GRASP

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:
Learning Modules in the Modeling and Analysis of Framed Structures using GRASP
Andres Winston C. Oreta

Department of Civil Engineering De La Salle University Manila, Philippines
This project was funded by the University Research Coordination Office (URCO)
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines 2004
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:

Learning Modules in the Modeling and Analysis of Framed Structures Using GRASP
CONTENTS
Preface 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Understanding Structural Analysis A Tour of GRASP Loading Continuous Beams Pattern Loading in Multistory Frames Lateral Forces in Buildings Pinned and Fixed Support Conditions Soil Effects on Foundations Support Settlements Truss Analysis Special Modeling Issues About the Author
PREFACE
An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of ten modules about modeling and analysis of framed structures in 2D is presented. Each module focuses on a specific issue on structural modeling and analysis which is discussed with the aid of graphical and tabular results obtained from the 2D structural analysis software, GRASP. The set of learning modules is not a substitute to a textbook on structural analysis. The theory is not presented. No derivations or equations can be found. The student or reader must refer to the textbooks for definitions, equations and techniques. Each chapter begins with background information and a case study. The reader explores the issues raised in the case study through the Things to Do activities or by simply observing and analyzing the Observation and graphical and tabular results presented in the module. Included in the modules are Things to Try exercises and Things to Ponder comments on the analysis and design of structures. Using the set of learning modules, the reader or student with the aid of a structural analysis software like GRASP discovers important insights on the response and behavior of structures due to variations in the parameters of the model and configurations of the structure, changes in member and material properties, and also changes in the restraint and loading conditions. Through the graphical results, the student can visualize the phenomena and this would accelerate his understanding of concepts through the experience of seeing and interpreting solutions to various structural modeling and analysis problems. The implication and relevance of the case study to the safe and reliable design of structures are also discussed. Each chapter ends with a set of references and reading materials related to the issue presented in the module. The student is encouraged to perform the Things to Try exercises which are related to the case study. Since GRASP provides direct feedback graphically and numerically, the student can explore and have fun by simple modification of the configuration of the structural model or loading condition and will expand his knowledge and understanding about modeling, analysis and design of framed structures.
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 1
CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering project. The structural design process of a typical structural engineering project may be divided in to three phases as shown in Figure 1.1. The conceptual design phase
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Architectural Functional Plans Structural System Trial Sections Modeling Revise Sections
Final Design Detailing

Connection Design
Yes
Acceptable
No
Analysis
MODELING & ANALYSIS
Member Design
DESIGN & DETAILING
Figure 1.1 The Structural Design Process (ACECOMS ISCAAD Workshop Notes)
usually involves the formulation of the functional requirements of the proposed structure, the preparation of the general layout and dimensions of the structures, and the consideration of the possible types of structural system to be used. In the modeling and analysis phase, a preliminary design of the structure is proposed using trial sections. A model of the structure is developed and the loads that may act on the structure are estimated. Structural analysis of the model is now of the structural performed to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various points of the structure. The results analysis are used in design and detailing phase where the structural members are designed to satisfy safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised and a re-analysis of the model of the structure is carried out until all safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied. ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE To determine the behavior and performance of a real structure, the structure must be load tested. Testing and measurement of the real structure can only be done after the structure has been built. However, load testing is not possible at the planning and design stage of a new structure. Real structures can not be analyzed. We need to model the structure and analyze the model of the structure to determine approximately the response and behavior of the real structure due to external loads and excitation (Figure 1.2). The response quantities of the model which consists of internal forces and displacements are used in designing the members of the real structure. An analytical model is a simplified representation of a real structure. In developing a model of a structure, certain idealizations about the real structure must be made. How the members are supported and connected have to be represented by simple models. Loads expected to occur during the lifespan of the structure have to be estimated and applied to the model. The main objective
in modeling a structure is that the characteristics of the real structure must be represented as accurately as practically possible by a mathematical model so that the structural response predicted from the analysis of the model using computer tools may be relevant to the real structure. It is therefore imperative that the model represents the real structure with an appropriate likeness to capture the desired response.
EXCITATION
Loads Vibration Settlements Thermal Changes
RESPONSE
Stresses Strains Displacements Stress Resultants Support Reactions
Structural Model
STRUCTURE
Figure 1.2 Structural Analysis
The process of modeling is more of an art than a science. The engineer, through his practical experience and insight, must convert the real structure to an appropriate model (Figure 1.3) by making simplifying assumptions with regards to the type of structural model (3D or 2D), level of modeling (global or local), choice of model type (frame, grid, membrane, plate or solid), choice of elements (line, plate or solid), size and number of elements, type of restrains, properties of members and type of loads and excitations. Modeling of Structures in 2D If all the members of a structure and the loads acting on the structure lie on a single plane, the structure is modeled as a plane or two-dimensional (2D)
(a) Real Structure
(b) Solid Model
(c) 3D Plate-Frame
(d) 3D Frame
(e) 2D Frame
Figure 1.3 Various Ways of Modeling a Structure (Anwar 2000)
structure. Figure 1.4 shows two-dimensional models of plane structures. In these models, the members are represented as line elements with the line element corresponding to the centroid of the member. Beams are horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads distributed and concentrated loads. Beams resist external forces through bending moment and shear forces. Trusses are structural members made by assembling short, straight members connected by smooth pins at the joints and primarily designed to carry tensile and compressive axial forces. The loads in a truss are assumed to act at the joints which connect the members. Frames are composed of beams and columns that are either pinned or fixed connected at the joints. When the joints connecting the horizontal and vertical elements are fixed or rigid, the structure is said to be a rigid frame. The forces developed internally in a frame member consist of axial force, shear force and bending moment.
(a) Beam
(b) Plane Truss
(c) Plane Frame
Figure 1.4 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures
Structures, in general, are three-dimensional. However, there are many actual three-dimensional (3D) structures which can be divided into planar or twodimensional (2D) structures to simplify the analysis. A continuous bridge (Figure 1.5) is one example of a structure which can be modeled The by the the as a plane deck and be
Figure 1.5 Continuous Bridge
(http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden)
structure. supported carried by
bridge piers may
foundations and the traffic loads deck considered to lie on one plane and the bridge deck can be modeled as a beam. The truss of a bridge can be analyzed as a 2D structure (Figure 1.6). The bridge deck rests on beams called as stringers, which are then supported by floor
beams. The floor beams are connected at their ends to the joints on the bottom panels of the two longitudinal trusses. Thus, the weights of the vehicles, bridge deck, stringers and beams are transmitted to the supporting trusses at their joints; the trusses, in turn, transfer the load to the
Figure 1.6 Truss Bridge
foundation. Since the truss and the applied loads at the joints of the truss lie on one plane, the longitudinal truss can be treated as a plane truss. A multistory building (Figure 1.7) which consists of interconnected beams, columns, walls and footings may be modeled as a system consisting of several rigid plane frames (Figure 1.8). At each story of a building, the floor slab rests on floor beams, which transfer the floor loads including the weight of the slab and beams to the girders of the rigid frames. The loads are then transferred from the girders to the columns and then finally to the foundation. Since the applied loads and the rigid frame consisting of the girders, columns and foundations all lie on one plane, each frame can be analyzed separately as a plane structure. Buildings system
Figure 1.7 Multistory Building
which can
are ideally
highly be
symmetrical in plan and framing represented as a system of 2D frames.
Frame F1 F1 F2 F1 F2
Frame F2
F1 3D Building made from F1 and F2
Building Plan
Figure 1.8 A 3D Building as a System of Two Typical 2D Frames
Although many three-dimensional structures can be subdivided into plane structures for the purpose of 2D structural analysis, some structures which are
Figure 1.9 Space Structures (a) Tower (b) Dome

referred to as space structures (Figure 1.9) such as domes, transmission towers, and highly unsymmetrical and irregular buildings are difficult to simplify into plane structures because of the complexity of the arrangement of the structural elements. A three-dimensional modeling and analysis has to be carried out for these types of structures to accurately predict their behavior. Modeling the Supports and Joints One of the most critical
aspects in the modeling of a structure is the representation of the restraint conditions at the supports or at the joints. Depending on the type of restraint has to expected decide model in on to the what use
Figure 1.10 Various Models for Supports
actual structure, the engineer appropriate
(Figure 1.10). The restraint conditions can be any of the following:
o Roller - relative rotations at the joint and only translation parallel to the plane of the roller are allowed o Pinned - relative rotations at the joint are allowed but no translations o Fixed or Rigid - rotation and translation are not allowed o Flexible - spring models used to represent the relative stiffness of the joint
Modeling the External Loads In analyzing or designing a structure, it is necessary to determine the external forces that are expected to occur during its design life. Depending on the type of structure being analyzed, the following loads may have to be considered: (a) Dead loads are forces acting vertically downward that represent the weight of the structure and other permanent or fixed objects. (b) Live loads are vertical forces that may or may not be present on the structure at any given time. These loads are movable and can be applied anywhere on the structure. Occupancy loads in buildings and truck loading are examples of live loads. (c) Wind loads are cause by the pressure or suction due to wind at a point on a structure. These loads depend on various factors such as wind velocity, dimensions and orientation of the structure and geographical location of the structure. (d) Earthquake loads are developed when the structure vibrates due to ground excitation. Their magnitude depends on the type of ground accelerations, mass and stiffness of the structure, soil properties and location of structure with respect to seismic faults. (e) Other Environmental loads such as temperature changes, differential settlement of the foundation, vehicle loads, hydrostatic forces, soil pressure, etc. have to be considered depending on the type of the structure. The various loads mentioned are determined approximately. In most cases, these forces are modeled into two types of loads: (a) Nodal loads these are loads applied at the ends of the members or nodes. The loads can be vertical or horizontal forces or moments. (b) Member loads these loads are applied directly on the members or between the ends of the members. Various models of member loads are shown in (Figure 1.11) :
(1) Point or concentrated load (2) Distributed load (rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal) (3) Concentrated moment or couple (4) Temperature
Figure 1.11 Types of Member Loads
Load Combinations A great number of different types of loadings act on a structure. These loads do not act simultaneously on the structure. When these forces occur at the same time, the design loads are usually determined using load combinations. The combination which results to the worst condition is used in design. Load factors are multiplied on the basic loads and these factors depend on the design method being used. The basic load combinations can be found in the code. Examples of combination of factored loads from the NSCP 2001 Section 203.3, when Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is used, are: o 1.4 DL o 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL + 0.5 Lr o 0.9 DL (1.0 EQ or 1.3 W) On the other hand, when the Strength Design for concrete is used, NSCP 2001 Section 409.3 provides these load combinations: o 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL o 0.75 (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL + 1.7 W)
o 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ In these equations, the following notations were used: DL = dead load, LL = live load, Lr = roof live load, W = wind load and EQ = earthquake load. Results of Structural Analysis The main objective of structural analysis is to determine the behavior and response of the model of a structure. Various analytical methods are available from approximate methods such as slope-deflection or moment distribution methods to the more refined finite element methods. The important structural response quantities that any structural analysis procedure must produce are: o Displacements at the nodes o Shear forces at various sections (Figure 1.12) o Bending moments at various sections (Figure 1.13) o Axial forces at the ends of members (Figure 1.14) o Reactions at the supports The results of the structural analysis are usually presented in tabular or graphical form (Figure 1.15). The engineer must be familiar with the sign convention used so that he can properly interpret the results. These results are used in the structural design of members assuring that safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes are satisfied.
Figure 1.12 Shear Force
Figure 1.13 Bending Moment
Figure 1.14 Axial Force
Figure 1.15 Moment Diagram
Using the Computer as a Learning Tool Software for structural analysis are now available commercially from simple to more sophisticated software and affordable to expensive ones (e.g. MicroFEAP, GRASP, BATS, STAAD, ETABS, SAP2000). Some textbooks in structural analysis (e.g., Kassimali 1999, Hibbeler 2000) also contain CD-ROM with software. In this notes, GRASP, a user-friendly software is introduced for twodimensional analysis of framed structures to enhance the learning and understanding of structural analysis. An advantage of using structural analysis software is that more complex and larger structures may be analyzed and designed by the students, which is not possible in the regular class in structural analysis where the calculator or general math solvers are used by students in their calculations. Another advantage of using software, especially those with graphics, is that students can visualize the behavior of complex systems. The software can be used to simulate a variety of structural and loading configurations and to determine cause and effect relationships between loading and various structural parameters, thereby increasing the students understanding on the behavior of structures. This develops the students feel to real life problems.
An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of a set of modules are presented in the succeeding chapters. Each module focuses on a structural analysis issue which is presented through a case study. Included in the modules are hands-on exercises and problems on two-dimensional analysis of framed structures (beams, trusses and rigid frames). Using the set of learning modules, the student with the aid of GRASP discovers the behavior of structures due to variations in the parameters of the model and configurations of the structure, changes in member and material properties, and also changes in the restraint and loading conditions. Through the graphical results, students can visualize the phenomena and this would accelerate their understanding of concepts through the experience of seeing and interpreting solutions to many different problems. The set of learning modules is not a substitute to a textbook on structural analysis. The theory will not be presented. No derivations or equations can be found. The student must refer to the textbooks for definitions, equations and techniques. Each module will focus on a specific issue. A case study on the issue will be presented and walk through. The student by observing the graphical results and by interpreting the numerical output discovers important insight and can make conclusions. The implication and relevance of the structural analysis issue to the safe and reliable design of structures are also discussed. The module ends with a similar or related problem which the student has to solve using GRASP. Since GRASP provides direct feedback graphically and numerically, the student can explore and have fun by simple modification of the configuration of the structural model or loading condition and will discover new knowledge related to the structural analysis issue of the module. CASE STUDY: How do I represent a real structure as a line model? Structures can be modeled using line elements to represent the members. In modeling the structure, locate the centroids of the members and draw the lines
with respect to these centroids. For the portal frame shown, draw the model of the structure by representing the members as line elements.
CASE STUDY 1 : Modeling a Portal Frame

Reference: GRASP Help (Step by Step Examples) or Users Manual (1997)
References ACECOMS (AIT, Thailand) and Superior Software Solutions (Pakistan), GRASP Version 1.0 Users Manual, 1997 Anwar, N. (2000). Structural Modeling, ACECOMS News & Views, Jan-Jun 2000, pp. 8-10, AIT, Bangkok, Thailand http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide Library Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis, 4th Edition, Chapter 1, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA Kassimali, A. (1999). Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, Chapters 1-2, Brooks-Cole Publishing Co., USA National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Chapter 2 and Sections 409, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapters 1-3, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 1
CHAPTER 2 A TOUR OF GRASP
INTRODUCING THE SOFTWARE GRASP stands for Graphical Rapid Analysis of Structures Program. It is a user-friendly software for two dimensional analysis of framed structures which includes beams, trusses and rigid frames. Especially developed for Windows, GRASP uses a Graphical User Interface(GUI) which provides an interactive, easy to use, graphical environment for modeling and analysis. GRASP is primarily based on a graphical means of interaction with the user and can provide direct feedback and effect of modifications. The major features of GRASP include: Modeling and analysis of multiple models in one file Presetting of default load cases and load factors Internal and automatic tracking of node numbers and member incidences Display the structural model at all times on the screen during analysis and superimposition of the analysis results on the model after analysis A Structure Wizard provides a step-by-step guideline for the generation of multistory structural models Supports SI, US and metric units and use of mixed units Apply loads on nodes and on members in multiple load cases Eight pre-defined types of cross-sections Set values of material properties Various restraint conditions including spring supports Apply member releases at the ends of members Diagram of results with values and tables View and print the analysis results for the full structure up to 20 sections for a member
CASE STUDY: How do you model and analyze a rigid frame using GRASP? In this example, you will model a two-story rigid frame shown in the figure. The frame will carry uniform dead and live loads which will be applied fully on the beams. Wind loads will also be applied at specified nodes. The basic loads will then be combined using the following load combination cases: o Dead Load (incl. Self Load) : 1.4 DL o Combined Dead and Live Loads : 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL o Combined Dead, Live and Wind Loads : 1.2 DL + 1.0 LL + 1.3 WL Things to Do Modeling and analysis using GRASP can be divided into five general steps. Follow the step-by-step procedure described by the figures for the following general steps. 1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters 2. Create geometry (in the figure assume dimensions are referred with respect to the centroids) 3. Apply basic loads 4. Define load combinations 5. Perfom analysis and view the results
wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m
6 kN
10 kN
Vertical Loading
Wind Loading
CASE STUDY 2
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m 1200 mm 100 mm
Frame geometry
300 mm
300 mm 300 mm
Column cross-section
Modulus of Elasticity = 21 kN/mm2 Unit Weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 11 x 10 -6/C
250 mm
Beam cross-section
1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters
Step 1-1 : Select units option from Options menu to specify the working unit. To fix the working unit for future use Customize option and select the system that you prefer.
Step 1-3: Select Structure => Materials and input material parameters. Change material properties of the default material if necessary. You may also add a new material by pressing Add Material. Step 1-2 : Select the main unit system (SI, Metric or US) and other related measurement parameters (m, cm, mm; kg, k Not ton) from the options as shown in the dialog box above.
2. Create geometry
Step 2-1: There are two ways of creating the geometry in GRASP. You may draw the model using the mouse and GRASP graphical tools or use the Structure Wizard. Let us use the second method for step by step and quick creation of typical building models. Select Structure => Frame => Structure Wizard.
Step 2-2: Select an appropriate typical frame based on bay width, story height and configuration. For this example, select type 2. If the frame that you want to model do belong to the four types, you can change the configuration of selected model later.
Step 2-3: Specify the number of bays (3) , number of stories (2) and typical values of bay width (3 m) and story height (4 m). You may also input the bay width (e.g., width = 4 m for bay 2) that is different from the default width.
Step 2-4: Select the type and specify the dimensions for a typical column.
Step 2-5: Select the type and specify the dimensions for a typical beam.
Step 2-6: Displaying the frame generated by Structure Wizard.
Step 2-7: To define the type of supports, select Structure => Nodal Restraints and click at the node where restraints will be defined. Select the type of restraint. Step 2-8: To display the dimension line between selected nodes, select Structure => Add Dimensions and click any two nodes and double click at a position where the dimension line will be displayed . To delete, select Del Dimensions and click each line.
Step 2-9: To view the Node and Member numbers or labels, select View => Node Numbers and Member Numbers.
Step 2-10: Here is the display of the frame with dimensions, member and node numbers. Observe that the height of the second story is 4.0 m. This must be changed to 3.0 m resulting to7.0 m as the total height of the frame.
Step 2-11: To change the coordinates of the top most nodes, go to Structure => Change Nodal Coordinates and then click the node and enter the new Y-coordinate (7 m)
Step 2-13: You may also view the outline of the members by selecting View => Member Outline. To remove the node numbers, member numbers and member outline, select View => Node Numbers, Member Numbers and Member Outline. Step 2-12: Display of the corrected model of the 2D frame.
3. Apply basic loads
Step 3-1: Let us first apply the uniform loads in the horizontal members. You may apply the loads one member at a time by simply clicking the specific member or to all horizontal members. Let us select all horizontal members. Select Edit => Select Member and click on all horizontal members while pressing the shift key. Note the change of color of the selected members.
Step 3-2: If you want to display only the horizontal members, select View => Members to Show => Horizontal. Let us now apply the Dead Load. Select Dead Load option from the load cases, combination and envelope list (rightmost-top).
Step 3-4: Press Add, select the appropriate member load and enter the magnitude of the load. Step 3-3: Select Loading => Member Loads and click on the selected members.
Step 3-5: Displaying the Dead Load on horizontal Step 3-6: Select Live Load option from the load cases, combination and envelope list members. (rightmost-top).
Step 3-7: Select Loading => Member Loads and click on the selected members. Press Add, select the appropriate member load and enter the magnitude of the load.
Step 3-8: Displaying the Live Load on horizontal members.
Step 3-9: To apply the Wind Load, let us add a load case. Select Loading => Add Load Case.
Step 3-10: Define the new load case Wind Load and select the option Basic Load Case.
Step 3-11: : Select Wind Load option from the load cases, combination and envelope list. Select Loading => Nodal Loads and click on the node where the loads will be applied.
Step 3-12: Input the magnitude and sign of the load. Follow the sign convention shown in the figures.To apply in opposite direction, use a negative value.
Step 3-13: Displaying the Wind Loads
4. Define load combinations
Step 4-2: Specify the name of the load and select Combination Load Case.
Step 4-1: Define load combinations by pressing Loading => Add Load Case.
Step 4-3: Input appropriate load factors for the defined load combination case.
Step 4-4 : Repeat the same steps (4-1 to 4-3) for the load combination case combining dead load and live load.
Step 4-5 : Repeat the same steps (4-1 to 4-3) for the load combination case combining dead load, 5. Analysis and Results
Step 5-1: Carry-out the analysis using Perform => Self Load Calculation and Analysis in the menu option.
Step 5-2: To display graphical results, select the load case or load combination first.
Step 5-3: Select the type of result from the menu option View => Bending Moment. Select View => Result Values if you want numerical values displayed in diagram.
Step 5-4 : Select the type of result from the menu option View => Shear Force.
Step 5-5 : Select the type of result from the menu option View => Axial Force.
Step 5-6 : Select the type of result from the menu option View => Reactions.
Step 5-7: You can view the nodal displacements by simply pointing the mouse at a node or the member results by pointing the mouse at a member.
Step 5-8: To view the displacements, select the type of result from the menu option View => Deflected Shape
Step 5-9: Double click on any member to display the detailed results and diagrams for that member.
Step 5-10: Display the results in tabular form using Tables.
Step 5-11: Prepare the report using File => Report Set-up.
Step 5-12: Select / Deselect the items to be included in the analysis report.
Step 5-13: Select the File => Print Preview Report to preview the analysis report.
Step 5-14: Select the File => Print Preview Report to preview member results
Step 5 -15: Select the File => Print Preview Report to view graphical results You may print a hard copy of the report by selecting File => Print Report.
GRASP Toolbar GRASP has a toolbar which provides shortcuts in using the software. The toolbar buttons may be used instead of the commands in the menu.
GRASP Help and Manual If you want a step-by-step guide on the use of GRASP, you may refer to the document published by ACECOMS (AIT, Thailand) and Superior Software Solutions (Pakistan), GRASP Version 1.0 Users Manual, 1997 or click on the Help button and detailed information of various topics can be found.
Things to Try : Test Your GRASP Skills. Analyze the following planar structures using GRASP and fill in the blanks. A. BEAM: The beam has a rectangular cross-section of 250 mm x 400 mm. Assume the following material properties: Modulus of Elasticity, E = 21 kN/mm2 , Unit weight, = 24 kN/m3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, = 12E-6. 250 kN 20 kN/m
A 12 m 12 m 4m 4m C
1. The reactions at A are ____________ kN (vertical) and ___________ kN-m (moment). 2. The shear and moment at the left end in BC are ____________ kN and ____________ kN-m, respectively. 3. The maximum bending moment in member BC is about _____________ kN-m and is located at ______________ m from point B. B. PLANE TRUSS: All members are double angles 4 x 3 x 3/8, short legs back to back (A = 4.97 in2; I = 3.84 in4 and ytop= 0.782 in, modulus of elasticity, E = 29,000 ksi, unit weight, = 491 lb/ft3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, = 6.5 x 10 -6/F) A B C 2.0 kips 20 ft
E 4 @ 15 ft = 60 ft 1.2 kips
F G 1.5 kips
4. The reactions at D are ___________ kips (horizontal) and ____________ kips (vertical). 5. The axial force in bar AE is ___________ kips and bar BE is ___________ kips. 6. The nodal displacements at C are _____________ in (horizontal) and _____________ in (vertical).
C. RIGID FRAME : Assume the following material properties: Modulus of Elasticity, E = 21 kN/mm2 , Unit weight, = 24 kN/m3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, = 12E-6. LOADS : DL = 31 kN/m and LL = 10 kN/m applied in all beams WL = 40 kN at the top level and 20 kN at the lower level LOAD COMBINATIONS: CASE NO. 1 = 1.4 D + 1.7 L CASE NO. 2 = 1.05 D + 1.275 L + 1.275 W SECTION PROPERTIES COLUMNS ( 400 mm x 400 mm) BEAMS (250 mm x 350 mm)
A 40 kN
4.0 m C 20 kN D E
5.0 m F G H
6.0 m
4.0 m
7. The reactions at the support F due to dead load (DL) are : Vertical Force Moment = ____________ kN = ____________ kN-m Horizontal Force = ____________ kN
8. The end moments of the beam CD due to Combination Load Case 1 are : Moment at C = ____________ kN-m Moment at D = ____________ kN-m
9. The end moments of the beam CD due to Combination Load Case 2 are : Moment at C = ______________ kN-m Moment at D = ______________ kN-m
10. The axial force in the column CF for the different load cases are: P (WL only) = __________ kN P (DL only) = ___________ kN P (Combination Load Case 2) = __________ kN
11. The maximum left end moment for beam CD is _____________ kN-m and occurs at loading case: ___________________ . 12. The maximum right end shear for beam AB is ____________ kN and occurs at loading case : ___________________ . 13. The displacements at joint B due to wind load (WL) are : o Horizontal : o Vertical : o Rotation: _______________ mm _______________ mm _______________ rad
14. The maximum span moment for beam CD due to Load Case 2 is ____________ kN-m.
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Loading Continuous Beams 3 - 1
CHAPTER 3 LOADING CONTINUOUS BEAMS

BACKGROUND Beams and girders are straight horizontal members in structures which resist forces applied transversely to their lengths. This types of structural elements can be found in buildings supporting the floor slabs or resting on columns. Bridge decks which are frequently supported by piers and abutments are usually modeled as continuous beams. Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moments. Shear forces in beams must also be checked especially when the beams carry loads of large magnitude. The important basic variables which affect the behavior of beams include the magnitudes and arrangement of the loads, the nature of the support conditions and the section properties. This chapter explores the effect of loading conditions on the internal forces and moments in continuous beams. CASE STUDY : How should live loads be placed to produce the maximum and minimum bending moments and shear forces in continuous beams? The individual members of a structure must be designed for the worst combination of loads that can reasonably be expected to occur during its useful life. The internal forces developed in beams such as moments and shears are caused by the combined effect of two types of loads: dead loads and live loads. Dead loads, which include the weight of the beam, are constant and are placed fully on the beams. On the other hand, live loads such as floor loads from human occupancy or moving loads due to traffic can be placed on the beam in various ways. Is the positioning of the live loads critical in the design of beams and
girders? What positions of live loads would produce maximum effects on a continuous beam? Things to Do 1. Model the three-span continuous beam shown in the figure using the given material and section properties. Using the GRASP toolbar, click the button for adding a member and draw graphically the geometry of the beam. Draw the continuous beam four times as shown in Figure 3.1. 2. Apply the dead load (WDL = 20 kN/m) on all spans. 3. Apply live load (WLL = 12 kN/m) for four basic load cases shown in Figure 3.1. 4. Combine the dead load and the corresponding basic live load: Service Load Ultimate Load : DL + LL : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
5. Perform analysis and view graphical and tabular results.
CASE STUDY 3
3 @ 4.0 m = 12.0 m Three-span Continuous Beam

Material Properties Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC
400 mm
250 mm Beam cross-section
(a) Case 1: Full Live Load
(b) Case 2: Adjacent Spans
(c) Case 3: Alternate Spans A
(d) Case 4: Alternate Spans B
Figure 3.1 Live Loading Cases and Deflection Curves
Figure 3.2 Moment Diagrams due to Dead Load
Observation One of the more interesting aspects of the behavior of statically indeterminate structures such as continuous beams is the structures response under load. The response quantities which are affected by the loading conditions are the deflections, moments and shear forces. A three-span continuous beam when subjected to uniform load applied similarly at all spans will bend with a deflection curve similar to Figure 3.1 (a). The corresponding shape of the moment diagram for full loading conditions will have a shape similar to the diagrams in Figure 3.2. This figure shows the resulting moment diagram due to the dead load. Observe the location of the maximum (negative and positive) moments. The maximum negative moments occur at the internal pin supports while the maximum positive moments occur near the midspan. What is the effect of partially loading the spans of the continuous beam? Two types of partial loading conditions are shown in Figure 3.1. In Figure 3.1 (b), two adjacent spans are loaded with live load and the other span is not loaded. In Figures 3.1 (c) and (d), on the other hand, the live load is placed at alternate spans with the adjacent spans unloaded. These conditions reflect different loading patterns and each loading pattern will affect the internal forces at various sections (e.g. near the support or at midspan) of the beam. Figure 3.3 shows the resulting moment diagrams for the four cases of live loading. Maximum Negative Moment at a Support : Consider first the maximum negative moment at the second support. An inspection of the moments associated with the four cases reveals some curious results. The maximum negative moment at the second pin support does not occur when the structure is fully loaded (Case 1) but rather under a partial loading condition at adjacent spans (Case 2). The maximum negative moment under full live loading condition is 19.2 kN-m while the maximum negative moment when the adjacent spans are loaded is 22.4 kN-m. When the dead and live loads are now combined either under service load (Figure 3.4) or ultimate load (Figure 3.5), the same loading case produces the maximum negative
moment at that support. This means that the maximum negative moment at a support will occur when the loads are placed on the two spans adjacent to that particular support and the next span unloaded Hence, if the maximum negative moment at the third pin support is desired, we must apply the live loads at the second and third spans which are adjacent to the support while the first span is unloaded. In case of more than three spans, the alternate spans must be loaded.
Figure 3.3 Moment Diagram due to Live Load
Maximum Span Moments : Observe the other two cases (Case 3 and 4) for alternate span loading. Figure 3.1 (c) and (d) shows the deflection curves due to alternate live loading. It can be seen that at the loaded spans, the curvatures are positive or concave upwards and since the bending moments are proportional to curvatures, the resulting span moment for the loaded spans are also positive. Figures 3.3 (c) and (d) show that the maximum span moments in the loaded spans do not also occur under full live loading condition (Case 1) but under partial loading
Figure 3.4 Moment Diagram for Service Load
Figure 3.5 Moment Diagram for Ultimate Load
when alternate live loading is applied. A comparison of the magnitudes of the maximum positive moments for the first span is given in Figure 3.6 for Case 1 and Case 3. Under full live load, the maximum span moment of the beam is about 15.360 kN-m. However, under alternate live load, the maximum span moment of the
(a) Full Live Loading Condition (Case 1)
(b) Alternate Live Loading Condition (Case 3) Figure 3.6 Moment Diagram of First Span due to Live Load
same beam is about 19.440 kN-m. This means that the maximum positive span moment in a continuous beam may occur at the loaded span for the alternate loading condition. Combining now the moments due to dead and live loads will produce the maximum positive span moments in the loaded spans as shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.5. Figure 3.7 shows member results for the Service Load Condition. Compare the results for B-1, B-4, B-7 and B-10 which correspond to the first span. The Maximum positive span moment is about 46 kN-m for B-7, a loaded span in the alternate loading condition (Case 3). Minimum Span Moments: Observe again the two cases (Case 3 and 4) for alternate span loading. This time observe the unloaded spans of the continuous beam. Notice that the curvatures in Figures 3.1 (c) and (d) are now negative or
Figure 3.7 Member Results for Service Load Condition
concave downwards meaning that the resulting span moments will be negative. Figures 3.3 (c) and (d) clearly show that the moments in the unloaded span are negative. If the moments due to dead and live loads are now combined for either service load (Figure 3.4) or ultimate load (Figure 3.5) conditions, the resulting span moments for the unloaded beams using the alternate span loading condition will be minimum (which may be negative) since the signs of the moments due to dead and live loads are not the same. This means that the minimum span moment in a continuous beam may occur at the unloaded span for the alternate loading condition. An inspection of the results for B-1, B-4, B-7 and B-10 in Figure 3.7 shows that the minimum span moment is about 22 kN-m for B-10, an unloaded span in the alternate loading condition (Case 4). Maximum Shear at a Support: Compare the shear diagrams under service load condition for the four cases as shown in Figure 3.8. Specifically, observe the shear forces at the second support.
Figure 3.8 Shear Diagram for Service Load
Which case produces the maximum shear? The maximum shear at the second support occurs under Case 2. It can be seen that the maximum shear at the support occurs when the support is between two spans which are loaded using the adjacent loading condition. Hence, placing the live load in the second and third spans will result to a maximum shear in the third pin support. It is also interesting to note here that the maximum shear at the end supports does not occur under full live load condition but under partial loading condition (Case 3). Things to Ponder Loading conditions that produce the maximum effects on a structure are called critical loading conditions. These conditions do not always occur when the live load is placed fully on the structure. Partial loading conditions may produce the critical moments and shear forces at a beam section. The occurrence of the critical values do not simultaneously occur under one loading condition. Hence, various loading arrangements have to be checked to determine what loading conditions are critical on a structure. In the design of beams , the code (e.g., NSCP 2001 sections 205) permits that the arrangement of live load may be limited and states that where uniform floor loads are involved, consideration maybe limited to full dead load on all spans in combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans. Things to Try 1. Analyze a continuous beam to obtain the maximum possible span and end moments. Model a continuous RC beam of 250 mm x 400 mm rectangular section consisting of four spans with pin supports. Each span has a distance of 5.0 m. The beams will carry uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load (WDL = 20 kN/m) and live load (WLL = 15 kN/m). Consider various combination load cases for dead load and live load. Use the basic load combination factors for dead and live
load specified in the NSCP 2001 section 203.3. Obtain the possible maximum and minimum span and end moments. Observe also the effect of loading arrangement on the shear forces.
4 @ 5.0 m = 20
2. Repeat the same steps in Exercise No. 1 for the beam shown below which has fixed supports at both ends.
4 @ 5.0 m = 20 m
3. For the same continuous beams above, try changing the magnitude of the live load and apply alternative live loadings. Observe if the span moments due to dead and live loads becomes positive or negative. What is the ratio of live load to dead load such that the combined effects produce a negative span moment? 4. For the same continuous beams above, change the distance between spans by moving the second and fourth pin supports one meter towards the end supports resulting to the span distances of 4.0 m 6.0 m 6.0 m 4.0 m. Apply the same
loading conditions and observe the effect of spacing on the moments and shear forces. References and related readings National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203 and 205, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, 13th Edition, Chapter 12, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapter 8, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Pattern Loading 4 - 1
CHAPTER 4 PATTERN LOADING IN MULTISTORY FRAMES

BACKGROUND Design codes specify that every building and every portion of the structure must be designed and constructed to sustain appropriate combinations of vertical loads and lateral forces. The individual members of a building frame which consists of beams and columns must be designed against loads which are reasonably expected to occur during the structures useful life. The internal forces induced in the frame such as moments, shears and axial forces are caused by the combined effect of both vertical and lateral loads. Let us first consider the effect of vertical loads in a building frame. The vertical loads which consist of dead and live loads are carried by the horizontal members of the building. These loads are usually placed on the girders or beams when a model of the structure is analyzed. The dead loads are constant and are placed fully on the beams. On the other hand, live loads such as floor loads from human occupancy can be placed in various ways, some of which may result in larger effects than others. Chapter 3 demonstrated the effect of live load arrangement to the moments and shear forces in beams. These loading schemes also apply to beams of rigid frames. However, the live loading schemes must be extended to consider also the effect to the vertical elements or columns. This chapter explores the various schemes that the live load can be placed on the horizontal elements of a rigid frame and the corresponding effects on the internal forces in the beams and columns.
CASE STUDY : How should live loads be placed to obtain the possible maximum internal effects in beams and columns of rigid frames? A four-story rigid frame building with three bays will be analyzed. The girders or beams will carry uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load (WDL = 15 kN/m) and live load (WLL = 7 kN/m). Things to Do 1. Model the four-story rigid frame shown in the figure assuming fixed supports and using the following material properties: Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC 2. Place the dead load and live load on all spans. 3. Place the live load on the specified spans only as shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.6. 4. Apply seven combination load cases using the load factors of 1.4 for dead load and 1.7 for live load: DL & Full LL DL & Alternate LL 1 DL & Alternate LL 2 DL & Adjacent LL 1 DL & Adjacent LL 2 DL & Column LL 1 DL & Column LL 2 5. Perform analysis and view graphical and tabular results.
CASE STUDY 4
4 @3.0 m = 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm
400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
Figure 4.1 Alternate Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.2 Alternate Live Load No. 2
Figure 4.3 Adjacent Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.4 Adjacent Live Load No. 2
Figure 4.5 Column Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.6 Column Live Load No. 2
Observation Maximum and Minimum Moments in Beams: From the results of Chapter 3 for continuous beams, the same principles can be applied to rigid frames in determining the maximum negative support moments, maximum span moments and minimum span moments in the beams. Hence two alternate live loading cases (Figures 4.1 and 4.2) were applied to determine the possible maximum and minimum span moments of the beams. On the other hand, two adjacent live loading cases (Figures 4.3 and 4.4) were applied to determine the maximum possible negative moments at the supports of the beams. The span and end moments of the beams for each combination load case can be compared with the combined dead and full live load case in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7 Moment Diagram for Combined Dead Load and Full Live Load
To view the detailed results for a selected beam for the various load cases, prepare a report and display the Comparison of Results using the Print Preview Report as in Figure 4.8 (B-17) and Figure 4.9 (B-26) For these two beam examples, identify the combination load cases where the maximum and minimum span moments occur. For beam B-17, the minimum span moment (26.0404 kN-m) occurs under DL & Alternate LL 1 case while the maximum positive span moment (44.5745 kN-m ) occurs under DL & Alternate LL 2 Case. Beam B-17 is an unloaded span for DL & Alternate LL 1 case and a loaded span for DL & Alternate LL 2 case. The same observation can be found for beam B-26 where the maximum positive span moment (44.6703 kN-m) and the minimum span moment (24.5816 kN-m) occur when the span is loaded (DL & Alternate LL 1) and unloaded (DL & Alternate LL 2), respectively.
Figure 4.8 Member Results for Beam B-17
Figure 4.9 Member Results for Beam B-26
The maximum negative support moments, on the other hand, can be observed in the other load cases particularly the adjacent live loading cases, especially if the support is between loaded spans (e.g., the right end moment of B-17 of - 81.5235 kN-m is maximum at DL & Adjacent LL 1 case). Maximum End Moments of Columns: For columns, the largest moment occurs at the top or bottom. Two loading cases (Figures 4.5 and 4.6) illustrate a live loading arrangement which may produce the maximum possible column end moments. View the moment diagrams for the combination load cases -DL & Column LL 1 and DL & Column LL 2 (e.g., Figure 4.10) and compare the resulting column end moments with those due to the combined dead and full live load in Figure 4.7. Observe specifically the columns, C-8, C-9, C-11 or C-12 and the live load positions on the beams connected to the columns at the top and bottom. For these columns, the
maximum end moments do not occur under full live loading condition, but under partial loading condition given in Figure 4.5 or 4.6. A sample of the member results is shown in Figure 4.11 for column C-8. It can be seen that the top and bottom
Figure 4.10 Moment Diagram for DL and Column LL No. 2
moments (-2.1564 kN-m and 1.5908 kN-m) due to the combined dead load and full live load are relatively small compared to top and bottom moments (-13.6512 kN-m and 14.1499 kN-m) for the DL & Column LL No. 2 case. The same observation can be made for the other columns (C-9, C-11 or C-12) if you view the detailed member results. This means that If the spans exactly above and below a column are loaded, the top and bottom moments of that column may produce the maximum end moments. This is an alternative live loading arrangement that can be applied to building frames to obtain the possible maximum end moments of a column.
Figure 4.11 Member Results for Column C-8
Things to Ponder Placing the live load fully on a structure does not always produce the critical moments in beams and columns. Partial loading of the frame sometimes produces the worst condition. Live loads can be placed in various ways on the structure , some of which will result in larger effects than others. By proper positioning of live load, the maximum combined effect due to dead and live loads on the member can be obtained - the effect can be both negative or positive. The load patterns in a continuous frame that produce the maximum positive and negative moments in the beams are different from those of the critical moments in the columns. Hence, alternative live loadings must be considered separately for beams and columns to obtain the worst combination of loads. The problem now results to predicting which type of loading pattern produces the maximum internal forces. There are many
different live loading schemes that can be tried to obtain the maximum effects on the structure. Trying all possible loading arrangements is of course not practical. By considering the relative magnitude of the effects of the loading schemes, an experienced designer can limit the analysis to a small number of significant cases. In the design of beams , the code (e.g., NSCP 2001 sections 205 and 408.10) permits that the arrangement of live load maybe limited and states that where uniform floor loads are involved, consideration maybe limited to full dead load on all spans in combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans. In the analysis and design of concrete columns, on the other hand, the code (NSCP 2001 section 408.9 or ACI code 8.8) states that columns must be designed to resist the axial load from factored dead and live loads on all floors or roof and the maximum moment from factored loads on a single adjacent span of the floor or roof under consideration. In the design of columns, the end moment and the axial force are used simultaneously in proportioning the member and determining the amount of steel (in the case of RC columns). However, the maximum values of the moment and the axial force at the critical sections do not always occur at the same combination load case. In one case, the moment may be large but the axial force is small or vice versa. Which combination of moment and axial force results to the most probable critical condition? This problem complicates the analysis process enormously. Hence, the code (NSCP 2001 section 408.9.1), recognizing the characteristic shape of the column strength interaction , specifies that in the design of RC columns, the loading condition giving the maximum ratio of moment to axial load shall be considered. Things to Try 1. (a) Model the building shown using the following material properties: Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC
(b) Apply the basic load case for dead load (WDL = 15 kN/m) by placing the dead load on all beams) and live load (WLL = 7 kN/m) by using full loading and several pattern loading conditions. (c) Combine the dead load and the corresponding basic live load using the load factors of 1.4 for dead load and 1.7 for live load.
4 @3.0 m = 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm 400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
(d) Perform analysis to obtain the maximum and minimum span moments, and maximum negative support about your observations. References and related readings: National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203, 408 and 409, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis. 4th Edition, Section 9.11, Pearson Education, Asia Pte. Ltd, New Jersey, USA Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, 13th Edition, Chapter 12, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapter 9, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA moments of the beams and the maximum end moments of columns. Choose a beam and a column for a detailed discussion
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Lateral Forces in Buildings 5 - 1
CHAPTER 5 LATERAL FORCES IN BUILDINGS

BACKGROUND Lateral forces due to wind and earthquakes may act on a building during the lifespan of the structure. Buildings when subjected to lateral forces would undergo horizontal displacement or drift and must be checked against story drift limitations to prevent the structure from collapsing laterally. The way a building resists lateral forces not only influences the design of vertical members or columns but the horizontal members or beams as well. How do lateral forces affect the behavior and response of the structural members of building frames? This chapter aims to explore the effect of lateral forces in the internal resultant forces of the structural members of rigid frames. CASE STUDY : How do lateral forces affect the bending moment of beams in rigid frames? A two-story rigid frame with three bays will be analyzed. The frame will carry uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load and live load fully applied on the beams. The lateral loads which will be assumed as earthquake loads shall be applied at the 1st floor and 2nd floor levels of the frame in three stages. Things to Do 1. Model the two-story rigid frame shown in the figure using the following concrete properties: Modulus of elasticity = 21,000 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 11 x 10-6 / oC
CASE STUDY 5
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m
Frame geometry
1200 mm 100 mm 300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m

F2
F1
Vertical Loading
Lateral Loading
Three Stages of Lateral Loading Lateral Load EQ1 EQ2 EQ3 40 kN 80 kN 120 kN 2nd Level : F2 20 kN 40 kN 60 kN 1st Level : F1
2. Apply the basic load cases for dead load (DL), live load (LL) and the three stages of lateral loads (EQ1, EQ2 and EQ3) applied from left to right. 3. Apply the following combination load cases : Ultimate Load Comb EQ1 Comb EQ2 Comb EQ3 : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ1 : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ2 : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ3
4. Perform the analysis and display graphical and tabular results. 5. Display the bending moment diagrams for the four combination load cases. 6. Display the bending moment diagrams for two beams (e.g., B-5 and B-6). 7. Display the member results comparison for a selected beam (e.g., B-5) using the Print Preview Report.
EQ2
Figure 5.1 Bending moment for combination load case : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
Figure 5.2 Bending moment for combination load case : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ1
Observation Figure 5.1 presents the bending moment diagrams of the combination load case for vertical loads only. This represents the effect of combining the dead load and live load using appropriate load factors. Observe the bending moment diagrams of the beams. The moments at the sections near the columns are negative, while the moments near the midspan are positive. Now observe the bending moment diagrams when the lateral forces are applied from left to right. In Figure 5.2, the moments at the left ends of the leftmost beams (B-5 and B-12) in the first and second floors have changed from negative to positive. In Figure 5.3, the moment at the left end of beam B-6 in the first floor also changed to positive. Finally, in Figure 5.4, the moment at the left end of beam B-7, also in the first floor, also changed to positive.
Figure 5.5 Bending moment for beam (B -5)
Figure 5.6 Bending moment for beam (B - 6)
This change in shape and sign of the moment diagram in beams in the first floor can also be observed by displaying the respective bending moment diagrams of the beams as shown in Figure 5.5 and 5.6 for two combination load cases: one case when the frame was subjected to vertical loads only and the other case when the lateral forces, EQ3, were applied.
Figure 5.7 Member results for beam (B-5)
Figure 5.7 shows the comparison of results for a selected beam (B-5) for the basic load cases and combination load cases. Observe the moments at the ends for various cases. Mzi, is the moment at the left end, while Mzj is the moment at the right end. The moment at the left end is negative when the applied loads are vertical (.e.g., basic load case for dead load and live load or the combination load cases such as service load, ultimate load). On the other hand, the moment at the left end is positive when only lateral forces are applied (e.g., basic load cases EQ1, EQ2 and EQ3). When the vertical loads and lateral loads are combined (e.g. Comb EQ1, Comb Eq2 and Comb EQ3) , the moment at the left end may be negative or positive, depending
on the magnitude of the lateral forces. For beam, B-5, for example, the left end moment due to dead and live loads at ultimate condition is -14.7130 kN-m. This moment changed to positive when combined with the moment due to lateral forces and the final left end moment is 113.3387 kN-m. This means that a section of a beam may resist both negative and positive moments when lateral forces act on the building. If you now observe the moment at the right end of the beams, what conclusions can you make? If the lateral forces are applied from the right to left, what would you expect about the moments of the left end of the beams? What about the span moments of the beams? Things to Ponder Lateral forces must be applied on the plane structure in two directions to the left and to the right since earthquakes or wind can come from any direction. The case study illustrates the effect of lateral forces on the beams response, particularly on bending moment at the supports of beams for rigid frames. Depending on the direction of the lateral forces, the moments may become negative or positive when combined with the vertical loads. The phenomenon where the type of the moment changes from negative to positive and vice versa is referred to as moment reversal. What is the implication of this phenomenon with respect to design of reinforced concrete (RC) beams? In the RC design, longitudinal reinforcements are provided to resist tension due to bending moment. When the moment is negative, tension occurs at the top portion of the beam section and longitudinal reinforcements should be provided near the top. On the other hand, when the moment is negative, tension occurs at the bottom portion of the beam section and longitudinal reinforcements should be provided near the bottom. In designing RC beams, we should consider both negative and positive moments, meaning longitudinal reinforcements must be provided at the top and bottom portion of the beam section.
The Special Provisions for Seismic Design for structural concrete in the code (e.g. NSCP 2001 section 421.4 or ACI code Chapter 21) addresses the phenomenon of moment reversal in the design of flexural members of frames. Can you locate the specific sections of the code where these special provisions are ?
At any section of a flexural member for top as well as bottom reinforcement, the amount of reinforcement shall not be less than the minimum reinforcement and the reinforcement ratio shall not exceed 0.025. At least two bars shall be provided continuously both top and bottom. Positive-moment strength at joint face shall not be less than one half of the negative-moment strength provided at that face of the joint. Neither the negative nor the positive-moment strength at any section along member length shall be less than one fourth the maximum moment strength provided at face of either joint. Bending moments are not the only internal forces that are affected by lateral forces. Shear and axial forces are also significantly influenced by the lateral forces in most cases the combination loading with wind or seismic loads produces the worst condition in a building. One other response and probably the most important structural response that is affected by lateral forces is the horizontal displacement or side sway. Buildings when subjected to lateral forces would undergo horizontal displacement or drift and must be checked against story drift limitations to prevent the structure from collapsing laterally. All these structural response quantities must be checked against the effects of lateral forces.
Things to Try 1. Explore the same frame in the case study and observe the effect of lateral forces to the other response quantities of the structure, such as : Span moments in beams Bending moment in the columns Axial force in the columns Shear in the beams Shear in the columns Write a report listing down your observations about the effect of lateral forces for each structural response. Support your observations with figures and/or tables for specific members. State the implications of your observations to design. 2. How much should the lateral force F2 be increased so that the moment at the left end of all beams in the second level will also change to positive when dead, live and lateral loads are combined? References and related readings Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis. Chapter 7, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 409 and 421, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines Nawy, E. G. (1996). Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, Chapter 15, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, 13th Edition, Chapter 20, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapters 14, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Pinned &Fixed Support Conditions 6 - 1
CHAPTER 6 PINNED AND FIXED SUPPORT CONDITIONS

BACKGROUND Supports are used to attach structures to the ground to restrict their movement due to external loads. The loads tend to move the structure; but the supports prevent the movements by exerting reactions to neutralize the effects of the forces; thereby keeping the structure under equilibrium. The type of reaction a support exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and the type of movement it prevents. represents Figure models 6.1 of
supports for plane structures. Consider first the idealized models at the left portion of the figure. A roller support prevents translation normal
Figure 6.1 Models for Supports
to the plane of the roller and produces a corresponding normal reactive force, while a pinned or hinged support prevents translation in any direction but allows rotation and thus produces reaction forces. A fixed support prevents rotation and translation and thus produces reaction forces and a moment. The pinned (or roller) and fixed support conditions are idealized models of support conditions. What type of model for the support should you use when you want to represent the actual support conditions? The answer to this question depends on degree of constraints provided by the foundation. One factor which affects the constraints at the support is the type and detail of the connection between the column and the footing. Figure 6.2 shows two examples of connections at the footing and the corresponding idealized models. The steel column is welded to a base plate and the base plate is connected to a concrete
footing by bolts. The degree of fixity between the column and the footing will depend on the bolted connections. Figure 6.3 is a detail of a rolling expansion bearing which consists of a hinge on top of a pedestal whose base rests on a
Pinned Fixed
series of rollers. In the building in Figure 6.4, the frame consists of tapered columns pinned at the base. As the top of the columns is rigidly built into a stiff
Figure 6.2 Types of Connections
beam, the columns are effectively fixed at the top and pinned at the base. Schodek (1998) provides more examples of different types of connections and idealized models. Another factor which affects the constraints or fixity at the supports is the soil condition. A column supported on a relatively small footing and resting on compressible soil may be assumed to be hinged at the end, since such soils offer but little resistance to rotation of the footing. On the other hand, a footing resting on solid rock, or a column supported by a pile foundation may be assumed to have sufficient fixity to prevent rotation and a fixed support may be assumed. Columns supported by a continuous foundation mat should likewise be assumed fixed (Nilson et al 2004).
Figure 6.3 End Bearing Detail

Figure 6.4 Fixed-Pinned Columns

How important is the assumed model of the support in the behavior and response of the structure? This chapter aims to explore the effects of the support conditions on the response of a structure. CASE STUDY : What are the implications of pinned and fixed support conditions to structural design? Two identical steel gabled frames with different support conditions similar to Figure 6.2 will be analyzed subjected to two basic load cases dead load and wind load. Compare the behavior and response of the two structures. Things to Do 1. Draw two identical frames with different support conditions - one frame with pin supports and the other frame with fixed supports. 2. Apply dead load (WL = 0.5 k/ft) and display the diagrams for the bending moment, shear and axial forces. 3. Apply the wind loads as shown acting on the windward and leeward walls and the roofs. Display the diagrams for the bending moment, shear and axial forces. 4. Apply combination load case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
Observation Displacements: Figures 6.5 and 6.6 show the deformed shapes of the two frames due to dead and wind loads. Which frame has relatively larger displacements? If you view the nodal displacements at the nodes, you will find that the nodal displacements for the pinned supported frame are almost twice that of the fixed supported frame. As an example, for the top node, the vertical displacements due to dead load is about 2.4 in for the pinned case, while 1.28 for the fixed case. On the other hand, for the same node the vertical displacements due to wind load is about 12.0 in for the pinned case, while 6.40 for the fixed case.
Rafter W 21 x 68
CASE STUDY 6
15 ft
Column W 27 x 84
20 ft
90 ft Section Properties (Ref. AISC manual)
W 21 x 68 A = 20.0 in2 I = 1480 in4 d = 21.13 in W 27 x 84 A = 24.8 in2 I = 2830 in4 d = 26.69 in
Material Properties (A36 steel)
E = 29 x 103 ksi Specific weight = 0.284 lb/in3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 6.5 x 10-6 /F DL = 0.5 k/ft Uplift = 3.0 k/ft Uplift = 3.0 k/ft
windward wall 0.35 k/ft
Leeward wall 0.25 k/ft
Dead Load
Wind Load
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.5 Dead Load and Deformation Diagram
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.6 Wind Load and Deformation Diagram
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.7 Bending Moments due to Dead Load
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.8 Bending Moments due to Wind Load
Bending Moments : Figures 6.7 and 6.8 shows the bending moment diagrams for each frame for the two basic load cases. The bending moments for the pinned-base frame are relatively larger than the fixed-base frame for both loading conditions. The maximum end moment of the column for the pinned case due to dead load is 259.6 kip-ft at the top end compared to 240.5 kip-ft at the bottom end for the fixed case. The maximum end moment at the rafter due to dead load is 259.6 kip-ft for the pinned case and only 196.7 kip-ft for the fixed case. Similar observations can be found for the bending moments due to wind load. If the loads are now combined using appropriate load factors as shown in Figure 6.9, the end moments in the pinned case are about 12% more in the columns and about 25% more in the rafters compared with the fixed case.
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.9 Bending Moments for Combination Load Case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.10 Shear Forces due to Dead Load Figure 6.5 Shear Forces due to Dead Load
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.11 Shear Forces due to Wind Load
(a) Pin Supports
(b) Fixed Supports
Figure 6.12 Axial Forces due to Dead Load
(a) Pinned
(b) Fixed
Figure 6.13 Axial Forces due to Wind Load
Shear Forces: Compare now the shear forces in Figures 6.10 and 6.11. The magnitudes of the shear forces in the columns in the fixed-base condition are greater than the pinned-base condition, but the shear forces in the rafters in the pinned case are greater than the fixed case. This is true for both dead and wind loading conditions. Axial Forces: In Figures 6.12 and 6.13 are shown the comparison of the axial forces. There is not much of a difference between the magnitudes of the axial forces in the columns between the two frames, although the axial forces in the fixed supported frame are slightly larger for the rafters. What are the implications of the observations about the two gabled frames with different support conditions? In the design of these structures, the size of the members is determined based on the internal moments and forces. The size of the rafters is usually determined based on the critical moments, while the size of the columns is obtained for the combined effects of the moments and axial forces. Based on the member size obtained, the shear requirements are checked. As observed earlier, the maximum moments developed in the frame which has fixed-base connections are relatively less than those developed in the pinned supported frame. This means that the members of the fixed supported frame may be designed with smaller sections. Moreover, there is a reduction in deflections in the fixed case. However, to achieve these advantages of minimizing moments and reducing deflections in the gabled frame using fixed supports, special attention should be given in the design of the foundation so that full fixity of the column will be achieved. Does this mean a fixed supported frame is more superior than a pin supported frame? Not really! There are cases where the design of the foundation is a problem and full fixity at the base is difficult to achieve. In this case, a pinned-base connection may be the best overall solution. Besides, there also advantages in a pinned supported frame. The foundation for a pinned-base frame need not be designed to provide moment resistance. Horizontal thrusts associated with vertical loads are usually smaller in a pinned
condition. Each specific design must be evaluated in its own context to see which approach proves most desirable. Things to Ponder The modeling of the supports of any structure should be based on actual conditions at the site. The engineer should make sure what is assumed in the modeling, analysis and design of the supports should be realized when the structure is constructed. When full fixity is assumed in the modeling and analysis of the structure, this condition should be assured when the design and construction of the foundation is done. Similarly, the condition of no moment resistance at the base should likewise be assured in the foundation design and construction to simulate a pinned-base assumption. If the assumptions and actual conditions are entirely different, the outcome may be catastrophic. Things to Try 1. Analyze the frame shown. Compare the results between pinned-supported frame and fixed-supported frame. Consider the effects of vertical loads (WDL = 15 kN/m and WLL = 7 kN/m) applied fully and earthquake loads applied at each floor (F4 = 80 kN, F3 = 60 kN, F2 = 40 kN and F1 = 20 kN), separately. And then combine the loads (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL and 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ). Assume the following material properties: Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC 2. Make sketches of possible details of column and footing connections for reinforced concrete structures. When can the footing be assumed pinned or fixed?
4 @3.0 m = 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm 400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
References http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide Library Kassimali, A. (1999). Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, Section 3.3, Brooks-Cole Publishing Co., USA Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, 13th Edition, Section 12.5, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Section 3-3-2, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Soil Effects on Foundations 7 - 1
CHAPTER 7 SOIL EFFECTS ON FOUNDATIONS

BACKGROUND Foundations of structures are supported by the soil. The effect of the soil on the behavior of the structure is significant especially for soft soils since the required fixity between the column and footing may be difficult to realize. A simple isolated footing may rotate, settle or shift sideways by some
Isolated Footing
amount depending on the load and soil conditions. Modeling the foundation considering the soil stiffness falls between the pinned or fixed conditions. When the effect of the soil in the structural model is considered, this becomes a soilstructure interaction
Pile Foundation
Figure 7.1 Modeling of Foundations (Anwar 1998)
problem. One popular and simple approach of modeling the soil is by the used of springs. An isolated footing or a pile foundation may be represented by three springs one for vertical settlement, one for rotation and one for lateral movement of (Figure 7.1). the GRASP provides an option representing constraint at a support by springs as shown in Figure 7.2. You first choose a basic support condition from the six idealized models shown
Figure 7.2 Spring Models in GRASP
at the left and then modify the restraint at one or more degrees of freedom by spring models by inputting the appropriate spring stiffness. The stiffness of the spring can be derived by the modulus of sub-grade reaction of the soil or by the method suggested by Gazetas (1991) which is adapted by ATC-40 (1996), where the footing dimensions, depth of embedment and soil properties (modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, poissons ratio) are parameters. This chapter explores the option of modeling foundations using springs and compares the results to the idealized pinned or fixed conditions. CASE STUDY : How can footings resting on soil be modeled to incorporate soil-structure interaction? Two identical steel gabled frames with different support conditions will be analyzed. The supports will be represented by three springs one frame resting on dense soil and the other frame resting on soft soil. Two basic load cases dead load and wind load will be applied. Observe the behavior and response of the two structures supported by springs resting on two types of soils and then compare the results with the frames supported by idealized pinned and fixed supports in Chapter 6. Things to Do 1. Draw two identical frames supported by three springs. 2. Input the stiffness of the springs for two types of soils : (a) dense soil and (b) soft soil 3. Apply dead load on the rafters. 4. Apply the wind loads as shown acting on the windward and leeward walls and the roofs. 5. Apply combination load case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL 6. Perform analysis and display the diagrams for the bending moment, shear and axial forces. Compare the results with the case study in Chapter 6.
Rafter W 21 x 68
CASE STUDY 7
15 ft
Column W 27 x 84
20 ft
90 ft Section Properties (Ref. AISC manual) Dense Soil

Kx = 4500 kip/in Ky = 1500 kip/in Kz = 200,000 kip-ft/rad
W 21 x 68 A = 20.0 in2 I = 1480 in4 d = 21.13 in W 27 x 84 A = 24.8 in2 I = 2830 in4 d = 26.69 in
Material Properties (A36 steel)
E = 29 x 103 ksi Specific weight = 0.284 lb/in3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 6.5 x 10-6 /F DL = 0.5 k/ft Uplift = 3.0 k/ft
Soft Soil
Kx = 240 kip/in Ky = 100 kip/in Kz = 12,800 kip-ft/rad
Uplift = 3.0 k/ft
windward wall 0.35 k/ft
Leeward wall 0.25 k/ft
Dead Load
Wind Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.4 Wind Load and Deformation Diagram
Observation Displacements: Figures 7.3 and 7.4 show the deformed shapes of the two frames due to dead and wind loads. Which frame has relatively larger displacements? If you view the nodal displacements at the nodes, you will find that the frame resting on soft soil is more flexible and had displacements about 40% more than that of the frame resting on dense soil. Observe for example the top node. The vertical displacements due to dead load is about 2.5 in for the soft soil case, while 1.5 in for the dense soil case. On the other hand, the vertical displacement due to wind load is about 12.6 in for the soft soil condition, while 7.6 in for the dense soil condition. Bending Moments : Figures 7.5 and 7.6 shows the bending moment diagrams for each frame for the two basic load cases. The bending moments for the frame resting on soft soil are relatively larger than the dense soil condition for both loading conditions. The magnitude of the maximum end moments of the rafters
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.5 Bending Moments due to Dead Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.6 Bending Moments due to Wind Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.7 Bending Moments for Combination Load Case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.8 Shear Forces due to Dead Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.9 Shear Forces due to Wind Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.11 Axial Forces due to Wind Load
and columns for the soft soil case due to dead load is 246.6 kip-ft compared to 209.5 kip-ft for the dense soil case. On the other hand, The magnitude of the maximum end moments of the rafters and columns for the soft soil case due to wind load is 1,400 kip-ft compared to 1,100 kip-ft for the dense soil case. The maximum end moments for the combined dead and wind loads in Figure 7.7, for the soft soil case are about 13% more than the moments in the dense soil case. In all loading cases, smaller moments at the bottom end of the columns occur in the frame resting on soft soil. Shear Forces: Compare now the shear forces in Figures 7.8 and 7.9. The magnitudes of the shear forces in the columns in the dense soil condition are greater than the soft soil condition, but the shear forces in the rafters in the soft soil case are greater than the dense soil case. This is true for both dead and wind loading conditions. Axial Forces: In Figures 7.10 and 7.11 are shown the comparison of the axial forces. There is not much of a difference between the magnitudes of the axial forces in the columns between the two frames, although the axial forces in the rafters for dense soil case are slightly larger than for the soft soil case. The axial forces for both soil conditions are almost the same. Comparing with pinned and fixed conditions: How do the results of the analysis of the frames supported by spring models compare with the idealized pinned-base and fixed-base conditions in Chapter 6? By simply comparing the diagrams, we can see that the response of the frame resting under soft soil conditions is similar to the pinned-base frame. The only difference between the two models is that moments are developed at the bottom ends of the columns for the spring model compared to zero moments for the pinned case. As a result, the maximum end moments under the soft soil condition are slightly smaller than the pinned-base condition. The response of the frame under the dense soil condition is very similar to the fixed-base frame. However, the maximum end
moments of the columns for the frame under dense soil condition are slightly smaller than the fixed-base condition. On the other hand, the rafter moments are slightly larger than the dense soil case than the fixed-base case. Things to Ponder A pinned-base support assumes zero moment resistance at the base, while a fixed-base support assumes a rigid base connection. Foundations rest on soil whose properties are variable from soft clay to hard rock. Depending on the soil and load conditions, the actual restraint developed at the base may fall between the pinned-base and fixed-base conditions. The modeling of the supports of any structure should be based on actual conditions at the site. Spring models to represent the soil may be a simple approach when soil-structure interaction is considered. However, one of the problems that the designer should confront when considering the soil effects is the soil property, particularly what appropriate value of soil stiffness to use in the model. An unreasonable assumption of the soil stiffness may lead to an unconservative design. In the absence of information about the soil, the pinned-base or fixed-base models may be used appropriately with the designer introducing additional safety factors in the design (e.g., introducing some moment at the base even if a pinned-base support is assumed). Things to Try 1. Analyze the same gabled frame of the case study. Instead of using three springs to model the soil, represent the support by a pin with a rotational spring. Use the soil stiffness, kz values given for the dense and soft soil. Compare the results of the pin-rotational spring supported frames with the three-spring supported frames for both types of soil.
References and related readings Anwar, N. (1998). Modeling of Foundations, ACECOMS News & Views, April June, page 17, AIT, Thailand Gazetas, G. (1991). Foundation Vibrations, Principles and Practices. PrenticeHall, New Jersey, USA Applied Technology Council (1996), Foundation Effects, Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings (ATC-40), Vol. 1, Chapter 10 De La Cruz, L., Florendo, C. and Santiago, H. (2003). The Effect of Soil-Spring Modeling in 2D Frame Analysis. Undergraduate Thesis, De La Salle University, Manila Obrien E. and Keogh, D. (1999). Bridge Deck Analysis., Chapter 4, E & FN Spon, London
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Support Settlements 8 - 1
CHAPTER 8 SUPPORT SETTLEMENTS

BACKGROUND The foundations supporting the structures can settle for a variety of reasons with the most common being consolidation of the soil beneath a support. The larger the load on the soil, the more likely is consolidation to occur. Rarely is the amount of settlement exactly the same beneath for all supports. Differential settlement is a common occurrence in structures which must be checked since additional internal forces and moments are induced. This phenomenon of soilstructure interaction is usually incorporated in the modeling of the structure by representing springs. presented specifically in to the soil by of Modeling the
foundations using springs was previous the

Figure 8.1 Defining Support Settlements in GRASP
chapter. Another approach, predict effect of differential settlement
is to introduce a prescribed amount of settlement in a foundation support. GRASP has an option of introducing displacements (horizontal, vertical or rotation) at a support (Figure 8.1). You first choose a basic support condition from the six idealized models shown at the left and then modify the restraint at one or more degrees of freedom by introducing a specified amount of displacement. This chapter explores the effects of differential settlements of support on the internal forces and moments of structures.
CASE STUDY: What are the effects of differential settlements of supports to the internal forces and moments of a rigid frame? A two-story rigid frame with fixed-base supports will be analyzed. Support settlement will be introduced in two locations: (a) exterior support; and (b) interior support. No loads will be applied. Observe the effects of the settlement on the response of the members of structure when the settlement occurs at the exterior and interior support. Things to Do 1. Draw two identical frames with fixed-base supports as shown in Figure 8.2. 2. Input a 20 mm vertical displacement downwards at a support at the exterior support for one frame and at the interior support for the other frame. 3. Perform analysis and display the diagrams for the deformation, bending moment, shear and axial forces. Observation The deformation of the frames when a settlement of 20 mm is introduced at the exterior support and interior support are shown in Figure 8.2(a) and Figure 8.2(b), respectively. Observe the effect of the settlement in the members especially in the beams supported by the columns where the support settlement was introduced. Beams connected to columns along the line where the support settled have relatively significant vertical and horizontal displacements. For example, a 20 mm settlement at the interior support produces about 18 mm vertical displacement and 6.8 mm horizontal displacement at the uppermost node as shown in Figure 8.2(b). There is also a significant amount of sidesway produced in the columns. Because of these relative displacements, curvatures are developed in the members. Associated with these curvatures are internal
bending moments. Figure 8.3 shows the bending moment induced in the members. Members with larger curvatures have larger induced moments. For example, the beams in the first floor have the largest end moments about 213
CASE STUDY 8
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m
Frame geometry
1200 mm 300 mm 100 mm 300 mm 300 mm 250 mm
Beam cross-section
Modulus of Elasticity = 20, 500 N/mm2 Unit Weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 0.00099/C
kN-m and 345.6 kN-m for the frames with settlements at the exterior and interior supports, respectively. The further the beams from the location of the settlement, the smaller the induced moments. On the other hand, it can be observed that curvatures in the columns in Figure 8.2 are larger for the upper columns resulting to larger induced end moments than the lower columns in Figure 8.3. Figures 8.4 and 8.5 present the effect of the support settlement on the shear and axial forces. The magnitude of shear forces are largest in the beams connected to the columns supported by the foundation where the settlement occurred. On the other hand, axial forces are significant in the columns near the support where settlement was applied. Clearly, the greater differential settlement, the greater the induce internal forces and moments in the beams and columns of the structure. These internal effects on the frame may lead to failures in the design if not anticipated. For this reason, special attention must be taken with the design of foundations for rigid structures to minimize the risk.
(a) Exterior Support
(b) Interior Support
Figure 8.2 Deformation due to Support Settlement
Figure 8.3 Bending Moments due to Support Settlement
Figure 8.4 Shear Forces due to Support Settlement
Figure 8.5 Axial Forces due to Support Settlement
Things to Ponder Differential settlement of supports has the effect of generating sagging moment at the support which settles. This is significant in rigid continuous structures since the fixed-ended nature of the connections restrains the members from rotating and translating. The increase in internal forces and moments in the members may be significant especially in soft soils. Settlement of supports frequently occurs
Figure 8.6 Tilting Building
when the ground shakes during an earthquake (Figure 8.6). If the member is not sufficiently sized to carry this increased internal moments and forces, the member could potentially fail or become seriously overstressed. Things to Try 1. Analyze the same rigid frame in the case study. Replace the fixed-base supports by pinned-base supports. How does support settlement affect the response of the members of a pinned-base supported frame? Is the effect of differential settlement more pronounced in a pinned-based frame or a fixedbase frame? 2. Compare the induced moments for two cases of the continuous beam shown below: a. Introduce vertical settlements of 20 mm at the roller and 40 mm at the adjacent pin support. b. Introduce a vertical settlement of 40 mm at the pin support adjacent to the roller.
3 @ 4.0 m = 12.0 m
Three-span Continuous Beam
Material Properties Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2 Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC
400 mm
250 mm Beam cross-section
References and related readings Bowles, J. (1982). Foundation Analysis and Design, Chapter 5, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, USA Hibbeler, R. (2000). Structural Analysis, Section 10.5 and 11.5, Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore Obrien E. and Keogh, D. (1999). Bridge Deck Analysis. Chapter 3, E & FN Spon, London Orense, R. (2003). Geotechnical Hazards: Nature, Assessment and Mitigation, Part 4, UP Press, Quezon City, Philippines Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Section 8-3-4 and 9-3-4, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Truss Analysis 9 - 1
CHAPTER 9 TRUSS ANALYSIS

BACKGROUND A truss is an assemblage of slender straight members arranged in triangles to form rigid framework. The individual elements are typically assumed to be connected at the joints with smooth pinned connections. The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a gusset plate (Figure 9.1). Loads and reactions are assumed to act at the joints. As a result of the joint loading and smooth hinge conditions, the truss members to resist are axial usually forces
Figure 9.1 Detail of a Truss Joint
designed
(tension and compression) only. The truss, through its stable configuration,
resists external loads by deflection of the structure which occurs only when one or more of its members are deformed. Planar trusses lie in a single plane and are often used to support roofs of buildings and bridges. This chapter presents an analysis of a typical roof truss subjected to dead, live and wind loads. CASE STUDY : Analysis of a Roof Truss The following case study illustrates the procedure for the analysis of a light steel truss for a gable-form roof. The roof construction, truss configuration, and design loads are shown. The truss will consist of double angles of A36 steel as members. Joints will use gusset plates and bolts. Trusses are to be spaced 8 ft on centers.
CASE STUDY 9
Truss weight at 20 lb/ft Live Load at 15 psf Glass sky light at 5 psf
Steel deck + insulation at 5 psf
Wind Load 15 psf
10 ft
No ceiling No ceiling
Trusses at 8 ft c/c
4 @ 10 ft = 40 ft Truss Geometry and Loads
Dead Load and Live Load Computation: The weight of the truss is assumed to be 20 lb/ft. The dead load on the truss is computed as follows: 20 lb/ft + (5 psf)(8 ft) = 60 lb/ft. Similarly, the live load on the truss is computed as : (15 psf)(8 ft) = 120 lb/ft. The joints loads corresponding to the dead and live loads are then computed using tributary horizontal projection of the lengths of the truss members. For example at the interior joint, the nodal force due to dead load is (60 lb/ft)(10 ft) = 600 lb as shown in Figure 9.2. Wind Load Computation: Wind pressure on roof surfaces depend on wind velocity, wind direction, and the buildings exterior form and dimensions. The computation of the wind pressure can be found in design codes (e.g. see NSCP 2001). The wind ordinarily induces a direct, inward pressure on surfaces of the building facing the wind, and an outward suction pressure on surfaces on sides
opposite the wind. Pressures on roof surfaces depend partly on the slope. Flat and near-flat surfaces tend to have uplift pressure. As the slope increases, the roof surfaces facing the wind develop inward pressures. Since the wind direction changes, the building has to be investigated for two wind directions wind from the left and wind from the right of the structure.
600 lb 600 lb 300 lb
600 lb
300 lb
Dead Load applied at joints

1200 lb 1200 lb 1200 lb 600 lb 600 lb
Live Load applied at joints
Figure 9.2 Dead and Live Loading on Truss
Consider a wind force pressure of 15 psf acting normal to the roof surface. The uniform wind force on the truss is computed as : (15 psf)(8 ft) = 120 lb/ft. By multiplying the wind force (120 lb/ft) by the tributary length of the inclined members, the joint loads can be computed. For example the nodal force at the interior joint is (120 lb/ft)(10.54 ft) = 1,265 lb as shown in Figures 9.3 and 9.4 for the wind from the left and from the right, respectively. The wind loads act perpendicular to the surface of the truss. However, for the purpose of using the forces in GRASP, the wind loads are resolved to vertical and horizontal components.
1265/2 lb
Wind Left
1265 lb 1265/2 lb
1265 lb 849 lb
849 lb
Wind Loads Left on Truss

1200 lb 1200 lb 600 lb 200 lb 400 lb 1200 lb 400 lb 600 lb 600 lb 400 lb
Wind Loads (Left) Resolved to X & Y Components
Figure 9.3 Wind Loads (Left) for Truss Analysis
Wind Right
1265 lb 1265 lb 1265/2 lb
1265/2 lb 849 lb
849 lb
Wind Loads Right on Truss

1200 lb 600 lb 200 lb 400 lb 1200 lb 400 lb 600 lb 600 lb 800 lb
Wind Loads (Right) Resolved to X & Y Components
Figure 9.4 Wind Loads (Right) for Truss Analysis
Things to Do 1. Model the structure as a truss. Use the GRASP toolbars. 2. Assume the following material properties for steel: modulus of elasticity = 29,000 ksi unit weight = 491 lb/ft3 coefficient of thermal expansion = 6.5 x 10 -6/F 3. Assign the following sections for the truss members: Top and bottom chord members : double angles 4 x 3 x 3/8, short legs back to back (A = 4.97 in2; I = 3.84 in4 and ytop= 0.782 in) Web members : double angles 3 x 2 x 3/16, short legs back to back (A = 1.80 in2; I = 0.613 in4 and ytop= 0.470 in)
4. Apply the basic load cases for the vertical loads for dead load (DL) and roof live load (Lr) as shown in Figure 9.2. 5. Apply the basic load cases for wind load (WL) : wind left and wind right as shown in Figure 9.3 and 9.4, respectively. 6. Apply the combination load cases for allowable stress design (NSCP 2001 section 203): DL + Lr DL + WL left and DL + WL right DL + 0.75(Lr + WL left) and DL + 0.75(Lr + WL right) 7. Choose structure to analyze as truss and perform analysis. Display results for deformation and member forces. Observation Axial deformation of the truss members due to external loads result to joint displacements. This results to the deformed shape of the truss. Figure 9.5 and 9.6 present the resulting deformed configuration of the truss due to dead loads and wind loads from the left, respectively. Because of gravity loads, the deflection of the truss is downwards (Figure 9.5). On the other hand, the joints of the truss tend to move upwards due to uplift force produced by the wind loads (Figure 9.6). The axial forces due to dead load and wind load from the left are shown in Figures 9.7 and 9.8. Observe the type of axial force (positive for tension and negative for compression) developed in the members. For example, the bottom chord members resist tensile forces under gravity loads and compressive forces under wind loads. On the other hand, diagonal web members carry compressive forces under gravity loads and tensile forces due to wind loads. The top chord members, however, carry only tensile forces. This means that a member may resist a tensile force under one loading case and a compressive force in another loading case. Truss members must be designed for both tensile and compressive axial forces. Figure 9.9 shows the combined effect of the axial forces for the two basic load cases. Using the preview report of GRASP, the
comparison of member results for the different loading cases can be viewed as shown in Figure 9.10. Observe the axial forces including the sign for various load cases. For what loading case does a specific member has the largest positive and negative axial forces? Are there changes in the type of forces (stress reversal)? From the results, you can obtain the design envelope which represents the maximum and minimum values of the design forces. Figure 9.11 presents the maximum and minimum axial forces for some members. By selecting the maximum and minimum forces, a member can now be designed for tensile and/or compressive stresses. There are two methods for designing steel members the allowable stress design (ASD) and the load resistance factor design (LRFD).
Figure 9.6 Deformations due to Wind Load (Left)
Figure 9.8 Axial Forces due to Wind Load (Left)
Figure 9.9 Axial Forces for Combined Load Case DL + WL (Left)
Figure 9.10 Member Results of Selected Members
Figure 9.11 Member Forces Envelope (Maximum and Minimum Forces)
Things to Try 1. Analyze the truss shown subject to the same loading conditions and using the same member properties and dimensions as given in the case study. What is the effect of changing the arrangement of the web members? Compare the results with those in the case study. Which truss configuration resists larger axial forces? Which truss has smaller defections? 2. Compare the response of two types of roof trusses a Pratt truss and a Fink truss. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the each truss? 3. Analyze two types of bridge trusses a Pratt truss and a Howe truss.
Compare the resulting axial forces due to various loads. References and related readings Ambrose, J. (1994). Design of Building Trusses. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide Library Hibbeler, R. (2000). Structural Analysis, Chapters 3 and 13, , Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203, 204, 205 and 207, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Special Modeling Issues 10 -1
CHAPTER 10 SPECIAL MODELING ISSUES

Modeling of structures is an art which is developed by a structural engineer through experience and research. Every structure is unique. The same structure may be modeled and analyzed by two engineers differently. The assumptions made by each engineer may be different in one way or another. What is important in structural analysis is that the model represents the real structure with an appropriate likeness to capture the desired response. Presented in this chapter are special topics in the modeling and analysis of structures that are interesting to explore and investigate. 1. A Frame or a Truss? The typical simple analysis for the internal forces in a truss assumes smooth pin joints meaning there is no moment resistance at these joints. The loads are also assumed to act at these joints. As a result of these idealized loading and joint conditions, the truss members become two-force members and carry only axial forces. In reality, these ideal conditions may not be satisfied completely. The truss member may not only carry axial forces but also bending moment and shear forces. A pure truss action may not occur and the truss may function as a rigid frame in resisting deformations. For what actual conditions do these occur? (See Ambrose 1994). (a) Semi-rigid and rigid joints: The connections at the joints of trusses rarely are ideal pinned connections. Rigid or semi-rigid connections using welds or bolts are common. Depending on the detail of the joint, a considerable magnitude of moment resistance may be developed at the joint and transferred to the members. (b) Continuous chords: The members used in an actual truss are sometimes continuous and come from one piece. Using a continuous top and bottom chords is common in the design of trusses. If the chords are continuous
through any of the joints, the members will not act as two-force members but will be subjected to both axial forces and bending moments. (c) Member forces: Loads may not always be applied directly at a joint. Cases where the roofing material is resting on the top chord or the ceiling is attached at the bottom chord results to loads applied to the members. The truss members will be subjected to combined bending and axial forces.
Top & bottom chords maybe continuous members
Semi-rigid or rigid joints
Ceiling may be attached directly to bottom chord
Figure 10.1 Actual Conditions in a Truss
Things to Try Select a typical roof truss configuration and analyze the truss for three different cases: (a) A pure truss with smooth pins (b) A frame with rigid joints (c) A frame with rigid joints but with moment releases at the ends of the web members (GRASP has the option to introduce moment releases at the end of members as shown in Figure 10.2) Compare the resulting axial forces in the members among the three cases and observe the moment developed in the members for the rigid frames.
Figure 10.2 Introducing moment release results to zero moments in the web members of the rigid frame
2. Shear Walls A shear wall-frame or dual system is commonly used as a structural framing system in reinforced concrete buildings. A shear wall in a plane frame analysis can be modeled by various techniques (Figure 10.3) in GRASP(Anwar and Sharma 1997). (a) Modeling the shear wall as a column: In this technique, the shear wall is represented as a column with the column line coinciding with the centerline of wall. The cross-section of the column is the same as the shear wall dimensions. Connecting the beams to the column can be done two ways. The length of the connecting beams may be taken from the center line of the shear wall to the other end of the beam. Another approach is to divide the beam into two segments. The first segment consists of the end portion of the beam within the shear wall width and the other part is the main portion of the beam outside the shear wall. The first part of the beam within the shear wall is given an extra stiffness by modifying the cross-section dimensions of that portion to be equal to the thickness of the wall and the height equal to the full
story height. This stiffened end of the beam may be considered as a rigid end zone (Anwar and Sharma 1997). (b) Modeling the shear wall as a truss: The shear wall is
Shear Wall Frame System
represented as a truss or braced frame consisting of columns and diagonal members. 3. Lateral Stability Structures must be designed to resist lateral must forces be due Lateral to to wind and
Shear wall modeled as a column
earthquakes.
displacements prevent large
limited
deformations occurring in the structure. The basic mechanisms for assuring lateral stability depend on the type of structural system. Buildings with moment resisting space frames resist lateral forces through frame action of the columns and beams which are
Shear wall modeled as a truss
Figure 10.3 Modeling Shear Walls
Figure 10.4 Shear Wall Frame Interactive System

Figure 10.5 X-Bracing of a Rigid Frame

connected by rigid joints. Another method used to assure stability is through shear walls (Figure 10.4). These are rigid planar surface elements made of reinforced concrete or masonry wall that inherently resist shape change because of its high rigidity. Braced frames where diagonal members are used to form a rigid framework have started to become popular especially in strengthening of existing buildings against earthquakes (Figure 10.5). A dual system combines moment-resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames to resist lateral forces. Other types of lateral force resisting systems are listed in the codes (NSCP 2001 section 208).
Rigid Frame
Braced Frame
Shear Wall - Frame
Figure 10.6 Deformed Shape of a 2D Frame
Things to Try Model a multistory building using three types of lateral force resisting systems similar to Figure 10.6: (a) rigid frame (b) rigid frame with a shear wall (c) rigid frame with one or two bays with bracing
Analyze the frame when subjected to lateral forces and compare the response quantities (lateral displacements, moments, shear and axial forces) of the structures. 4. Construction Joints Because of construction difficulties, a long continuous beam out of one piece is difficult to install. The continuous beam may consist of several pieces of beams connected by construction joints. The joints need carry no moment and are sometimes designed as simple pinned connections. Using construction joints usually results to an assembly of statically determinate structures which function together in a way that reflects the behavior of the continuous member (Figure 10.7). Where should the construction joints be located? The most ideal location are points of inflection or points of zero moment when the beam is assumed to be continuous. However placing the joints at the point of inflection is not always possible. Design moments can be controlled by proper location of these joints. Hence the effect of these joints on the bending of the structure must be investigated (Figure 10.8)
(a) A Continuous Beam
(b) Construction Joints at the End Spans
(c) Construction Joints at the Middle Span
Figure 10.7 Use of Construction Joints in Continuous Members
Continuous Beam
Construction Joints at end spans
Figure 10.8 Controlling Moments using Construction Joints. (Zero moments occur at the construction joints)
References and related readings Ambrose, J. (1994). Design of Building Trusses. Sections 7.7, 8.5, 11.1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada Anwar, N. and Sharma, B. (1997). Modeling 2D Shear Walls, ACECOMS News & Views, July Sept, pp. 4-5 & 17, AIT, Bangkok, Thailand http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide Library National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings, Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 208, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Sections 1-3-2, 8-4-4 and Chapter 14, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Andres Winston C. Oreta graduated D. Eng. and M. Eng. (Structural Engineering) at the Nagoya University (Japan) and BSCE at UP Diliman. He is presently a professor in civil engineering at the De La Salle University (DLSU) in Manila, Philippines. He was the chair of the Civil Engineering Department in 1994-1997 and Director of the Engineering Graduate Studies in 1997 2000. He has published papers in the ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Engineering Structures, JSCE journals, JCI Transaction, Philippine Engineering Journal, DLSU Engineering Journal, PATE Philippine Journal of Engineering Education and Wileys Computer Applications in Engineering Education. His research focuses on the areas of applications of artificial neural networks in civil engineering, structural dynamics, earthquake engineering, reinforced concrete structures and computer applications in engineering education. He can be contacted at andyoreta@yahoo.com.

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Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:

Andres Winston C. Oreta

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 1

CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Final Design Detailing

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 2

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(a) Real Structure

(b) Solid Model

Figure 1.3 Various Ways of Modeling a Structure (Anwar 2000)

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 5

(b) Plane Truss

(c) Plane Frame

Figure 1.4 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures

structure. supported carried by

bridge piers may

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 6

symmetrical in plan and framing represented as a system of 2D frames.

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 7

F1 3D Building made from F1 and F2

Figure 1.8 A 3D Building as a System of Two Typical 2D Frames

Figure 1.9 Space Structures (a) Tower (b) Dome

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 8

actual structure, the engineer appropriate

(Figure 1.10). The restraint conditions can be any of the following:

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 9

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 10

Figure 1.11 Types of Member Loads

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 11

Figure 1.12 Shear Force

Figure 1.13 Bending Moment

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 12

Figure 1.14 Axial Force

Figure 1.15 Moment Diagram

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 13

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 14

CASE STUDY 1 : Modeling a Portal Frame

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 15

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 1

CHAPTER 2 A TOUR OF GRASP

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 2

wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 3

3.0 m 1200 mm 100 mm

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 4

1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 5

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 6

Step 2-6: Displaying the frame generated by Structure Wizard.

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 7

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 8

3. Apply basic loads

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 9

Step 3-8: Displaying the Live Load on horizontal members.

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 10

Step 3-13: Displaying the Wind Loads

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 11

4. Define load combinations

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 12

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Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 14

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 15