C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf.

Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies

Dr. C.J. Sloff Project and Research Engineer Delft Hydraulics P.O.Box 177 2600 MH Delft The Netherlands

Introduction

Hydropower reservoirs are loosing their capacity due to sedimentation processes, and are therefore seriously threatened in their performance. The quiescent pool behind the dam generates favourable conditions for particle settling, such that important storage capacity is lost. Furthermore, significant changes can occur in the stream basin due to the redistribution of sediments and discharges, notably downstream. Without any mitigating measures the viability of many reservoirs is questionable, as the impacts and losses are not balanced by the profits. It is apparent that for mastering the reservoir-sedimentation issues the use of strategies for controlling reservoir sedimentation becomes increasingly important. Obviously a good prediction of the processes, and the endeavour to better understanding of the reservoir behaviour is essential. To illustrate the use of modelling techniques for predicting and reducing reservoir sedimentation, two types of applications are discussed in this paper: a sediment management study for the Tarbela reservoir in Pakistan, and a study to the development and release of turbidity currents in hydropower reservoirs in general. Both studies aim at defining tools which enables us to reduce reservoir-sedimentation problems. For the Tarbela Hydropower Reservoir it is shown in this paper that deltaic deposits form a serious threat for the performance of the reservoir. To mitigate the potential dangers for the dam operation, several management options should be studied and combined into an action plan for Tarbela. A system computational framework is presented which comprises a sedimentation model for the reservoir, and a water-resources model for the entire river basin. The principles of sedimentation in this reservoir are illustrated by means of exemplary computations with a one-dimensional morphological model. Different to the formation of deltaic deposits at the head of most reservoirs like Tarbela, turbidity currents (density currents caused by sediment) can bring significant amounts of fine sediment up to the dam where they can be sluiced out without large losses. In this paper a general two-layer modelling technique developed by the author is presented, and the (for reservoir sedimentation and sluicing) most relevant properties and conditions of these currents are presented. Two examples are given to illustrate the modelling technique proposed for this type of flow. It is well accepted that reservoir sedimentation poses a serious threat to available storage. The annual loss of storage in reservoirs is roughly 1% corresponding to a about 50 km3 world wide (Mahmood, 1987). Some reservoirs have a much higher storage loss, e.g., the Sanmenxia Reservoir in China looses about 1.7% yearly. In the meantime significant transformations can occur in the stream basin due to the redistribution of sediments and discharges. Sloff (1991) reviewed these phenomena by means of a survey of the scattered literature in order to find the remaining gaps in the applied theory. Theoretical approaches are here desired to estimate the sedimentation threat and even to reconsider the design. In

1.

Reservoir-sedimentation problems

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

the past highly empirical models were used for this purpose, but often resulted (sometimes deliberately) in an underestimation of the actual sedimentation rate. This can be ascribed to failing theory as well as to a lack of data. For instance sedimentation rates of the Sefid-Rud reservoir in north-west Iran can be estimated with a 60 years old highly empirical approach (Tolouie et al., 1993) to be about 35106 m3/a. However, after construction (in 1962) the measured rate was about 45106 m3/a causing a storage loss of over 30% in 1980. The original predicted useful reservoir life of one century based on old data, was found to be actually about 30 years (Pazwash, 1982). Not until 1980 flushing operations were started which were able to regain about 7% of the lost capacity. When dealing with reservoir-sedimentation problems engineers are challenged by the difficult questions emerging. How to incorporate reservoir problems in feasibility studies (cost-benefit analyses) including environmental and technical effects, limitations on benefit and possible measures? Or what is the impact of sedimentation on the reservoir performance, and what is the impact of the reservoir on stream-system morphology? Obviously a good prediction of the processes, and the endeavour to better understanding of the reservoir behaviour is essential to master the reservoir-sedimentation issues.

Figure 1

Schematic presentation of principle sedimentation processes in river-fed storage reservoirs.

Figure 1 shows the principle processes involved with sedimentation in a storage reservoir as treated in Sloff (1991 and 1997). The most important distribution principles of these sediments in the reservoir can be subdivided into the following groups: Coarse sediment deltaic deposits: mainly the coarse sediment fractions are deposited in the head of the reservoir by backwater effects during high discharges, forming a delta. The delta proceeds into the reservoir while the foreset slope can be considered as an area of instability and slumping. Fine sediments in homogeneous flow: A large part of the fine sediments transported in suspension or as washload are transported beyond the delta after which they settle out to form the bottomset bed. They are more evenly spread than coarse sediment, but there distribution is highly dependent on reservoir circulation and stratification, for instance generated by river inflow and wind shear, or precluded by an ice cover. Also for this type of deposition the quantification methods still yield rough predictions. Turbidity currents: another important transport mode for fine sediments, i.e., silt and clay, is the turbidity current. It is formed when the turbid river inflow plunges below the clear reservoir water and continues as a density underflow. Also other processes can generate them, such as underwater slides (slumping of delta front) or coastal erosion. Turbidity currents are driven by an excess gravity force (negative buoyancy) due to the presence of sediment-laden water in a clear ambient fluid. These low velocity currents are capable of transporting large quantities of sediment over long distances. They become more and more accepted as potential measure to reduce sedimentation

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

although their contribution is less than deltaic deposit processes (usually they create mud deposits near the dam). Methods to mitigate the problems are usually based on reduce the inflow of sediment, the manipulation and control of the processes mentioned above, and the mechanical removal of deposits (e.g., see Sloff, 1997, Fan and Morris, 1992). The most important motive to use strategies for controlling reservoir sedimentation still is the preservation of reservoir storage (especially if appropriate sites for replacement are unavailable), but impacts up- and downstream of the reservoir gain more consideration now. For sake of fighting the reservoir-sedimentation problems a need exists for quantification of the processes. Prediction of capacity losses, impacts on the stream, and distribution of sediments, as well as the efficiency of mitigating measures require modelling techniques which can be used to determine operating rules and feasibility demands of the project. Above it is shown that various complex and coupled mechanisms determine the issues. Furthermore we are dealing with large uncertainties in measured and forecasted data. For instance the sediment yield, which is the source of all sedimentation problems can usually not be predicted accurately and with sufficient detail. Early modelling attempts have often proved to be unreliable, which forced engineers to put a significant effort in inventing more sophisticated approaches. In the following sections two specific studies are presented to illustrate the modelling techniques for reservoir-sedimentation management. To illustrate possible methodologies for modelling reservoir sedimentation processes and impacts, an example is given of the Tarbela reservoir. The Tarbela dam and Reservoir project is a major water resources and hydroelectric development project located in the Indus River about 100 km northwest from Islamabad in Pakistan. For hydropower generation a capacity of 3,478 MW is installed. The 143 m high and 2743 m long dam earth-rockfill dam, and two auxiliary earth-rockfill embankment dams and the resulting reservoir were completed in 1974 (construction started in 1968). The reservoir had a capacity of 14.3 km3 (less than one fifth of the total annual river runoff), and a length of approximately 85.5 km at normal pool level. This volume included a dead storage of 2.59 km3 below elevation 396 m (1300 ft). The long shape of the reservoir is illustrated in Figure 2, in which a schematized plan of the reservoir is presented based on the 1550 feet contour line (maximum water level in the reservoir).

2.

Modelling sedimentation processes in Tarbela Reservoir, Pakistan

Figure 2

Tarbela reservoir in Pakistan (schematic)

Sediment carried by the Indus is deposited in the reservoir at an annual rate of about 202 million short tons, corresponding to about nearly 98 % of the sediment inflow. This results in large deltaic deposits. The composition of the deposits varies between coarse sand and fine silt or clay fractions. Most of the

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

sediment enters the reservoir during the months June to August when the river discharges are maximal due to summer snow melt in the Himalayas with peaks up to 8,500 m3/s. In the intermediate periods the flow and sediment discharges are low. At the beginning of the flood season the reservoir level is maintained at minimum pool (May and June). The first high inflows (increasing from 1500 to about 5000 m3/s) are used to rework the and flush part of sediment which is deposited in the year before. These deposits are laid down in the upper reaches of the reservoir when the reservoir level rapidly rises in June when filling starts. The reservoir is filled to el. 1550 ft (472.4 m). During minimum pool level the incoming floods erode a flushing channel in the deltaic deposits. The flushing channel gradually increases in width by bank-erosion processes during this period. For instance channel widths increasing from some 400 m to 1400 m are reported in 1981 by discharges up to 5000 m3/s. Highly erosive flows with suspended-sediment concentrations of about 20 times the inflow concentration, are moving the upstream deposits to the delta front. For instance in 1981 the top of the foreset slope advanced three miles during the flushing period. In November 1996 the delta extended from about mile 44 (km 71) to about mile 6 (9.7 km) from the dam, which implies that nearly 44% of the inactive storage and 15 % of the active storage is now occupied by the sediment delta. Depending on the reservoir operation the average rate of advance of the delta to the dam is about 600 m a year. To slow the rate of propagation of the delta the minimum pool level was raised in stages starting from 1991, raising it from a level 1320 ft to a level of 1374.7 ft in 1995. As a consequence the downstream movement of the main delta was practically arrested, but a new small 'piggy-back' delta develop on top of the main delta. The observed development of the delta is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Observed average bed levels in Tarbela reservoir.

The rate of which sedimentation proceeds is considered as threat for the reservoir performance. The problems were put forward by WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority Pakistan) in 1996. The present location of the delta front imposes the danger of clogging of the five low-level tunnels of the dam when the fine-sediment foreset slope slumps, for instance due to liquefaction under a moderate earthquake. On the other hand, if the sedimentation front practically reaches the dam, high concentrations of sand will pass through the turbines and outlets, causing scour and abrasion, severely diminishing the economic life of the project.

Possible and proposed countermeasures

The arrestment of further advance of the delta and the mitigation of potential dangers for the dam operation have become very urgent topics for Tarbela. To reduce or counteract the amount of deposition in the reservoir three groups of commonly applied measures can be distinguished: 1. Methods to reduce the inflow of sediment into the reservoir, e.g. by erosion control in the catchment

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

or bypassing of sediment-laden flows. This approach is usually very effective, but the dangers already present in the reservoir are not mitigated. 2. Methods using the hydraulics of flow to reduce accumulation of sediments, or to induce erosion of accumulated material (sluicing and flushing). The aim of these methods is to reduce the trap efficiency of the reservoir. The method is already practised in Tarbela at the begin of the high-flow season by the draw down of the pond level. It is very effective due to the long-narrow shape of the reservoir. Nevertheless the flushing period in Tarbela is to short for removing a sufficient amount of sediment from the reservoir. Effectively the deposits are eroded from the upper reach and redeposited at the front set of the delta, increasing the annual advance speed of the delta. Flushing methods exercise serious restraints on the reservoir operation and the reservoir yield. Therefore the chief disadvantage of sluicing options is that all require sluicing during the initial period of the high flow season and imply curtailment of power during this period of increasing power demand. 3. Methods based on hydraulic dredging and mechanical excavation. This is an often used efficient alternative but a very costly one. Specifically for Tarbela, additional to these approaches several options have been put forward in the past to eliminate the direct dangers of the deltaic deposition for the dam, for instance: conserving the present position of the delta front or to reduce its progress. This is achieved already by modifying reservoir operation by raising minimum level in stages. Although it prevents further progress of the delta front, it results in a further reduction of active storage by deposition at the head of the reservoir. guarantee clear operation of the outlets and turbines. For instance the construction of a submerged retention structure (under water dike) is proposed to form an arc in front of the intakes. It is designed to prevent clogging of the outlets by sediments descending from the delta. It should be strong enough to withstand the impact of the collapsing foreset slope caused by liquefaction during an earthquake. Also construction of bypass tunnel/channel with various sluicing options is a possible option to conserve the operation of the outlets and turbines. The solutions to the problems in Tarbela should be looked for in a combination of the measures mentioned above. To recommend an action plan for these sediment management options, a study must be carried out accounting for costs, power and irrigation benefits, and risks and failures of the project. Clearly a system modelling approach is needed because of the effects of lost storage on system output (i.e., energy generation and irrigation water releases) and also because of the impact of possible changes in reservoir operation policy at Tarbela on system output. Also other projects planned in the vicinity should be taken into account. For instance the Ghazi Barotha Hydropower Project (1,450 MW power) at about 7 km downstream of Tarbela, which will be on line by 2001. Or the planned Kalabagh Dam Hydropower Project which is 193 km downstream of Tarbela, and the aimed Basha Dam Project which is 274 km upstream of Tarbela.

System modelling approach

In the following a principle way of modelling is presented which can be applied for this type of reservoir-sedimentation studies. In this presentation we have tried to reflect these techniques for the existing situation in the Tarbela Reservoir. On basis of the identified state of sedimentation and possible measures, a system computational framework will be set up comprising the following two elements: a sedimentation model for Tarbela reservoir, regarding the dynamic simulation of physical processes in the reservoir. a water resources system model for the river basin comprising the Tarbela reservoir, the Basha project, the Ghazi-Barotha project and the Kalabagh project. For this type of modelling the Delft Hydraulics' generic river-basin simulation model RIBASIM can be applied. The main elements comprised in the model are illustrated in the scheme in figure 4.

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Figure 4

Scheme of the water-resources system for Tarbela.

There must be a close interaction between the two models but not necessarily an on-line link. We propose an exchange of data between the models as follows: From water-resources system model to sedimentation model: the inflow and outflow of the Tarbela reservoir and its resulting water level are the main output data per time step of the system model to be used for sedimentation calculations. From sedimentation model to water-resources system model: The results of a sedimentation calculation can for instance be used in the water-resources model in the form of a 'level-area-volume' curve. In principle there are several simulation options for the combined water-resources and reservoir-sedimentation model. For instance a simulation with a maximum reality could be used, which implies a continuous adaptation over time of the reservoir sedimentation and related reductions in hydropower and irrigation water allocations. Although this seems to be a very 'natural' option, such a method is less attractive when the influence and sensitivity for various parameters must be distinguished. To get a proper insight in for instance the effects of sedimentation on water allocation reductions, it is better to make separate simulations with well-defined conditions in which only a few parameters are varied at a time. Only in that way it will be possible to draw conclusions from simulations and to determine the effects of recommended options for reductions of sedimentation. The water-resources model is especially worthwhile for optimalisation of reservoir management techniques based on influencing the operation rules (e.g., the stage-wise raise of the minimum reservoir level). Reservoir operation, c.q. management, is reflected in the 'rule curves' of the reservoir. Rule curves determine how the reservoir is operated in a simulation. With the target reservoir rule it will be possible to influence the sediment delta at the entrance of the Tarbela reservoir. Different scenarios for irrigation and firm hydropower can be tested. If for example such a model is composed in the river-basin simulation model RIBASIM, detailed information on reservoir levels, irrigation-supply shortages (and crop damages), hydropower generation, and shortages in firm energy can be provided. The sedimentation model for Tarbela must be able to simulate all relevant processes occurring in the Reservoir, such as the characteristic dynamic cycle of sediment accumulation and redistribution. This process is a result of the fluctuation of the reservoir level in combination with seasonally changing volume of inflow and corresponding sediment load. To simulate these unsteady processes in combination with the water-resources model it is reasonable to apply a one-dimensional morphological model. The use of a one-dimensional model enables simulation of a wide range of scenarios and proposed alternatives for the entire reservoir. It allows for the deposition processes in the upper reach during high reservoir level, followed by the reworking of the deposits during the subsequent draw-down period. Furthermore it provides information on the time scales of delta development and sluicing processes, necessary to support decisions regarding operational strategies. here the flexibility of a onedimensional approach is much more beneficial than a two-dimensional or three-dimensional computational models. The simulation of delta development in Tarbela reservoir requires a correct physical simulation of deposition processes and erosion processes. Accounting for the measured longitudinal sorting of

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

sediment grains in transport and deposits (downstream fining) the simulation must therefore be carried out with a graded-sediment module. Such a module must be able to simulate the periodic fining and coarsening of the bed material, the sorting effects observed in vertical direction, and the hiding and exposure effects of sediment grains of different sizes during erosion. Furthermore the model must account for the flushing channel developing in the deposits during reservoir drawdown. The entrenching effect of this channel can be studied in a semi-empirical way using state-of-the-art validated relations. A similar but not yet comprehensive model was proposed by Chao and Ahmed (1985). The stability and impacts of liquefaction of the foreset slope can be studied independently on basis of the outcomes of the sedimentation study. To illustrate the principle of such a one-dimensional model application some simulations are carried out using the one-dimensional modelling system SOBEK developed by Delft Hydraulics. For simplicity sake, and for the lack of sufficiently detailed data, the calculations have been carried out for generalized conditions and simplified schematization. The model is not calibrated, as the calculations are only aiming at presentation of the principles. We have concentrated on the simulation of delta front and grain -size variation, without accurately accounting for channel formation.

Figure 5

Computed delta growth with the uncalibrated model (dotted line is initial state in 1974, drawn line is delta position in 1978).

Figure 6

Mean grain size Dm computed with the uncalibrated model (dashed line is situation in 1975, drawn line is situation in 1978).

In Figure 5 the bed levels computed with SOBEK are plotted, showing the gradual progress of the delta as shown in Figure 3. In the next figure, Figure 6, the computed variation of the mean grain-size diameter is plotted. It illustrates the longitudinal sorting effects of the sediment characteristic for these type of situations during the development of the delta. Coarse fractions are deposited within the delta, leaving

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

the finer fractions downstream at the bottom set. A very sharp transition in grain size is visible at the pivot point of the delta. The high quantities of fine sediment during the early periods of reservoir filling provide favourable conditions for the occurrence of turbidity currents. These density currents,, other than caused by the slumping of sediment on the foreset slope, can be considered in relation with sediment sluicing. A modelling approach for this type of phenomena is subject of the next section.

3.

As coarse sediments usually are deposited in the head of the reservoir forming a delta, the finer sediments can be transported over significantly larger distances up to the dam. The most efficient transport of fine sediments into the reservoir is generated by turbidity currents, i.e. density-current underflows of fine sediment such as silt and clay. For instance, if during reasonable high inflows with adequate sediment concentrations the inflow plunges below the clear reservoir water, a density current is formed which is driven by the excess density of the turbid fluid, and maintains its suspension by the turbulence generated by bottom friction. If the turbidity current reaches the dam, it is possible to sluice it through bottom outlets efficiently without significant losses (without water-level draw down). Sediments carried by turbidity currents are generally transported much further than sediments in normal suspension. As part of his PhD study, Sloff (1997) studied the modelling techniques which can be used to simulate this type of underflow. Simulations of these currents must aim at determining the conditions at which these currents can exist, and how they develop after originating. For this reason Sloff proposed a twolayer mathematical model (depth-averaged layers) and studied the behaviour of these currents in reservoirs. In this section a short overview is given of the main results of this study, and an outlook to practical application.

Turbidity currents

Mathematical model

Most models for turbid underflows are in some way analogous to models for conservative saline and thermal density currents for which a lot of references exists. By contrast to the latter the sediment in a turbidity current is in general a non-conservative contaminant. Sediments can be entrained and deposited at the bed, thus changing the total amount of sediments in suspension. For a swift turbidity flow on a steep slope the net pick-up of sediments increases its negative buoyancy through which it accelerates and picks-up more sediments. Although this is a credible phenomenon, most turbidity currents in reservoirs are of a net depositing nature with relatively low velocities and low densities. Contrary to selfaccelerating turbidity currents are those which loose their transport energy and eventually die out by settling of particles. Clearly the dynamic interactions between sediment exchange, sediment suspension, mean flow and turbulence are very delicate, hence turbidity-current modelling is much more difficult than modelling of open-channel flow or conservative density currents. To quantify the underflow it is important to realize that it is originating and determined by the integral behaviour of the fluid and sediment mixture. A different behaviour than individual particles is due to their aggregation and the resulting mutual interactions between the particles. Whereas 1-D layer models are still the most commonly used there are some extensions to 2-DV approaches (transversally averaged). Also for these models the delicate flow-sediment interaction and the lack of data delays the progress, and still impede a justified extension to 3-D. Similarity in modelling turbid flow in sedimentation basins for sewer systems can be used as a reference for further research. Considering the existing models it can be observed that there is still need for improvement. Most layer models are still limited to 1-D and one layer (turbidity current entering a infinitely deep ambient fluid), or they do not account for shocks. Although their simplicity compared to a fully 2-DV or 3-D model is obvious, the price to be paid for simplicity is the requirement of empirical closure relations to describe physical processes which are still rather obscure. On the other hand, the much more advanced turbulence models for 2-DV and 3-D approaches are only in a very early stage of development (with respect to sediment-fluid interaction) and at the time (in 1991) their superiority over layer models could not be proved. For reservoir sedimentation we have finally chosen, in agreement with observed stratification, to develop a two-layer model with a clear quiescent upper layer and a turbulent dense lower layer which is

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

free to exchange sediment with the bed. The derivation of this model and the required closure relations is treated in Sloff (1994). Key elements in the two-layer model are the formulation of the fluid-sediment interaction and the treatment of fronts and jumps in the turbid underflow. The derivation of the model is based on small density differences (e.g., concentrations lees than 5%), and the flow is assumed to be fully turbulent. In figure X a definition sketch of the approach is given. Here u represents flow velocity, a is depth, c is concentration, wie is entrainment (mixing), and is shear stress.

Figure 7

Definition sketch.

The resulting mathematical model is two-dimensional in plan and allows for unsteady turbidity-current development on a mobile (alluvial) bed. The important effect of a finite reservoir depth is accounted for. The primary closure of the model consists of relations for velocity and sediment profiles, boundary shear stresses, entrainment velocities (interfacial mixing), bed-load transport, and sediment fall velocity. The 3D adaptation effects of suspended-sediment concentration profiles are included by means of a semitheoretical approach.

Properties of turbidity-current development

The two-dimensional model is analyzed by means of analytical solutions in simplified situations. Furthermore a one-dimensional numerical model is derived from the equations to verify the approach. The observations and computational results indicate that during the development of the turbidity current (directly after plunging below the reservoir water) the flow is characterised by the propagation of a gravity-current front, followed by a relatively uniform underflow in which shocks and jumps are easily developing. Internal jumps in the underflow are usually caused by unsteadiness of inflow and changes in reservoir geometry. If the current losses its momentum (e.g., due to an obstruction) it will break down, and sediment rapidly deposits. Usually the plunge point of the turbidity current is located near the pivot point of the delta topset slope. Depending on the following reservoir geometry the following underflow often spreads over the reservoir bottom. However, the results of the analyses prove that spreading of the current is unfavourable for the propagation and sluicing of the current. In Figure 8 two analytical solutions for respectively an underflow in a flume (upper figure) and a sector tank (lower figure) are illustrated. On the right side of this figure is shown how the current appears in nature. Both currents are originating from identical inflow conditions.

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Figure 8

Comparison of gravity currents in a prismatic channel and a sector tank using identical inflow parameters

In both situations vortices (Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities) develop behind the gravity-current head. These vortices are responsible for entrainment of clear water from the ambient fluid. In a prismatic channel or flume these vortices break up to form a stable interfacial mixing layer. However, in a spreading current the intensity of rotational motion is increased by vortex stretching, and a significant amount of clear water is entrained. The rim computed at the front of the spreading current can be associated to the large leading edge vortex often observed in nature. The remaining vortices (visible as multiple fronts) in the following current practically take up the entire underflow depth, only leaving a small layer of dense fluid near the bottom. Calculations with entrainment in these currents indicate that the dilution is severe to such an extent that this type of current can rapidly break up, and deposit its sediment. From these results can be concluded that turbidity currents are more likely to reach the dam in a narrow reservoir, or if they can travel through a channel. Obviously such a channel may be formed by draw down flushing operations, or by dredging. It is therefore worthwhile to study turbidity-current sluicing in combination with draw-down flushing. Sluicing turbidity currents requires low-level outlets near the dam. As it is difficult to predict the actual path of the current it is necessary to provide these outlets over a sufficient width. Nevertheless, for draw-down flushing operations a similar argument is valid. In practice flushing and sluicing operations are most efficient if wide low pitched outlets are installed. Detailed and accurate field data from turbidity currents is hardly available. To verify the computed physical properties and development of such currents, we therefore applied data from laboratory experiments. These applications were presented in Sloff (1997). For instance we applied the model to a flume experiment carried out in St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory by Garcia (1993). A sedimentfluid mixture with a volumetric concentration of about 0.00133 of silt particles with D50 of 9 m was discharged (0.0025 m/s) into an 11.6 m long and 0.3 m wide flume. The latter facility consists of an inclined bed (4.6) followed by an horizontal section. In the resulting equilibrium state (after at least 20 min.) it can be shown that on the sloping floor the flow remains internally supercritical (densimetric Froude numbers larger than unity), while on the horizontal floor the flow becomes internally subcritical. The agreement between measured and computed depth in the final equilibrium state is illustrated in

Examples

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Figure 9. Similarly a good agreement in depth-averaged velocity and sediment concentration in the underflow was found (Sloff, 1997).

Figure 9

Computed and measured depths for experiment DAPER2 (turbidity).

Although high-quality field data is hardly available, one occurrence of turbidity currents in the field is presented here for verification of the model. In 1987 extensive field measurements were obtained by Chikita et al. (1991) of a turbidity current in the glacier-fed Peyto Lake. The typical geometry of this lake

Figure 10

Bathymetric map of Peyto Lake (from Chikita et al., 1991) used for the two-layer model.

is illustrated in Figure 10.

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Figure 11

Computed development of the underflow in Peyto Lake, and measured and computed profiles at station D, 14 July 1987.

The turbidity current plunges near the foreset slope of the lake delta (left in Fig. 10) and advances northward to the central part of the lake where it meets a sub-aqueous sill. Measurements at stations C, D and E in this figure clearly revealed the presence of turbidity currents which were able to pass the sill. Simulations with the two-layer model as presented in Figure 11 show how, before crossing the narrow elevation, the underflow builds up in front of it while reducing its velocity, and finally passes it. Although the concentrations and velocities during this event (computed with a semi 2-D approach and compared with data in Figure 11) remain small, still about 200103 kg sediment enters the lake in a period of 12 hours. The total contribution of underflows to yearly sedimentation in this lake is about 61%, while another 32% is due to delta propagation.

4.

The loss of reservoir storage due to reservoir sedimentation can be considered as a serious threat to reservoir performance. To master these issues it is necessary to develop modelling techniques which are able to give a good prediction and a better understanding of the reservoir behaviour. Part of this paper is based on the PhD study on reservoir sedimentation presented in Sloff (1997). The following conclusions have been drawn in this paper: Reservoir sedimentation processes are determined by different transport and deposition modes of sediment fractions. The coarsest fractions result in deltaic deposits at the head of the reservoir, while finer sediments are transported further into the reservoir. If turbidity currents occur these fine sediments can be transported up to the dam. For reducing the sedimentation rate some effective methods exist based on adaptation of the reservoir operation rules. Flushing of deltaic deposits by periodic draw down of the water level, and sluicing of turbidity currents through bottom outlets are valid options. Modelling techniques related to threats imposed by deltaic deposits are illustrated by means of an example for the Tarbela Dam and Reservoir Project in Pakistan. A system computational framework consisting of a sedimentation model (regarding dynamic simulation of all relevant physical processes) and a water-resources model (regarding the entire river-basin) is presented. The approach allows for an optimalisation of reservoir-management options, accounting for irrigation water releases, hydropower generation and impacts on other projects in the vicinity. The sedimentation model as part of the system modelling approach should account for the longitudinal sorting of sediment transport and deposits (physics of graded-sediment), and channel formation during flushing. For Tarbela reservoir a one-dimensional model can be applied. A modelling technique for turbidity-current simulation is presented, which can support sluicing operations design. The two-layer computational model is capable of computing the type of turbidity currents which are common in reservoirs. The properties of turbidity currents derived from the model and from observations show that for optimal use of these currents as transport medium, unbounded spreading of the current must be prevented. Narrow reservoirs, or flushing channels are favourable conditions for turbidity current sluicing.

Conclusions

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C.J. Sloff (1997) Modelling reservoir sedimentation processes for sediment management studies. Proc. conf. Hydropower into the next century, Portoroz, Slovenia, 15-17 sept. 1997, p. 513-524, Aqua Media Int., UK.

Detailed and accurate field data from turbidity currents is hardly available. Verification of the model is therefore carried out by means of laboratory data and data from a glacier lake. Two examples of these verifications show a good agreement between computed and observed data.

5.

Chao, P.C. and S. Ahmed 1985) A mathematical model for reservoir sedimentation planning. Water Power & Dam Construction, Vol. 37, No. 1, Jan. p.45-52. Chikita, K., N. Yonemitsu and M. Yoshida (1991) Dynamic sedimentation processes in a glacier-fed lake, Peyto Lake, Alberta, Canada. Japanese. J. of Limnology, Vol.52, No.1, p.27-43. Fan, J. and G.L. Morris (1992) Reservoir Sedimentation II: Reservoir desiltation and long-term storage capacity, J. Hydr. Engrg., Vol. 118, No.3, p.370-384. Garcia, M.H. (1993) Hydraulic jumps in sediment-driven bottom currents. J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE, Vol.119, No.10, p.1094-1117. Mahmood, K. (1987) Reservoir sedimentation: Impact, extent, and mitigation. Techn. Paper No.71, The World Bank, Washington D.C., USA. Pazwash, H. (1982) Sedimentation in reservoirs case of Sefidrud dam. Proc. 3rd Congress of the ADP, IAHR, Bandung, Indonesia, Vol. C, Paper Cc7, p.215-223. Tolouie, E., J.R. West, and J. Billam (1993) Sedimentation and desiltation in the Sefid-Rud Reservoir, Iran. In: J. McManus and R.W. Duck (eds.) Geomorphology and sedimentology of lakes and reservoirs. J. Wiley & Sons, England, Chapt. 9, p.125-138. Sloff, C.J. (1991) Reservoir Sedimentation: a literature survey. Comm. on hydr. and geotechn. engrg., Report No. 91-2, Delft Univ. of Technology, The Netherlands, 126 pp. Sloff, C.J. (1994) Modelling turbidity currents in reservoirs. Comm. on hydr. and geotechn. engrg., Report No. 94-5, Delft Univ. of Technology, The Netherlands, 142 pp. Sloff, C.J. (1997) Sedimentation in Reservoirs, Doctoral Thesis, Delft University of Technology, 270 pp. (also published as: Comm. on hydr. and geotechn. engrg., Report No. 9712, Delft Univ. of Technology, The Netherlands).

References

6.

Mr. C.J. Sloff graduated in Civil Engineering at the Delft University of Technology in 1990. After graduation Mr. Sloff was employed at the Hydraulic and Geotechnical Engineering Division of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Delft University of Civil Engineering as a research assistant to study reservoir sedimentation under supervision of Prof.Dr. M. de Vries, and obtained his Ph.D degree in 1997. This study was carried out as part of a research project on sedimentation in reservoirs, a joint cooperation between Delft University of Technology and Delft Hydraulics. In 1995, Mr. Sloff joined Delft Hydraulics in the function of project engineer in the field of river hydraulics and morphology. Since then, he has been involved in projects with a strong river-engineering background, with particular emphasis on oneand two-dimensional mathematical modelling approaches.

Biographical details of the author

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