Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations under static, transient or cyclic loads*

0. C. ZIENKIEWICZ
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

In this paper we present the survey of research carried out over the past ten years at University College of Swansea under the guidance of the author to determine a rational approach to the study of foundation and other soil mechanics problems. The paper starts with a description of the need for numerical approaches utilizing finite element or similar methodology and discusses various constitutive models for static soil behaviour. Plasticity is adopted to describe the non-linear characteristics of soil. A series of tests on ideally elasto/plastic, associative and non-associative, models and on an extended critical state model show that with the latter it is possible to obtain good predictions of the behaviour for drained and undrained behaviour of normally consolidated materials and indeed to extend the results to over-consolidated situations. The remainder of the paper concerns itself with the cyclic and transient load behaviour. Here the well known increase of pore pressure under repeated loading has to be accounted for as this can either lead to liquefaction or a very considerable weakening of the material. Two alternative approaches are proposed. In the first a concept of an autogenous densification of the material is introduced to supplement the original elasto/plastic models and this is shown to be effective in predicting liquefaction of sands. An alternative model modifies the critical state using methods proposed by Mroz to describe behaviour of clays more accurately. Finally, the paper deals with shakedown or ratchetting type problems in which it is possible to obtain collapse without material deterioration merely by a sufficient number of cyclic load repetitions. The numerical methods of dealing with such problems are discussed.

INTRODUCTION This paper gives a survey of research carried out in recent years by the authors group with the object of providing a sound basis for computation of static, quasi-static and dynamic responses of soil foundations of offshore structures. We shall therefore be concerned here more with the philosophy of the approach than with the detail which can be found in various publications cited. With the development of efficient numerical procedures for the solutionof boundary and initial value problems and with the expanding power of the computer progressively less room remains for unquantified empiricism and trial and error approaches. Care must, however, be taken to use such methods intelligently with due regard to geological and material uncertainties. We shall not discuss any details of numerical processes here and the reader can refer to the authors text. It is assumed that with a suitably formulated constitutive law, solutions can be obtained to most problems of foundation and structure interaction by methods known today. The main objective of offshore foundation analysis and design is to provide economical structures which will: (1) not collapse on application of maximum anticipated loads, (2) not collapse after period of exposure to transient loads such as can be expected during storms and earthquakes, and (3) not sustain excessive deformation under * A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Second
Conference ou the Behaviour of Offshore Structures August 1979 in London, Permission to publish has been kindly granted by the British Hydromechanics Research Association and other sponsors of this conference. 0141-1187/80/010023~9/%02.00 0 1980 CML Publications

static or transient loads of magnitude lower than those encountered under (2) or (3). Limit analysis procedures, so useful in simple soil mechanics studies, are limited generally to uniform homogeneous situations and to materials obeying certain idealized assumptions. Further, only answers to problems of category (1) can be provided by the methods of limit analysis, all other studies requiring a fuller solution of the properly posed boundary or initial value problems. For this reason in what follows we shall assume that such solutions need to be formulated, and that as a by-product of analysis the limit values can also be obtained. In offshore work the soil will always be in a saturated state and this presents a considerable simplification of the basic behaviour patterns. However, due to varying periods of load, both drained and undrained extremes of action will occur and we shall therefore seek to describe the constitutive soil behaviour in terms of drained conditions from which undrained or partly drained behaviour can be deduced. How far a constitutive relationship needs to be specified and how to choose between alternatives is a serious question to which the answer is highly problem dependent. We shall thus consider in turn the two extreme phases of behaviour and suggest suitable models for each.

STATIC

OR QUASI-STATIC

BEHAVIOUR

This area is clearly the most studied one in soil mechanics and many engineers will assert that safety against collapse

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

23

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis Jbr soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz can be reasonably assured by limit computations while very simplified one-dimensional consolidation type solutions are adequate for prediction ofdeformatfons. In the view of the author this is a considerable oversimplification and potentially dangerous when large structures are considered. While limit load computations are well developed for two-dimensional 'constant cohesion' type materials obeying purely cohesive type behaviour of associated plasticity, the real situation is not so readily treated and some of the difficulties are cited below: (1) under undrained conditions normally consolidated clays show an apparent cohesion increasing with depth for which few solutions of limit type are available; (2) in drained conditions with very small cohesion existing the limit load calculations are generally not applicable due to the non-associativity of the flow rule and hence only in certain cases can reasonable predictions be accepted; (3) overconsolidated behaviour of clays can not readily be treated in terms of total stress analysis using simple limit theorems; (4) for complex load and non-homogeneous materials as well as for three-dimensional conditions very few limit solutions are applicable and here full deformation solutions are desirable. Where deformations have to be assessed a need for some solutions of the boundary value problems exist and here frequently the resort is made to linear finite element analysis with suitable adjusted moduli. It is a contention of the author that in the present state of development it is economically feasible to treat the deformation and collapse behaviour in a unified way without excessive cost and thus avoiding the difficulties mentioned above. This, however, requires the development of reasonable constitutive models and we shall now turn to their determination. Constitutive models for static loads The problem is of considerable importance and much work has been done over the years to ensure adequate models for clays and sands. Ifa purely monotonic increase of stress occurs at all points of the soil it is clearly possible to use assumptions of non-linear elasticity in practice to describe the behaviour and various such models have been developed. Unfortunately in many realistic engineering situations such models fail as loads are not imposed in a monotonic sequence (for instance the gravity loads and wave loading in offshore structures follow sequentially). If non-monotonic loading exists the stress/strain relationship must define 'loading' and 'unloading' phases and for this reason the choice is limited to plasticity, hypoelasticity, and endochronic model descriptions. For reasons discussed elsewhere the author has chosen to use throughout plastic models to describe soil behaviour. In plasticity we thus postulate a yield surface:
F(o, e p) = a (1)
Yield

such 'effective stress' conditions. In other publications it is shown how the knowledge of such basic constitutive laws allows undrained, consolidated, or dynamic behaviour to be readily deduced 2- 5. When choosing the plasticity model the most important feature must be its ability to reproduce the collapse or peak stress situation which is the best known quantity for soils and which corresponds to a Mohr Coulomb surface in the principal stress space. We shall propose to make a selection from a range of three basic general possibilities to define reasonably well plastic soil behaviour. A. Ideal associative elasto-plasticity. The Mohr Coulomb surface is assumed to act as plastic yield and potential surface. This together with its triaxial stress section is shown in Fig. l(a). B. Ideal non-associative, elasto-plasticity. Here the model A is extended by defining a set of plastic potential surfaces of the same type but not parallel to the Mohr Coulomb yield surface Q(a). With the flow rule given as:

dep= ~Q), O,a"

(3)

this allows a more realistic dilatancy (or in fact a zero dilatancy) to be imposed on the material during yield thus approximating in a better way the true behaviour. This model is shown in Fig. l(b). C. An associative strain hardening plastic, critical state model. This is based on the well known classic model derived by Roscoe and his collaborators 5 - 7. We shall use

[ ol B

\
02

!'

Yield surface : Potential surface

o3/Y
surft~c e / y
~ o

Principal stress space

where o is the stress level and e p is a measure of plastic straining. The total strain is naturally composed of a summation of elastic and plastic components: e =e e +e p (2)

.._

I >0 2 = 0 3

<~O2=O3

As it is possible to describe fully the behaviour of saturated soil defining the law governing the drained or (skeleton) component we shall be only concerned with

Triaxiol section OAB

Figure l(a) Model A - - ideal associated plasticity with Mohr Coulomb yield surface.

24

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

here an extended form for the general principal stress space in the manner done by Zienkiewicz et al. s. In the critical state model the yield state surface 'hardens' as the volumetric plastic compressive strain develops or as the material 'densities'. With the total plastic strain being associated (i.e. in a direction normal to the yield surface) such densification occurs on the right hand side of the ellipse as shown in Fig. l(c) and the hardening becomes zero on the critical surface which is identified with the Mohr Coulomb failure line. The critical surface in fact does not necessarily correspond to the maximum stress at failure but to that at which continuing deformation can exist. A strain softening region above the critical state surface exists but is however highly unstable and as will be seen later its exact definition appears not tO be essential.

Yield. surface

'rincipal stress

_space

Potential surface
Yield surface

Q=/O'~O, > o2.03

~.._"""".~

Or.
ol < o2 = o3

Trioxio[ section OAB Figure l(b) Model B - - ideal non-associated plasticity with Mohr Coulomb yield surface.

Choice of 'reasonable' model Computer investigations are necessary to determine a 'reasonable' model which would give predictions of collapse and deformation consistent with those observed or predicted by well established methods and also do this without undue complexity. A large series of such computation was in fact undertaken 3.4,8 and here we give only a basic summary of the findings. The three sets of conditions corresponding to fully drained, undrained and undrained overconsolidated behaviour will be considered and if these extremes are well reproduced by a model, it will be deemed to be capable of responding satisfactorily to consolidating behaviour. Drained test. In Fig. 2, we show the results of fully drained, normally consolidated, analysis with weightless
Load
0

q (Ib/in.2}
100 200

Critical state

Yield and potential

surface

l '_
o.e"~'~C_1'2 --. "-" q
-=

R=5~
5ft.-

bC'~ k

Principal stress

8 ,6-

-f'o

A O. Yield and mtential

~ ~ ~ ~.Pp

Triaxial section OAB

J' ~
/ / "
I

1>oz=o3

e v Critical state"

~ J~

o1<02 ,,,~l",.uz- 0'3

o Mesh ~. 2 . 4 - a i Data c = 10 Ib/in 2 2.s -~,= 20 o E = 30,000 Ib/in. 2 v=O.3

Figure l(c) Model C - - strain hardening critical state associated plasticity with Mohr Coulomb critical state surface.

Figure 2. Axi-symmetric Jboting (uniform load) drained load-deformation behaviour for three material models. A, Ideal associated plasticity (Mohr Coulomb); B, ideal nonassociated plasticity; C, extended critical state.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 25

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil joundations." O. C. Zienkiewicz

A~ed tO 20 30 foohng pressure PlLb/on z) 40 50 60 70 80 90

02

~,~,

c
~"

04
06

B
i 0-8

C
o

Pressure P rib/in z}

12
44
1-6

200
~ 2.0

400

600

800

~ 40
60
found
I

Figure 3. Load dejbrmation characteristics (undrained conditions)for plate footing. Model A, elastic ideal plastic (Mohr Coulomb) associative (dilatant); Model B, elastic ideal plastic (Mohr Coulomb) non-associative (zero dilatancy); Model C, elastic-strain dependent plastic; Model D, elastic ideal plastic total stress analysis

corresponding calculation using the models C and B discussed previously. It is seen that the prediction given by model C is quite remarkable considering the rigid nature of the footing and experimental uncertainties, and that model B predicts much too low collapse values. To test the importance of the portion of the critical state model above thecritical state line we introduce here a cap model where the left hand side section of the ellipse of model C (viz. Fig. l(c)) is cut off by the critical state line now used as a plastic yield surface with a non-associative flow rule. This model is shown in Fig. 5 and in Fig. 6 predictions given by this model are shown. It is immediately noticed that, providin 9 any dilation at all occurs, collapse loads similar to those predicted by the standard critical state model are obtainable. If a fully associative rule is taken the prediction is every bit as good as that obtained taking the full ellipse. All the tests indicate that if a single model is sought, a full ellipse or cap type critical state model C is probably the choice that should be made. However, it must be remembered that for a majority of situations predictions by model B will also remain available and give similar answers. The choice will often be made on computational grounds in many practical situations.

a,eoeoooeoe
30

l ee
. . . . Tank

soil for a two-dimensional circular footing. As seen from the results the performance of all three models is virtually identical and indeed this is confirmed by other similar studies s - 1 o Undrained tests. Results are shown in Fig. 3 indicating that for undrained situations, where a high degree of restraint is provided by the fluid on the dilation of the soil skeleton, quite different answers can be obtained. For comparison a total stress analysis is also included in the results and we now see that models B and C predict reasonably well the behaviour but the associative ideally plastic model A does not collapse at all due to the continuous development of negative pore pressures with the dilation (indeed it might be contended that finally collapse would occur for such a material by cavitation but this is beyond the arguments extended here). The above tests indicate that from a practical point of view both models B and C are viable and can be used in a variety of situations. The final test series, however, on overconsolidated clays indicates that here one of them is preferable. Overconsolidated tests. It is well known that overconsolidated clays under undrained conditions will exhibit much higher failure stresses than normally consolidated materials. This would appear to be predicted only with materials of type C but clearly would not occur in either A or B models. However, in the loading of overconsolidated soils a considerable amount of strain softening must occur when the stresses exceed the critical state and it is possible that the actual peaks of stress are of little importance in practical situations. This is borne out by a study in which we have been fortunate to have results of tests carried out at Imperial College for an overconsolidated clay material on which axi-symmetric footings were placed. In Fig. 4 we show one set of results obtained by experiment and a

o O 2o

/
I

(3

4
~o

L.

I ~, 1375 mmd

il
_j
v + +

+ ~p + + + '1- + + 4 - + + + +

0
0

I
5

I
10

15

20

Vertical displacement (mm)

Figure 4. A footin9 on overconsolidated clay (approximate overconsolidation=350 kN/m2/50 k N / m 2. Experimental - - Imperial College (M.C.R. Martins, 1977); finite element - - U.C. Swansea (L. A. Winnicki and D. J. Naylor 1978): (model C); .... , critical state with Mohr Coulomb form; + + + +, ideal Mohr Coulomb plasticity non-associated (model B). E = 12000 k N / m 2, (p = 30 , v =0.3, H = 2 5
0

Potential eurface---~ ~

LdE'p / "" g

,Evt)

Figure 5. Model CC 4" Fiy. l(c)

cap type mod~cation of model C

20

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: 0. C. Zienkiewicz towards a weakening of the material. None of the present models discussed so far allows such weakening to occur and the mechanism in which it happens will now have to be considered. In the next section we shall introduce possible models by which densificatian of the soil skeleton is introduced whilst preserving the previous model characteristics. One simple and effective approach is to consider that in addition to elastic and plastic strains already recorded by the models discussed in the previous sections a further purely volumetric, strain occurs which densifies the material. This autogenous strain is a function of some parameter which depends an shear stress levels and the total straining path. Such a model has proved to
M

Nan assoc. J, = O

Certical displacement km1 Figure 6. A footing on over-consolidated clay. Assessment of cap model of Fig. 5 with various degrees of association. - - -, Experimental Imperial College (M. C. R. Martins, 1977); . . ., Finite element - U.C. Swansea (L. A. Winnicki, 1978); Critical state with Mohr Coulomb cut-off: E=12000 kN/m2, cp=30, v=O.3, H=25. Nonassociated flow rule Computations Same remarks should be made with regard to the numerical finite element processes used in the solution of realistic problem utilizing above models. The choice of model may to same extent be influenced by camputatianal techniques used. Thus if tangential methods are used the critical state model is preferable to a nonassociative one as tangent matrix is then symmetric. On the other hand, with initial stress techniques (or equivalent viscaplastic processes) the ideally plastic model is preferable as mare rapid convergence occurs and nanassaciativity is not important. In the context of two-dimensional plane strain or axisymmetric, static or dynamic, analysis, the solution techniques are widely available at moderate cast with all the approaches. In full three-dimensional situations, however, we find that the cast is still large and refinements of numerical methodology are proceeding. Here iterative procedures will .ultimately became the basis and distinctions between tangent and initial stress methods will disappear. In the intermediate case of axi-symmetric bodies subject to non-axi-symmetric loads such as occur frequently in offshore platform analysis, an alternative to full threedimensional analysis exists using a Fourier type expansion in the circumferential direction. This reduces the cast of full three-dimensional analysis considerably and details of the process are described elsewhere. However, it should be noted that for such methods an initial stress technique is essential and hence preference far simple, non-strain hardening models exists I3 . In Fig. 7 same results of a nanlinear analysis carried out far a three-dimensional loading of a footing are shown. CYCLIC AND TRANSIENT LOADS

V H-

E
In

I
6

Figure 7(a). A three-dimensional, non-linear Fourier Scotts solution for a footing problem. Element mesh in r-z plane. Footing: E =2.0 x lo6 kN/m; v=O.3. Soil: E = 1.O x lo4 kN/m2; v = 0.3. fly =cahesion = 50 kN/m; K, = 1.0; p = weight = 20 kN/m2

Limit load ratio 3D/2D =l-72

ttlement of the

Settlement

of the edge

The offshore or onshore marine structure exposed to wave loading or indeed any structure subject to dynamic shack loading such as could be caused by earthquakes presents special problems. Here tests indicate that in bath clays and sands cyclic stress reversals progressively increase the pare pressure and thus, for undrained conditions, will lead

0.126

o-740

Figure 7(b). Behaviour of problem of Fig. 7(a) first increasing vertical load, OA (or OA), then the horizontal load up to collapse.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

27

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis Jor soil,[bundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

Ouaywal I
~lttert at proper ttel :

Qul~rVlll;

~nltder.d

rt$111 t*loclt

0 ,,4'

Bl~tfI|l

~d

FOUDdltlolt

"

Yo~,

=oa.z
rltlo ~gle

= 1o0 I~/== u = 0,4

=

Polseon'e

o_

Frier:on

40 12~ Iff/l 3

t)ntt /eight

o-I I I I

. X1

20

40
(1)

60m

be effective for sands and has allowed liquefaction effects to be predicted ~4. An alternative model uses a modification of isotropic hardening surface associated with the critical state model C in a manner suggested by classical work of Mroz for metals~ 5. This model will be described in general terms but still much research has to be done to develop it to full applicability t 6,17. In addition to problems associated with the weakening of the material during repeated cyclic or dynamic loading, progressive deformation or ratchetting can take place after many repetitions of load. This phenomenon known to structural engineers, is perhaps novel in soil mechanics and some discussion of this will be made in the last section. Modified material model I - - densification concept The work of Seed, Finn and others ~8-21 has indicated that under cyclic loading dry soils (sands) densify while saturated ones develop considerable pore pressure. If the amount of densification can be related in some manner to the stress and strain path the material undergoes, both effects can be predicted by the same phenomenon. Clearly when the materials are saturated and the skeleton shows a tendency to contract it will transfer a considerable proportion of its mean total stress onto the fluid or water in the pores. The quantification of these effects is simple and straightforward in the analysis once such 'initial' strain can be predicted. Writing thus that the total strain can be given as:
e =e e +e p +e a (4)

i0'- A
'

.::f
o.,

I/b

,,v

xAAAAA A

vvVW"

Time, s

(2)

7
A i~

2 .

.,t

....

where the three strain components are those related to elastic, plastic and densification actions, we could use any successful model of static behaviour and augment this by devising a suitable law for autogenous strain c a in the analysis. Zienkiewicz et al. 14 suggest such a law for a particular sand and show that its effects can be taken quite simply into account in the dynamic non-linear computation. In Fig. 8, we show an analysis of a quay wall in which such densification is now introduced in addition to elastic-plastic strain of model B discussed previously. The formula used here relates autogenous strain to (a) the ratio of the deviatoric to mean stresses and (b) the total length of the strain path to be measured in absolute terms. Thus dd=mde~ de~ =f(~c)d~c d~c = g(#/a,.)d( d( = ~/d~ud~ u mr=0, 1, 1, 0, 0, O)

A f(t) = - I+B~c

(5)
4 =ec

g(6/a,.) = exp (Ta/am) (~u deviatoric strain)

Further formulae have been more recently developed 22 and will be published shortly but alternative approaches have been suggested by Nemat-Nasser and Shokooh 23 which define successfully the same phenomena. In offshore computations it has been quite customary to simply insert the observed pore pressure increases into Figure 8. Non-linear response of a quay wall to earthquake. (1), Finite element mesh and material properties; (2), horizontal displacement vs. time at top of quay wall; (3), deformed mesh (displacement x 100).

10 t t

131

28

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

the analysis of an undrained kind using the drained soil properties and thus progressively weakening the material. This insertion of pore pressure obviously will lead to the same answers providing it can be related to the strain path and stress levels and perhaps as such presents a more direct approach. If drainage does however occur, it appears necessary to use the densification concept directly. In Fig. 9 we show how the proposed densification formula takes into account experimental data observed in a sand. were applied to soils 23. This final model is described qualitatively in the mean stress section of the critical state plasticity model in Fig. 10. In this model we retain the normal critical state concepts but use the previous plasticity surface not as a yield condition but as an envelope of all yield conditions defined by ellipses of smaller size (usually given as a fraction of the exterior ellipse size) which are capable of moving in the interior as the stress point moves within. By imposing a suitable flow rule it is easy to achieve compaction or densification of the material both for increasing and decreasing stress motions within the overall critical state ellipse. This model has now been considerably refined and is well capable of responding to load cycles. In Fig. 11 we show some results tfiken from a recent paper 17 in which the densification with increasing cycle number is indicated. The model is not only capable of showing this densification but improves the general performance of the critical state models if refinement is needed and adapts this model better to

Modified material model II - - isotropic hardening concepts The modified material model discussed in the preceding section is perhaps too pragmatic and lacks the aesthetic appeal of a single model in which the densification effects could be incorporated. The origin for the development of such a model now appears in two sources. In the first place we have the original work of Mroz ~5 where a series of kinematically hardening surfaces nesting within each other was suggested to describe metal plasticity. In the second overlay concepts introduced by Zienkiewicz et al.

()

f.~c -B
/ A m

(o)

02
om

(v)

to

.0.1

(b)

o~, (EJ
s j ~ v
0.01

f
/

//

experimental data 100 '

0.1 '

1. 'o

Figure 9. sand)

Autogenous volumetric strain versus ~: (N.G.I.

Figure 10. Critical state plasticity, (a) single surface, (b) two surfaces.

q3. 2Io -L -2. 10) -3.

4 5 678916120100

&

lillE/
tO, '100 2C
40 30 20 10

'c) 4.

)
5 0

7'0 i'2 I~
Nof cycles

1'6 ie go ~" 1o6

/oo

!0 2,o 3,0 4,o 5p e,o zp 6p ~p ~0

I
-Io X = 100 41

E 13 q0

w "
- 21

(d)
-q

Ks= 103

Figure 11. Cyclic loading under drained triaxial conditions. (a) Shear stress vs. volumetric strain; (b) volumetric strain vs. number of cycles; (c) shear stress vs. shear strain; (d) shear strain (at end of cycle) vs. number of cycles.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 29

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil.]oundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

Moment l : 200 k I, m

De" met,e
e:o,vo~e~t

'i] : /.Z)0 WN m pc, melee

We,ghl "of plotfo, m

tc 2~, wN / ~ 2
,r t

O~ base

~ ~1

/ ~= ib i

R,g,(~ i

elements

(ep~ese~1

p,c~tcr~

o~o

)s,s

/ ~

5C,I p'ope,!,es

o0;
N

o~

boll-CyCles

,,o ,~ 't
e:30"

?
'~:O" ~ ~-C ':2a" o~=Oy =
X : 25C s!eess : ".

( / ,
' .

X
~ J

,oo . . . .

f ....... . , 30
020 M INlm2

BuI* rnoO~lus : 5000

/H
of I lol ox,symmelr,c

~
mesh

o,o

I\.\
\

Mo~,-Coulomb

Slroln- hofaenlng

- X : 2~ 0 ~ : ~ 0

S -h v,~th M-C [~=O')r.ul-ofI C -c vertlcot pressure

\.

-~

Initial

: 200 k%/w, 2

Moment = 200

kNm

per metres1rp

\.

Moment

kN ~

suDer,mposecl on ~rhot pressure of 20~ WNIm~

\
Stro,e hordemng -- X
: 25 0. = 20"

0 50
[ , ~ " p. . . . . (...... )

/,.,./

~,0

i';';--

,~-

..............
X :500

\.
(el ?. , w2

{b)

C/$p,ocement I~e

clue I0 Verhccl o~ly

Se(} bea -~

O,$DJocemenl Ioocl

clue Io vefhCal

,~lY

2" -+-010
C 20

v, o

~,ae,,o~ - MOb,-Coulomb /
111n01 slale Cychc momenl ].

t 0 ~0
Cychc
moment

./L//
~7,

~7_.
it)

(el

e~2:[

N"
o,o

of

holf - c y c l e s

. 2

.,

,,0

t~

t
tnlI,oI verhcoI Wessure

E . O0J ~ i~ l . It ~ I '
o~o

X = 2000} X = 50 0

ISO k N / m 2
melre

~-

~, : 30"

No

o, t ~ c

,y,d.,

'~ 0

-~

11

~2~--_....... -.~-'-.......

x : 20001 200 w ~ / ~ ? I
...... , ........

p ........

(gl

X "-" ....... X

100 0 5GO

Momen[ = LO0
metre

kt, rr

per

:30"

Figure 12. Cyclic loading of a Jootin9 under undrained conditions. (a) Finite element mesh and soil properties; (b) displacements due to vertical loading followed by a monotonic moment; (c) displacement due to vertical loadingjbllowed by a cyclic moment; (d) vertical central displacement due to cyclic moment for Mohr Coulomb and strain-hardenin 9 yield conditions; (f) excess pore pressure due to moment after 3/4 cycle (kN/m2); (g) variation of excess pore pressures due to cyclic moment.
overconsolidated conditions. In ref. 17, a full description of the performance of the model is given and in the near future we expect that this model will be able to be adjusted so as to give all observable pressure rise characteristics. collapse. This is a well known phenomenon of ratchetting and in Fig. 12 we show an example using a total stress analysis which shows how at loads well below those of collapse continuing deformation may occur for a typical foundation due to reversals of wave loading ultimately causing unserviceability or indeed incremental collapse. In the case illustrated a large number of re-analyses were carried out. This is feasible in a simple case but is very costly. For practical purposes more sophisticated approaches will have to be developed to tell the engineer whether such progressive collapse is likely to occur. This

Shakedown and ratchettin9 problems With a structural system subject to loads during which plastic deformation occurs and if further, some loads are subject to reversal while others remain constant, progressive plastic deformation may develop in each cycle even if the total load combination is well below that of

30

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis f o r soil foundations: O. C. Z i e n k i e w i c z

q u e s t i o n c a n n o t be answered by a n y of the limit analysis p r o c e d u r e s a n d will o n l y be o b t a i n e d by results of a b o u n d a r y value analysis or the a p p l i c a t i o n of special b o u n d i n g t h e o r e m s which again are available only for simplified cases. S t u d y is c u r r e n t l y in progress to e x p l o r e the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of such limit t h e o r e m s a n d to p r o v i d e simplified calculations in which the effects of cycling can be o b t a i n e d by e x t r a p o l a t i o n . I n d e e d if the cyclic stressing is a s s o c i a t e d with the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l a n d p o r e pressure d e v e l o p m e n t , this p r o c e d u r e a p p e a r s to be the o n l y w a y in which true progress can be achieved a n d the p r o b l e m r e m a i n s one of the m o s t serious ones for cyclicly l o a d e d foundations. This p a r t i c u l a r a r e a is the subject of m u c h research a n d the a u t h o r believes t h a t here at least n o simple alternative o r rule of t h u m b can be a p p l i e d at the present stage of k n o w l e d g e for i m p o r t a n t structures.

5 6

8 9 10 11

CONCLUSIONS A review of the research for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the response of structure a n d their f o u n d a t i o n u n d e r various l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n has been given in this paper. As m e n t i o n e d earlier the details of the v a r i o u s processes have n o t been discussed due to their availability elsewhere in the literature b u t hopefully the areas of i g n o r a n c e have been highlighted. T h e a u t h o r feels s t r o n g l y t h a t the d e v e l o p m e n t of n u m e r i c a l b o u n d a r y s o l u t i o n of the structure a n d soil p r o b l e m s is essential if progress is to be m a d e a n d has to be c o m b i n e d with a d o c u m e n t e d a n d t h o u g h t out e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m m e . The refined m e a s u r e m e n t s of soil characteristics themselves will n o t help to predict the b e h a v i o u r of f o u n d a t i o n s a n y m o r e t h a n refined n u m e r i cal m e t h o d s can d o so w i t h o u t t a k i n g these experiments into account. It is o n l y t h r o u g h c o m b i n e d physical a n d n u m e r i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s and sensitivity studies that rules for the design of safe f o u n d a t i o n s of m a r i n e structures can be o b t a i n e d .

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e a u t h o r is grateful to Dr. C. H u m p h e s o n , Dr. D. J. N a y l o r , Mr. V. A. N o r r i s , Dr. L. A. Winnicki, Dr. C. T. C h a n g a n d Professor Z. M r o z for c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d enthusiastic s u p p o r t at various stages of this w o r k , ' T h a n k s are also due to the Science Research C o u n c i l for their s u p p o r t of the above.

REFERENCES
Zienkiewicz, O. C. The Finite Element Method, McGraw-Hill, London 1977 Zienkiewicz, O. C., Humpheson, C. and Lewis, R. W. A unified approach to soil mechanics including plasticity and viscoplasticity, in Finite Elements in Geomechanics, (Ed. G. Gudehus), Ch. 4, London. 1977

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Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Humpheson, C. Viscoplasticity - - a generalised model for description of soil behaviour, in Finite Elements in Geomechanics, (Eds. C. S. Desai and C. Christian) McGraw-Hill, London, 1977 Zienkiewicz, O. C., Norris, V. A., Winnicki, L. A., Naylor, D. J. and Lewis, R. W. A unified approach to the soil mechanics problems of offshore foundations Numerical Methods in Offshore Engineering, (Eds. O. C. Zienkiewicz, et al.) John Wiley, Chichester, Vol. 12, 1978 Roscoe, K. H., Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. On the yielding of soils, Geotechnique 1958, 8, 22 Roscoe, K. H. and Burland, J. B. On the generalized stress/strain behaviour of 'wet' clay, Engineering Plasticity (Eds. J. Hayman and F. A. Lockead) Cambridge University Press, London, 1968, pp. 535-609 Zienkiewicz, O. C., Humpheson, C. and Lewis, R. W. Associated and non-associated viscoplasticity and plasticity in soil mechanics, Geotechnique 1975, 25, 671 Humpheson, C. Finite element analysis of elasto/viscoplastic soils, Ph.D. Thesis, University College of Swansea (1976) Naylor, D. J., Non linear finite element models for soils, Ph.D. Thesis, University College of Swansea (1975) (a) Martins, M. C. R. Large model footing tests - - a first interpretation, Soil Mechanics section internal report, Imperial College, London, (December, 1977) (b) E1-Ghamrawy, M. K. An experimental study of a resedimented low plasticity clay, Soil Mechanics section internal report, Imperical College, London (February 1977) Winnicki, L. A., Naylor, D. J. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. Finite element analysis of model .footing test, Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea, CR/323/78, 1978 Winnicki, L. A. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. Plastic or viscoplastic behaviour of axi-symmetric bodies subject to non-symmetric loading, lnt. J. Num. Meth. Eng. (1979) in press Zienkiewicz, O. C., Chang, C. T. and Hinton, E. Non linear seismic response and liquefaction, lnt I. Num. Analyt. Meth. Geomechanics 1978, 2, (4), 381 Mroz, Z. On the description of anisotropic work-hardening, ./. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1967, 15, 163 Mroz, Z., Norris, V. A. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. An anisotropic hardening model for soils and its application to cyclic loading, Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. Geomech. 1978, 2, 203 Mroz, Z., Norris, V. A. and Zienkiewicz, O. C. Application of an anisotropic hardening model in the analysis of elasto-plastic deformation of soils, Geotechnique, (March 1979) in press Lee, K. L. and Seed, H. B. Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Cir. Eng., 1966. 92, 105 Silver, M. L. and Seed, H. B. Volume changes in sands during cyclic loading, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Cir. Eng. 1971, 97, 1171 Martin, G. R., Finn, W. D. L. and Seed, H. B. Fundamentals of liquefaction under cyclic loading, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Cir. Eng. 1975, 101, 423 Finn, W. D. L., Lee, K. W. and Martin, G. R. An effective stress model for liquefaction, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Cir. Eng. 1977, 103, 517 Chang, C. T. Nonlinear response of earth dams and foundations in earthquakes, Ph.D. Thesis, University College of Swansea, (1979) Zienkiewicz, O. C., Norris, V. A. and Naylor, D. J. Plasticity and viscoplasticity in soil mechanics with special reference to cyclic loading problems, Proc. Int. Conf. Finite Elements in Nonlinear Solid and Structural Mechanics, Geilo, 1977, pp. 455 485, Vol. 2, Tapir Press, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim. Nemat-Nasser, S. and Shokooh, A. Densification and liquefaction of sand in cyclic shearing, Cent. Am. Conf. Earthquake Eng., El-Salvador, (January, 1978)

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