(Ta) + VO ' -

Metal A Junction Metal B + V ( ) _ AB Tj _ + VBC(Ta)

Fig. 4. Electronic thermocouple compensation. The voltage VO' in Fig. 4 is given by:

VO ' = VCJ (Ta ) + VBC (Ta ) + VAB (T j ) VAC (Ta )

(3)

where VCJ(Ta) is the voltage produced by the temperature-dependent voltage source at ambient temperature Ta. Eq. (3) may be simplified by invoking the law of intermediate metals which states that introduction of a third metal into the circuit will have no effect upon the voltage produced as long as the junctions of the

third metal with the other two are at the same temperature. Application of the law of intermediate metals gives:

VBC (Ta ) VAC (Ta ) = VBA (Ta ) = VAB (Ta )

Thus Eq. (4) may be used to re-write Eq. (3):

(4)

VO ' = VCJ (Ta ) + VAB (T j ) VAB (Ta )

Assuming VCJ(Ta) = VAB(Ta) VAB(Tref) in Eq. (5) gives:

(5)

VO ' = VAB (T j ) VAB (Tref )

(6)

Thus the output voltage of the thermocouple with electronic compensation method of Fig. 4 is the same as the cold-junction compensation method of Fig. 3. The method of Fig. 4 is known as electronic coldjunction compensation. Electronic cold-junction compensation requires that VCJ(Ta) have the same temperature coefficient as the thermocouple and be zero when the ambient temperature is Tref. An implementation of this method is available in the LT1025 Thermocouple Cold Junction Compensator (Linear Technology Corp., Milpitas, CA). A diagram of the LT1025 is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Diagram of LT1025 Cold Junction Compensator. The LT1025 consists chiefly of a temperature-dependent voltage source, a buffer amplifier, and a resistive voltage divider. The voltage source has a nominal output of 10 mV C1 with bow correction to compensate for the slight degree of nonlinearity in thermocouple voltages with respect to temperature. This voltage is applied to a resistive voltage divider with multiple taps, providing outputs with temperature coefficients ranging from 60.9V C1 to 6.0V C1, matching the temperature coefficients of a number of types of thermocouples in common use. (Thermocouple types are commonly represented by single-letter designations, as shown in Fig. 5). Fig. 6 shows a typical application of the LT1025. (The pull-down resistor Rp and negative supply voltage V are required if the ambient temperature of the measurement instrument falls below 0C but may otherwise be omitted).

Fig. 6. Typical application of the LT1025 Electronic Cold-Junction Compensator. The nominal output voltage of the circuit of Fig. 6 is:
R VO = 1 + f V TC T j Tref Ri

(7)

where VTC(Tj) is the thermocouple voltage at Tj and Tref is 0C. A number of standard types of thermocouples are available. Table 1 lists several types of commonly-used thermocouples and associated thermocouple voltages (referenced to 0C) at certain temperatures. Table 1. Output voltages (mV) vs. temperature for commonly-used thermocouples referenced to 0 C. The positive metal is listed first. Compositions of thermocouple alloys are given below. [1] Type T Temperature C -150 -100 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100 150 Copper + Constantan -4.648 -3.379 -1.819 -0.94 0 0.992 2.036 3.132 4.279 6.704 Type E Chromel + Constantan -7.279 -5.237 -2.787 -1.432 0 1.495 3.048 4.657 6.319 9.789 Type J Iron + Constantan -6.5 -4.633 -2.431 -1.239 0 1.277 2.585 3.918 5.269 8.01 Type K Chromel + Alumel -4.913 -3.554 -1.889 -0.968 0 1 2.023 3.059 4.096 6.138 Type S Platinum + Platinum-10% Rhodium -0.236 -0.127 0 0.143 0.299 0.467 0.646 1.029 Type N Nicosil + Nisil -1.53 -1.222 -0.698 -0.368 0 0.402 0.836 1.297 1.785 2.826

Alumel: 94% nickel, 3% manganese, 2% aluminum, 1% silicon Chromel: 90% nickel, 10% chromium Constantan: 55% copper, 45% nickel Nicosil: 84% nickel, 14% chromium, 1.5% silicon Nisil: 95% nickel, 4.5% silicon, 0.1% magnesium

Amplifiers for thermocouples: Thermocouples are capable of measurement of temperature over wider ranges than other available temperature-measurement devices (e.g., thermistors, solid-state temperature

sensors, resistance temperature detectors). The useful range of a Type T (copper-constantan) thermocouple, for example, extends from below 180 C to +260 C. Other types of thermocouples (e.g., Type K) are useful to temperatures exceeding +1000 C. Thermocouples have two significant drawbacks, however. The necessity of compensation for the thermoelectric junctions formed when a thermocouple is connected to a measurement instrument has already been mentioned. In addition, as can be seen from Table 1, the output voltages of thermocouples are in the millivolt range, requiring high-gain amplification for reasonable output voltages. For example, the change in the thermoelectric voltage of a Type T thermocouple from 0C to +100 C is 4.279mV; mapping this voltage to the 0 +5.0V range of a typical A/D converter would require a gain of almost 1200. The drift problems of high-gain dc-coupled amplifiers, however, make them difficult to use with thermocouples.

Fig. 7. Thermocouple amplifier circuit showing chopper stabilization. shown at points within the circuit indicated by arrows.

Representative waveforms are

Figure 7 shows a means to achieve the high amplifier gain required for thermocouple applications without the problems associated with dc-coupled amplifiers. A precision thermocouple amplifier with low-tomoderate gain amplifies the thermocouple voltage to a level VT. An analog switch chops this signal to produce a square wave of amplitude VT with average value VT/2 (waveform 1 above). Passage of the signal through the first RC section removes the average dc voltage to leave a square wave with levels VT/2 (waveform 2). A high-gain amplifier amplifies the square-wave signal by A but also introduces dc offset voltage Voff (waveform 3). Passage through the second RC section removes the dc offset, leaving an output which is a square wave of AVT with zero dc offset (waveform 4). Errors due to Voff are eliminated by this method known as chopper stabilization. The output voltage of the circuit of Fig. 7 is a square wave with no dc component and amplitude proportional to the thermocouple voltage. Three possible methods for converting this square wave to a dc value are shown in Fig. 8 below.

0 VA (Fig. 7) Full-wave rectifier

AVT /2 Low-pass filter

Oscillator VA (Fig. 7) A Vo B 0

AVT /2

Oscillator 0

AVT /2 Low-pass filter (c)

Low-pass filter (b)

A Vo VA (Fig. 7) -1 B

Vo

(a)

Fig. 8. Some possible methods of converting the square wave output of the amplifier of Fig. 7 into a dc level. The waveforms shown are those present at the inputs of the low-pass filters. Figure 8(a) employs a precision full-wave rectifier and low-pass filter. The analog switches in Figs. 8(b) and 8(c) are controlled by the oscillator of Fig. 7 to perform synchronous rectification. Fig. 8(b) is a halfwave synchronous rectifier; Fig. 8(c) uses an inverting amplifier with the analog switches to form a fullwave synchronous rectifier. (Figs. 8(b) and (c) are synchronous rectifiers because their switches are actuated at the same frequency as the chopper switch. Fig. 8(a) does not require synchronization with the chopper switch and is therefore an asynchronous rectifier). The nominal dc output voltage Vo of Figs. 8(a) and (c) is AVT/2; the dc output voltage of Fig. 8(b) is AVT/4. The low-pass filters of Figs. 8(a) and (c) are required for removing brief transients in the rectifier output voltages which occur as the square wave changes polarities. The low-pass filter of Fig. 8(b) must extract the dc component of a square wave; a greater degree of filtering is required in Fig. 8(b) than in Figs. 8(a) or (c). The choice of the asynchronous precision full-wave rectifier or a synchronous rectifier depends upon the application. The asynchronous precision full-wave rectifier may be used only if VT is unipolar (always positive or always negative). The square-wave output of the amplifier with a thermocouple amplifier output voltage of VT will have the same peak-to-peak value but inverted in phase by comparison with a thermocouple amplifier output voltage of +VT. The asynchronous full-wave rectifier is insensitive to phase and therefore produces the same dc output voltage for thermocouple amplifier voltages of +VT and VT. The asynchronous full-wave rectifier may be used only for designs in which the polarity of VT is always known.

Design of a thermocouple thermometer with Project GUISE Design a thermocouple thermometer with a chopper-stabilized amplifier using the spreadsheet GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers.xls. The temperature range and available thermocouple types will be made known. Design includes the following steps: 1. Selection of thermocouple type: Start Excel and open the GUISE Design Worksheet spreadsheet. Fill in the thermocouple type (J, K, T, or E) in the appropriate box in the page named Design worksheet. The thermocouple-type entry is caseinsensitive. Entries other than J, K, or T are treated as type E.
Thermocouple type: Thermocouple (J, K, T, E) Thermocouple V T vs. T polynomial coefficients

K -1.0321E-07 2.7707E-05 3.9247E-02 -8.7364E-03 Cubic (T 3) Quadratic (T 2) Linear (T 1) Constant (T 0)

The worksheet automatically computes the coefficients a3a0 of the polynomial which relates the thermocouple voltage VTC in mV to junction temperature Tj and reference (cold-junction) temperature Tref (assumed to be 0 C):
V TC = a 3 T j Tref

)3 + a 2 (T j Tref )2 + a1 (T j Tref )+ a 0

(8)

2. Temperature range: Fill in the maximum and minimum operating temperatures of the thermometer. The worksheet computes the thermocouple voltage at maximum and minimum operating temperatures from Eq. (8). The worksheet also computes the amplified thermocouple voltages VT at both maximum and minimum temperatures.
Temperature scale Maximum temperature: Minimum temperature: Cold-junction temperature: V TC (maximum temperature) V TC (minimum temperature) TC amplifier gain V T (maximum temperature) V T (minimum temperature)

100 -100 0 3.813 -3.830 51 194.5 -195.3

C C C mV mV V/V mV mV

3. Amplifier gain: The design may use either or both ac/dc-coupled amplifiers of the Project GUISE hardware. Select appropriate gains for Amplifiers 0 and 1. (The gain of an amplifier should be set to 1 if it is not to be used). The spreadsheet computes the peak-to-peak output of the chopper-stabilized amplifier at both the maximum and minimum operating temperature.
Amplifier Amplifier 0 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) Amplifier 1 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) Amplifier output (T max) Amplifier output (T min)

50 1 9.72 9.77

V/V V/V Vpp Vpp

The worksheet displays a warning if the peak-to-peak voltage exceeds the maximal peak-to-peak output voltage swing of the amplifier:
Amplifier Amplifier 0 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 50 V/V Amplifier 1 gain (1, 5, 10, 50) 10 V/V Amplifier output (T max) 28.00 Vpp Amplifier output (T min) 28.00 Vpp Amplfier output voltage exceeds peak-to-peak range

4. Rectifier selection: Select a rectifier type from the available types. The worksheet will show the dc output of the low-pass filter at the temperature extremes.

Available rectifier types Precision full-wave rectifier 1 2 3 Rectifier Rectifier type (1-3) Rectifier conversion gain 3 0.5 Half-wave synchronous rectifier Full-wave synchronous rectifier

0.5 0.25 0.5

Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp) Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp) Conversion gain, V o (dc) / V in (pp)

V/V

Low-pass filter DC output at max temperature DC output at min temperature

4.861 -4.884

V V

5.0 -5.0

Maximal ADC input voltage, V Minimal ADC input voltage, V

5. Calibration coefficients: Add a quadratic polynomial to the calibration graph on the Calibration Curve Worksheet page of the spreadsheet.
Thermocouple calibration curve T = 3E-08V + 20.335V + 0.2265 R = 0.9999 Temperature, C 150 Poly. (Temperature, C)
2 2

100

Temperature, C _

50

-50

-100

-150 -6.000

-4.000

-2.000

0.000 DC output voltage, V

2.000

4.000

6.000

Fig. 9. Calibration curve for a thermometer using the Project GUISE instrumentation and a type K thermocouple designed for an operating range of 100C to +100C. Construction of the thermocouple thermometer: Construct the circuit of Fig. 10 below. The amplifier may be either comprised of either Amplifier 0 or Amplifier 1 or both. The phase-sensitive demodulator may be a half-wave synchronous rectifier (as in

Fig. 8(b) above) of a full-wave synchronous rectifier (as in Fig. 8(c) above, or implemented with a doublepole, double throw analog switch and a differential amplifier).

Fig. 9. Block-diagram form of the thermocouple thermometer. Launch LabVIEW and open the Project GUISE virtual instrument program. Select the proper thermocouple from the pull-down menu and set the power connection of the instrumentation amplifier and thermocouple amplifier to Non-Isolated. Set the amplifier gain to your design value. Enter calibration coefficients computed from the GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers into the appropriate places on the Project GUISE virtual instrument panel. Set the Quadrature Oscillator frequency to 1kHz. Start the Project GUISE virtual instrument. Apply 15V to the Project GUISE hardware. Use an oscilloscope to examine the waveforms at the points indicated in Fig. 9; record the observed waveforms. Use a reference thermometer to measure temperature and compare the waveforms VT and AVT with the expected waveforms at three temperatures (ambient temperature, elevated temperature, and the temperature of ice and water in equilibrium). Compare the readings of the thermometer with a reference thermometer at these known temperatures. From your measurements, compute the temperature coefficient of the thermocouple (in V/). Submit the following: the Project GUISE Design Worksheet for Thermocouple Thermometers with your values; the connection diagram of the Project GUISE instrument; copies of waveforms VT and AVT at the three temperatures; a comparison of the readings of the reference thermometer and the Project GUISE instrument at the three temperatures; your estimate of the temperature coefficient of the thermocouple and a comparison with the published value. References: [1] Holman, J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 7th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2001, p. 371.