INTERNATIONAL BACALAUREATE MARA COLLEGE BANTING

EXTENDED ESSAY SUBJECT: PHYSICS HL

a) RESEARCH QUESTION: What are the magnitude of forces needed to separate two pieces of fabric which are sewn together along the width with hand stitches (Running stitch, backstitch, and Lilit Ubi?) when distance between two consecutive stitches,d/mm, is varied (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 ,5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0) mm 0.5 mm while the thickness of sewing thread, material of sewing thread, type of fabric used, and length of fabric are fixed ?

NAME: AMIR, NURUL HIDAYAH ADVISOR: MS. WAN SALEHATON CANDIDATE NUMBER: 000592-065 SESSION: MAY 2012 WORD COUNT: 3994

1)INTRODUCTION Force is not something that can be seen directly. However, its effect or effects can be seen in our daily lives. Force can cause objects to change their direction, shape, and speed. In short there are four basic types of forces which are gravitational forces , electroweak force, and nuclear force.1 When I did an experiment on strength of material during my physics lab session, I was exposed to many types of general force that can be applied to an object. Tension, compression, torsion, shears force, and others. The different forces are actually due to electromagnetic reaction between the particles in an object as a result of the electrical charge that they have.2 One day, my bag was torn apart due to the heavy load of the books it had to carry. I sew it and unfortunately, short after that, it ripped apart again. This incident has sparked an idea for me to do my EE. Did I not sew close enough? Did I not use the correct hand stitch? How would the decreasing stitches distance affect the strength of it? By obtaining empirical evidences of effect of variables on strength of stitches, it is hoped that the hand stitches can be further specified or customised according to need. Thus, the specified research questions have been developed to study the tensile strength of hand stitches. Tensile strength is defined as the ultimate strength of a material subjected to tensile loading. It is the maximum stress developed in a material in a tensile test.
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1 2

K.A. Tsokos (2010). Physics for the IB Diploma (5 th Edition) ,Edinburgh: Cambridge University Press. Kerr, Ruth (2008). Physics (3rd edition). Victoria : IBID Press. 3 INSTRON. (n.d) .Material Testing e-book. Retrieved 15th July 2011 from : http://www.instron.com/subscribe/Instron Material Test Guide.pdf

a) What are the magnitude of force needed to separate two pieces of fabric which are sewn together along the width with hand stitches (Running stitch, backstitch, and Lilit Ubi?) when distance between two consecutive stitches,d/mm, is varied (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 ,5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0) mm 0.5 mm while the thickness of sewing thread, material of sewing thread, type of fabric used, and length of fabric are fixed ? For that purpose, an extensive research has been done mainly in Universiti Putra Malaysias mechanical engineering lab to obtain the data. The methods would be explained further in the body of the essay. For the intended investigation, the focus is mainly on the maximum tension that can be withstood by two pieces of fabric connected by hand stitches with the distance between two consecutive stitches (determined by the closest distance between one needle piercing hole and another). The investigation would also compare three types of handstitches which are running stitch, backstitch, and Lilit Ubi. The relationship between the force (tension) required to fail the stitches and the distance between two consecutive stitches will be generalised if any presents.

2)PLANNING 2.1)Research Question What are the magnitude of force needed to separate two pieces of fabric which are sewn together along the width with running stitches (backstitch, and Lilit Ubi?) when distance between two consecutive stitches,d/mm, is varied (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 ,5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0) mm 0.5 mm while the thickness of sewing thread, material of sewing thread, type of fabric used, and length of fabric are fixed ? 2.2)Hypothesis All forces applied to the sample during testing were in the form of tension. There are three possible hypothesis for the experiment: 1) The further the distance between two consecutive stitches, the lower the tension needed to fail the seam. This is because as distance is increased, number of stitches per cm would decrease. Thus, higher tension would be subjected to individual stitches. 2) As the stitches are made closer, the fabric would be more ruptured or damaged due to needle punctures. Thus, the less tension will be needed to separate the two clothes sewn together. 3) When the three types of stitches are compared, the running stitch would need less tension to fail the seam. Lilit Ubi would require higher tension, while clothes sewn with backstitch will require highest tension to separate the clothes together. The hypothesis is made based on the assumption that the stitch which uses more thread could bear more tension, and among the three type of stitches, backstitch

uses longest thread compared to the other two types when the seam is made over the same length. 2.3)Variables Type Independent Variables The distance between two consecutive stitches ,d /mm Method of control Points having distances of (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 ,5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0) mm 0.5 mm apart are measured along the margin as shown in figure using 300.0 mm plastic ruler as guide for piercing needle. Type of hand stitches Three different hand stitches is compared (backstitch, running stitch, Lilit Ubi) Dependant tension needed to separate two pieces of fabric which are sewn together along the width The fabrics sewn together are pulled apart using Instron 3365 Dual Column Tabletop Universal Testing Systems and the tension is read by using Bluehill software in unit N. Fixed Fabric used The fabric used is of the same type to ensure that the tensile strength, thickness,

and material are same. Sewing thread used The sewing thread used are from the same bundle to ensure that the tensile strength, the thickness, and thee materials are the same. Dimension of the cloth used in experiments The clothes are cut according to 50x80 mm including 10 mm margin for sewing. Uncontrolled variables Temperature and pressure of atmosphere The experiment is done in a condition where the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere cannot be controlled.Environmental conditions might not be the same.

2.4)Apparatus and Materials: Sewing thread, sewing needle, cloth, scissors, 30 cm plastic ruler, Instron 3365 tensile tester unit, needlepoint pen.

2.5)Methods: 2.5.1)Preparation of samples 1) Before the lab sessions are carried out, all the materials needed are prepared. Materials needed are inclusive of sewing threads of different brands, and of fabrics which are sewn together along the side according to the required specifications. The fabrics would be sewn as follow dimension: 50x80 mm with 10 mm margin at the end of the cloth included. The 50x50 mm area is for clamping , the 10 mm margin is for sewing.

Sewing line
Sewing line

Clamping area

Margins of 10 mm are marked at widths of both clothes, with points for stitches (indicating distances between two consecutive stitches) are marked along the margin as shown in figure. The distances between two consecutive stitches for each type of stitches in different experiments are as required. Two pieces of fabrics are superimposed on the margin for sewing line. They are then sewn along the line for sewing as shown in figure below: 2.5.1.1)RUNNING STITCH4

Hidup, U.M .(n.d.). Jahit Penyambung retrieved 23 July 2011, from Dunia Jahitan Anda: http://ejahitanonline.tripod.com/jahitsambung.htm

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2.5.1.2)BACKSTITCH5

2.5.1.3)LILIT UBI6

Hidup, U.M .(n.d.). Jahit Penyambung retrieved 23 July 2011, from Dunia Jahitan Anda: http://ejahitanonline.tripod.com/jahitsambung2.htm 6 rd Hidup, U.M .(n.d.). Jahit Penyambung retrieved 23 July 2011, from Dunia Jahitan Anda: http://ejahitanonline.tripod.com/jahitsambung2.htm

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2.5.2)Lab Session: a) Preset of the instruments The tensile tester is connected to a computer dedicated to it where the software Bluehill is installed. Before the experiments is started, the specifications are set as follow: Rate of extension applied: 2mm per minute Pre-force applied to sample before reading is taken: 5N Type of test: tensile 3 sets of data were stored in every graph. The data is then saved in the designated folder. The method of testing the tensile strength of fabric is called Grab test7 b) Determination of strength of fabric A cloth of specific fabric is chosen and cut into a strip of length 50 mm x 30 mm. A margin of 50.0x30.0 mm are added at both ends (that makes the total length to be 150.0 mm with width of 30.0 mm). One end is clipped at a stationary point and the other end is clipped at a dynamic point of the tensile tester, which will provide the tension to the cloth and measure the tension. The cloth is pulled at a constant rate slowly until the cloth tears apart totally. The tension required to do so is observed by using Bluehill software and recorded. The experiment is repeated 3 times to reduce random error that might occur due to lack of repetitions.

How To Determine Seam Strength (n.d). Retrieved 30 of July 2011. From My textile Notes: http://mytextilenotes.blogspot.com/2009/06/how-to-determine-seam-strength.html?dhiti=1.

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c) Determination of strength of thread A string of thread about 200.0 mm is cut. Two marks are made to indicate a 50.0 mm gap. The string is clamped to the tensile tester machine with the marks at the edge of the clamp. The tension is applied at a constant rate by the tensile tester until the string snaps. The reading taken by using Bluehill software is then recorded. d) Determination of relationship between distances between two consecutive stitches with tension needed to separate two clothes which are sewn together. 1) Lilit Ubi The sample diagram on the structure of Lilit Ubi is as shown in the diagram above. The cloth sewn with Lilit Ubi using sewing thread with margins of 10 mm and distance between two consecutive stitches of 2 mm are clamped to the tensile tester. One to static point and the other to the pulling point. The clamps positions were adjusted a bit to

straightened the sample by using the up and down button on the machine before the experiment is started. The clothes are pulled apart by supplying tension at a constant rate that has been set earlier using Instron universal tensile tester until the stitches snap and the clothes are separated. The steps were repeated to obtain 3 sets of data for d=2.0 mm. The force required to do so is read by using Bluehill software and recorded. The steps are repeated by increasing the distances between two consecutive stitches to 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm , 9 mm, and 10 mm. Results were tabulated. 2) Backstitch A sample which has been sewn with d = 2.0 mm with backstitch (as shown in figure) is clamped to the tensile tester. The experiment procedures for samples sewn with backstitch were exactly the same as that of Lilit Ubi. Results were tabulated.

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3) Running stitch. A sample which has been sewn with d = 2.0 mm with running stitch (as shown in figure) is clamped to the tensile tester. The experiment procedures for samples sewn with backstitch were exactly the same as that of Lilit Ubi. Results were tabulated.

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3)DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The raw data for the experiment is attached together in the appendices part. The following is the summary of the data and summary of processed data. For ease of reading, the maximum tension held by sample is labelled as follows: Type of stitches Average maximum tension held by sample RUNNING STITCH BACKSTITCH LILIT UBI P Q R Maximum tension held per mm of sample P Q R

The maximum tension is identified as the peak of the graph obtained during the tensile testing. Example is as follow:

Picture: graph obtained for tensile testing of Running stitch for d= 3.0 mm The maximum tension held is Load at Maximum Tensile Stress (N)
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3.1)Table of Average Maximum Tension 3.1.1)Held by Samples Sewn with Different Type of Handstitch Distance between Average maximum Average two consecutive tension running held by tension maximum Average maximum held by tension seam, Lilit held by

stitches,d/mm (0.5 mm) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

stitch backstitch

Ubiseam,

seam, P/N (0.5%) Q/N (0.5%) 107.2209 127.1643 66.3454 37.3545 23.2410 43.9769 16.8654 36.1698 15.8292 136.9358 114.8000 75.9544 53.1455 43.1273 29.4266 29.2310 21.4757 22.6388

R/N (0.5%) 133.2854 124.9881 96.8875 57.4727 45.8382 51.5121 48.7828 35.4139 30.5100

Table 1 : Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/mm (0.5 mm), average maximum tension held by running stitch seam, P/N (0.5%), average maximum tension held by backstitch seam, Q/N (0.5%), and average maximum tension held by Lilit Ubiseam, R/N (0.5%)

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3.1.2)Strength of fabric used as sample Trial Tension required to snap fabric, F/N (0.5%) 1 2 3 mean 287.2723 241.3992 268.9295 265.8670

Table 2: tension required to snap fabric, F/N (0.5%) sample in 3 trials and mean tension needed 3.1.1) Strength of string used Trial Tension required to snap thred, F/N (0.5%) 1 2 3 Mean 8.5163 7.4941 5.8228 7.2777

Table 3: Tension required,F/N (0.5%) to snap thread in tree trials and mean. The data from table 1 is graphed as follow:

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1) RUNNING STITCH
Average tension 160.0000 held by sample ,P/N)

Average tension held by sample ,P/N vs Separation between two consecutive stitches,d/mm

140.0000

120.0000

100.0000

80.0000

60.0000

40.0000

20.0000

0.0000 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 Separation between two cosecutive stitches, d/mm

*Uncertainty: X-axis: 0.5 mm Y-axis: too small to be seen (0.5%)

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2) BACKSTITCH The Maximum tension held by sample, Q/ N vs distance between two consecutive stitches, d/mm

The Maximum tension held by sample, Q/ N 180.0000

160.0000

140.0000

120.0000

100.0000

80.0000

60.0000

40.0000

20.0000

0.0000 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/mm

*Uncertainty: X-axis: 0.5 mm Y-axis: too small to be seen (0.5%)

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3) LILIT UBI The Maximum tension held by sample, R/ N vs distance between two consecutive stitches, d/mm

The Maximum tension held by sample, R/ N 180.0000

160.0000

140.0000

120.0000

100.0000

80.0000

60.0000

40.0000

20.0000

0.0000 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/mm

*Uncertainty: X-axis: 0.5 mm Y-axis: too small to be seen (0.5%)

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3.2)Conversion to S.I unit The data is then converted to S.I unit (in m) from mm. All the absolute uncertainties are also calculated . 3.2.1)RUNNING STITCH Distance two stitches, (0.0005 m) 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 107.2209 127.1643 66.3454 37.3545 23.2410 43.9769 16.8654 36.1698 15.8292 2144.4176 2543.2855 1326.9081 747.0895 464.8202 879.5384 337.3079 723.3960 316.5843 32.1663 38.1493 19.9036 11.2063 6.9723 13.1931 5.0596 10.8509 4.7488 between Maximum tension Tension held by sample absolute uncertainty

consecutive held by sample , P /N per m of cloth, p / (N of N, p/ (N m-1 ) d/m (0.5%) m-1 )

Table 4: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m (0.0005 m), Maximum tension held by sample , P /N (0.5%), Tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ) and absolute uncertainty of N, p.

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The data above can be graphically represented as follow:

Tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ) 3000.0000

Tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ) vs Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

2500.0000

2000.0000

1500.0000

1000.0000

500.0000

0.0000 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

Uncertainties: X-axis : 0.0005 mm Y-axis: some are too small to be seen (1.5%)

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3.2.2)BACKSTITCH Distance two between Average maximum Tension held held by absolute uncertainty

consecutive tension

by sample per m cloth , q/(Nm-1)

of of q, q, / (N m-1 )

stitches,m m 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

/0.0005 sample, Q/ N

136.9358 114.8000 75.9544 53.1455 43.1273 29.4266 29.2310 21.4757 22.6388

2738.7155 2296.0005 1519.0875 1062.9103 862.5463 588.5321 584.6198 429.5133 452.7765

41.0807 34.4400 22.7863 15.9437 12.9382 8.8280 8.7693 6.4427 6.7916

Table 5: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m (0.0005 m), Maximum tension held by sample , Q/N (0.5%), Tension held by sample per m of cloth, q / (N m -1 ) and absolute uncertainty of N, q /(N m-1 )

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The Maximum tension held by sample per m, q/ N 3500.0000

The Maximum tension held by sample per mm, q/ N m vs distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

3000.0000

2500.0000

2000.0000

1500.0000

1000.0000

500.0000

0.0000 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

Uncertainties: X-axis : 0.0005 m Y-axis: too small to be seen ( 1.5%)

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3.2.3)LILIT UBI Distance between Maximum two tension Tension held by absolute uncertainty

consecutive held by sample , R /N sample per mm of of r , r/ (N m-1 ) d/m (0.5%) cloth, r / (N m-1 )

stitches, (0.0005 m) 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

133.2854 124.9881 96.8875 57.4727 45.8382 51.5121 48.7828 35.4139 30.5100

2665.7077 2499.7625 1937.7505 1149.4545 916.7647 1030.2412 975.6568 708.2783 610.1999

39.9856 37.4964 29.0663 17.2418 13.7515 15.4536 14.6349 10.6242 9.1530

Table 6: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m (0.5 m), Maximum tension held by sample , R /N (0.5%), Tension held by sample per mm of cloth, r / (N m -1 ) and absolute uncertainty of r, r /(N m-1 )

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The Maximum tension held by sample per m, r/ N 3500.0000

The Maximum tension held by sample per m, / N m vs distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

3000.0000

2500.0000

2000.0000

1500.0000

1000.0000

500.0000

0.0000 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/m

Uncertainties: X-axis : 0.5 mm Y-axis: some are too small to be seen (1.5%)

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3.3)Finding Mathematical Relationship The values of y and x axes are then multiplied in order to determine a constant value, which is derived from the average product of distance between two consecutive stitches,d and Tension held by sample per m of cloth , p or q or r. This constant is then used to derive a formula to model the strength of cloth sewn with the running stitch, backstitch , and Lilit Ubi. The full listing of values of d p, d q, and d r can be found in the appendices . The following is a summary which consists of average value of d p, d q, and d r, as well as their percentage uncertainties. The average values of d.p, d.q, and d.r are now known as kp,kq, and kr repectively. Type of handstitches Values of k /N Absolute uncertainties of k /N Running Stitch Backstitch Lilit Ubi 4.6980 5.1246 6.5914 0.5379 0.3358 0.2749 11.4491 6.5531 4.1701 k /N, and Percentage k, uncertainties of k

Table 7: Type of handstitches, Values of k/N , Absolute uncertainties of k, Percentage uncertainties of k

The theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable by cloth,Fp sewn using running stitch is then modelled using the equation : Fp = kp 1/d l Where kp = constant for running stitch = 4.6980 N 11.4491% d = distance between two consecutive stitches in m l = length of cloth sewn Unit: Newton, N.

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As for the following tables, the l is set to be 1 m so that the values can be compared with the value derived from experimental data , p . The theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per metre for each hand stitch are then compared to respective value of maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth obtained from the experimental data. The differences between the two values are found and percentage difference is obtained. The average percentage difference is an overview of how accurate is the estimation model.

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3.3.1)RUNNING STITCH Distance Maximum Theoretical Uncertainties of Percentage

between two tension held by maximum consecutive stitches, m m) sample per m magnitude

theoretical values difference of ( Fp) between experimental and theoretical data (|Fp-p| / p) 100) / %

d/ of cloth, p / (N tension bearable per m, Fp / N

(0.0005 m-1 )

0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

2144.4176 2543.2855 1326.9081 747.0895 464.8202 879.5384 337.3079 723.3960 316.5843

2349.0185 1566.0123 1174.5092 939.6074 783.0062 671.1481 587.2546 522.0041 469.8037 mean

856.1955 440.2959 281.2841 201.5371 154.8975 124.7794 103.9386 88.7649 77.2784

8.7101 62.4052 12.9755 20.4892 40.6365 31.0498 42.5619 38.5805 32.6135 32.2247 5.9661

Uncertainty of percentage difference Table 8: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/

m (0.0005 m) , Theoretical

maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, Fp / N, Uncertainties of theoretical values ( Fp) , Percentage difference between theoretical and experimental data (Fp-p| / p) 100) / %)

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Theoretical Graph of Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension maximum magnitude of bearable per m, F/N and Maximum tension held by sample tension bearable per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ) vs Distance between two per m, F/N and consecutive stitches, d / m (0.0005 m) 3500.0000 Maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m1) 3000.0000

2500.0000

2000.0000

1500.0000

F/(N(N) Fp/ m) p/N m -1

p/ (N m )

1000.0000

500.0000

0.0000 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m)

Uncertainties: x-axis: 0.0005 m y-axis: Fp :refer table 8 p : 1.5%

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3.3.2)BACKSTITCH Distance between Maximum Theoretical Absolute uncertainties of theoretical Fq / N Percentage of difference between theoretical and

two tension held by maximum sample per m of magnitude

consecutive

stitches, d/ m cloth, q / (N m-1 tension bearable values, (0.0005 m) ) per m, Fq / N

experimental data ((|Fq-q| /q) 100) / %

0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

2738.7155 2296.0005 1519.0875 1062.9103 862.5463 588.5321 584.6198 429.5133 452.7765

2562.3155 1708.2104 1281.1578 1024.9262 854.1052 732.0902 640.5789 569.4035 512.4631 mean

808.4890 396.6418 244.0998 169.6567 127.1455 100.2665 82.0137 68.9469 59.2052

6.8844 34.4097 18.5715 3.7060 0.9883 19.6093 8.7357 24.5679 11.6470 14.3466 3.7135

Uncertainty of percentage difference

Table 9: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m) , Maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth, q / (N m-1 ), Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, Fq / N, Uncertainties of theoretical values ( Fq) , Percentage difference between theoretical and experimental data. ((|Fq-q| /q) 100) / %

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Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, F/N and Maximum tension held by sample per 4000 m of cloth, q / (N m-1)

Graph of Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, F/N and Maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth, q / (N m-1) vs Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m)

3500

3000

2500

2000
Fq/ (N) F/(Nm) q/ (N m q/(N/m)-1)

1500

1000

500

0 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m)

Uncertainties : x-axis : (0.0005 m) y-axis : Fq : refer to table 9 q: 1.5%

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3.3.3)LILIT UBI Distance between Maximum tension Theoretical two held by sample maximum per m of cloth, r / magnitude tension Absolute uncertainties of theoretical Percentage of difference between theoretical and

consecutive

stitches, d/ m (N m-1 ) (0.0005 m)

bearable values ( Fr) /N

experimental data ((|Fq-r| /r) 100) / %

per m, Fr/N

0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

2665.7077 2499.7625 1937.7505 1149.4545 916.7647 1030.2412 975.6568 708.2783 610.1999

3295.723 2197.149 1647.861 1318.289 1098.574 941.6351 823.9307 732.3829 659.1446 Mean

961.3662 457.8151 274.7004 186.8031 137.3597 106.5269 85.8545 71.2292 60.4443

19.1161 13.7730 17.5918 12.8071 16.5496 9.4098 18.4149 3.2912 7.4255 13.1532 1.7583

Uncertainty of percentage difference

Table 10: Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m), maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth, r / (N m-1 ), theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, Fr/N, absolute uncertainties of theoretical values ( Fr) /N, and percentage difference between theoretical and experimental data (|Fr-r|/r 100) / %

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Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, F r/N and Maximum tension held by sample per 4500 m of cloth, r / (N m1) 4000

Graph of Theoretical maximum magnitude of tension bearable per m, F r/N and Maximum tension held by sample per m of cloth, r / (N m-1 ) vs Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m)

3500

3000

2500

2000

F/F(Nm) r/ (N) r/(N(N m-1) m) r/

1500

1000

500

0 0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/ m (0.0005 m)

Uncertainties: x-axis : (0.0005 m) y-axis : Fr : refer table 10 r : 1.5%

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3.4)Summation of Analysis of Theoretical Model. Type of hand stitch Average between percentage difference Uncertainties of the percentage and difference N%

theoretical

experimental value , N% Running Stitch (P) Backstitch (Q) Lilit Ubi (R) 32.2247 14.3466 13.1532 5.9661 3.7135 1.7583

Table 11: Type of hand stitch, Average percentage difference between theoretical and experimental value and uncertainties of the percentage difference.

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3.5)DATA CALCULATIONS 3.5.1)Conversion of unit from mm to m 1mm=1 x 103m 2.0 mm = 2.0 x 103m =0.002 m 3.5.2)Calculation of the average maximum tension held by sample

Average tension :

= 107.2209 N 3.5.3)Calculation of tension held per m of sample

Tension held per metre of sample =

= =2144.4176 N m-1 3.5.4)Absolute uncertainty of tension held per m of sample

where p=tension held per metre

length of sample in N l= length of sample in mm

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( )

)( 2144.4176) =32.1663 Nm-1

3.5.5)Values of k for Running stitch, backstitch, and Lilit Ubi stitch Step 1: multiplying the y-values (p/q/r) > tension held by sample per metre with the x-values (d) > distance of separation between two consecutive stitches in m

Eg: (dp) = (0.002)( 2144.4176) = 4.2888 N Step 2: Summing up all products for the stitch and dividing it with n which is 9 Eg: RUNNING STITCH k=

k= 4.6980 N 3.5.6)Uncertainty for k k=(d.p max-d.pmin) /n = (7.6299-2.6985)/9 =0.5379 N

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3.5.7)Estimated theoretical magnitude of maximum tension which can be held by sample ,F F = (k) (1/d) (l) Where k=constant obtained for the stitch used in N d= distance of separation between two consecutive stitches in m l = eg: F= (0.5379 ) (1/0.002) (1) F = 2349.0185N 3.5.8)Uncertainties of estimated theoretical magnitude of maximum tension which can be held by sample,F length of sample sewn in m

Eg:

) 2349.0185)

856.1955 N 3.5.9)Percentage difference between theoretical estimation and experimental data, Percentage difference : (|Fp-p| 100) Where Fp= theoretical magnitude of maximum tension which can be held by sample in N p=experimental value of maximum tension that can be held by sample (|Fp-p| 100) = (|2349.0185-2144.4176|) 100 =8.7101% 3.5.10) Mean percentage difference theoretical estimation and experimental data
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Eg: mean percentage difference for p Mean percentage difference =

= 32.2247 % 3.5.11)Uncertainty of percentage difference theoretical estimation and experimental data Eg: for running stitch (refer table 4) (%)=(%max-%min) / n =(62.4052-5.9661)/9 = 5.9661 %.

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4)CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION 4.1)Conclusion From the experiment, generally the tension needed to fail the seam in clothes sewn with running stitch is the lowest, while the highest is Lilit Ubi. When the constant k is compared with all the three k, it is found that k value for Lilit Ubi is the highest which is (6.59140.2749)N, followed by backstitch with k value of (5.12460.3358)N and lastly running stitch (4.69800.5379) N. This significance of this value is demonstrated in the mathematical model to find estimated maximum magnitude of tension a sample can stand when it is sewn with the hand stitch. The mathematical model F = (k)(1/d)(length of cloth sewn in m) gives higher value when k is increased. F also turns out higher if d or distance between two consecutive sewing decreases. Initial hypothesis suggested that backstitch will have the higher tension requirement to separate the two cloth joined together by the seam. This is because backstitch requires more thread (needs longer thread) compared to the other two. As the length of thread increases, the amount of tension capable of being withstood by the seam would increase. However, the experiment has shown that length of thread is not the only factor affecting seam strength. Regarding the Lilit Ubi, the construction of the seam covers wider area of the cloth. Thus, the distribution of tension is done over a wider area. Backstitch and running stitch covers the cloth only in a straight line so the tension supplied by the tensile tester cannot be distributed widely. That is why eventhough Lilit Ubi uses less thread compared to backstitch, it can withstand greater tension. For all the three stitches, a similar pattern can be observed. The maximum tension held by the sample is inversely proportional to the distance between two consecutive stitches. When the distance between two consecutive stitches is increased, the number of stitches per
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unit length decreases. The tension applied would be distributed in the individual stitches connecting the clothes. If there is less stitches, then the tension per stitch would be higher. Then it would be easier for the seam to fail. Besides that, the higher the number of stitches per unit length, more thread is used. This will increase the strength of the hand stitch. One of the hypotheses made for the experiment was as the stitches are made closer, the fabric would be more ruptured or damaged due to needle punctures. Thus, the less tension will be needed to separate the two clothes sewn together .The theory about closeness of stitches could lead to fabric damage cannot be tested in this experiment. The variable distance between two consecutive stitches is not small enough to cause damage due to excessive needle piercing. Besides that, the fabric chosen to do the experiment is thick and strong. The damage is unlikely to happen. 4.2)Limitations of the Mathematical Model in estimating the Strength of seam The development of the mathematical model used to predict the estimated (theoretical) magnitude of maximum tension (F = (k)(1/d)(length of cloth sewn in m)) can be used only if a certain condition is followed: 1) The force required to rupture the fabric must be more than the force required to snap the stitches. If the fabric used are weak (for example rayon and silk), the force required to separate the two fabric joined by stitches would be less as the fabric is more likely to rupture first before the thread. 2) The number of thread used must be single This is because the model was developed using samples which are used using single thread. Increasing the number of thread would increase the strength of the seam.
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However, the experiment did not include number of threads as a variable so the mathematical relationship between number of threads and strength of seam could not be estimated. 3) The type of thread used. Beside number of thread, type of thread used can also influence the strength of stitches as different types of thread have different tensile strength values. The model also assumes that all the tension applied goes to the seam only and did not significantly contributed to the elongation of the fabric ,if theres any. 4.3)Errors and Limitations Analysis The instrument and software used in conducting the experiments are reliable and highly accurate. This is because the sensitivity of them are very high with errors of only 0.5%8 The systematic error in the experiment would also contributed by the use of plastic ruler to measure distance between two consecutive stitches. This is because the smallest scale for the plastic ruler is 1.0 mm and it has an error of (0.5mm). However, the scale smaller than millimetre is micrometre which could only be measured using micrometer screw gauge. For this experiment, micrometer screw gauge is unsuitable as it is used to measure thickness of something, not the distance or separation between two points on a 2-D plane. The random error and the inconsistencies in the data collection might be contributed by the following factors: i) The sewing is done by hands. Thus, the force applied to the needle and thread while sewing is unknown. Currently there is no machine capable of sewing backstitch, running stitch, and Lilit Ubi.
8

INSTRON. 3360 Series Dual Column Tabletop Universal Testing Systems . 3360 series dual column tabletop th universal testing systems. Retrieved 28 of July 2011. http://www.instron.us/wa/product/3300-Dual-ColumnTesting-Systems.aspx?

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ii)

The inconsistencies of the thickness of the thread could lead to uneven tension distribution when the samples are being tested for tensile strength. The thinner part of the thread would be weaker and the tendency to break at the point is higher.

However, for each test carried out, the threads used were from the same batch. This is to reduce the random error. A better quality thread which has a more uniform thickness should have been used so that the force distribution within the thread will be more even. This would reduce the probability of having weak points. iii) The process of sewing the clothes is done by superimposing two clothes and sewing along the marked line. The penetration of needle could be inaccurate to the marks on both clothes because the clothes were not in fixed positions. This may lead to uneven distribution of tension in the seam. Previously the clothes was fixed using paperclip before sewing it. In future , the samples should have been fixed to a fixed clamp which will ensure that the samples are properly stretch and not moving much when it is being sewn. This technique can improve accuracy of needle penetrations and thus, the distance of separation between two consecutive stitches. iv) The rupture happened after the experiments were not observed closely enough.

Thus, it is not known whether the seam failure was really due to seam failure, fabric tear, or thread slipping through the holes. Anyone it might be, I should have observed the samples more closely the variables may change as the stated possible conditions happen.

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4.4)Suggestion for Future researches In this experiment, I focused only on the effect of distance between two consecutive stitches on strength of seam in three types of hand stitches. However, I have not investigated the factor of the tensile strengths of thread and fabric on the maximum tension that can be held by two clothes sewn together. Future research may be made to investigate the mathematical relationship between tensile strength of sewing thread and the strength of seam.

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5) APPENDICES 5.1) Raw Experimental Data

5.1.1) RUNNING STITCH Tensile strength tests for running stitch Maximum tension held by sample /N (0.5%) Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/mm (0.5 mm) Trial 2 trial 2 Trial 3 Average tension held by stitch, P/N (0.5%) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 83.5585 129.3712 69.9297 48.0853 13.5692 39.1553 19.4394 34.7080 10.0811 92.7545 131.2037 59.5308 39.1488 25.3716 38.4775 16.4124 37.7827 19.0802 145.3496 120.9180 69.5758 24.8293 30.7822 54.2979 14.7444 36.0187 18.3264 107.2209 127.1643 66.3454 37.3545 23.2410 43.9769 16.8654 36.1698 15.8292

Table 1.1 : Distance between two consecutive stitches, d/mm (0.5 mm), Maximum tension held by stitch /N (0.5%) and average tension held by stitch, P/N (0.5%)

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5.1.2) BACKSTITCH Maximum tension held by sample, N / (0.5%) Distance between two consecutive points , d/ mm (0.5mm) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 109.3797 117.4891 66.9354 52.1429 42.7351 27.1563 17.8425 23.9716 15.0934 138.0477 132.0591 80.4522 48.1365 35.9608 31.8127 30.3625 19.0483 32.8531 163.3799 94.8519 80.4756 59.1572 50.6860 29.3108 39.4880 21.4071 19.9700 136.9358 114.8000 75.9544 53.1455 43.1273 29.4266 29.2310 21.4757 22.6388 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average maximum tension held by seam, Q/N (0.5%)

Table 1.2: Distance between two consecutive points , d/ mm (0.5mm), Maximum tension held by sample, N / (0.5%) and Average maximum tension held by seam, Q/N (0.5%)

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5.1.3) LILIT UBI

Maximum tension held by sample, N / (0.5%) Distance between two consecutive points , d/ mm (0.5mm) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 130.1267 132.1029 103.3597 45.8798 55.7781 54.1820 42.1249 39.6071 38.2377 161.7949 132.9121 101.6183 56.6240 29.3036 24.5049 44.9274 35.8428 20.3867 107.9346 109.9494 85.6846 69.9144 52.4330 75.8493 59.2962 30.7918 32.9056 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Average maximum tension held by seam, R/N (0.5%)

133.2854 124.9881 96.8875 57.4727 45.8382 51.5121 48.7828 35.4139 30.5100

Table 3: Distance between two consecutive points , d/ mm (0.5mm), Maximum tension held by sample, N / (0.5%) and Average maximum tension held by seam, R/N (0.5%)

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5.2) The Products of Distance Between Two Consecutive Stitches and Tension Held by Sample Per Metre of Cloth. 5.2.1) RUNNING STITCH Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/ m ( 0.0005 m) 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 2144.4176 2543.2855 1326.9081 747.0895 464.8202 879.5384 337.3079 723.3960 316.5843 Average of d.p , kp / N % uncertainty of d.p Table 4: Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/ m ( 0.0005 m), Tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ), Values of d p / (N) and Uncertainties of d p, (d.p) / N. 11.4491 4.2888 7.6299 5.3076 3.7354 2.7889 6.1568 2.6985 6.5106 3.1658 4.6980 1.1365 1.3861 0.7431 0.4296 0.2742 0.5321 0.2091 0.4594 0.2058 0.5379 Tension held by sample per m of cloth, p / (N m-1 ) Values of d p / (N) Uncertainties of d p (d.p) / N

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5.2.2) BACKSTITCH Distance between two consecutive stitches,m /0.0005 m 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 2738.7155 2296.0005 1519.0875 1062.9103 862.5463 588.5321 584.6198 429.5133 452.7765 Average of d.q , kq / N % uncertainties of d.q 5.4774 6.8880 6.0764 5.3146 5.1753 4.1197 4.6770 3.8656 4.5278 5.1246 6.5531 1.4515 1.2513 0.8507 0.6112 0.5089 0.3561 0.3625 0.2727 0.2943 0.3358 Tension held by sample per m of cloth, q / (N m-1 ) Values of d .q / (N) Uncertainties of d q (d . q) /N

Table 5: Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/ m ( 0.0005 m), Tension held by sample per m of cloth, q / (N m-1 ), Values of d q / (N) and Uncertainties of d q , (d.q) / N.

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5.2.3) LILIT UBI

Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/ m (0.0005 m) 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010

Tension held by sample per m of cloth, r / (N m-1 )

Values of d.r / (N)

Uncertainties of dr (d.r) /N

2665.7077 2499.7625 1937.7505 1149.4545 916.7647 1030.2412 975.6568 708.2783 610.1999 Average d. r, kr / N % uncertainties of d.r

5.3314 7.4993 7.7510 5.7473 5.5006 7.2117 7.8053 6.3745 6.1020 6.5914 4.1701

1.4128 1.3624 1.0851 0.6609 0.5409 0.6233 0.6049 0.4498 0.3966 0.2749

Table 6: Distance between two consecutive stitches,d/ m (0.0005 m), tension held by sample per m of cloth, r / (N m-1 ), values of d.r / (N), uncertainties of d.r (d.r) /N

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6) BIBLIOGRAPHY Hidup, U.M .(n.d.). Jahit Penyambung retrieved 23rd July 2011, from Dunia Jahitan Anda: http://ejahitanonline.tripod.com/jahitsambung.htm Hidup, U.M .(n.d.). Jahit Penyambung retrieved 23rd July 2011, from Dunia Jahitan Anda: http://ejahitanonline.tripod.com/jahitsambung2.htm How To Determine Seam Strength (n.d). Retrieved 30th of July 2011. From My textile Notes:http://mytextilenotes.blogspot.com/2009/06/how-to-determine-seamstrength.html?dhiti=1. INSTRON. 3360 Series Dual Column Tabletop Universal Testing Systems . 3360 series dual column tabletop universal testing systems. Retrieved 28th of July 2011.http://www.instron.us/wa/product/3300-Dual-Column-TestingSystems.aspx? INSTRON. (n.d) .Material Testing e-book. Retrieved 15th July 2011 from: http://www.instron.com/subscribe/Instron Material Test Guide.pdf

K.A. Tsokos (2010). Physics for the IB Diploma (5th Edition) ,Edinburgh: Cambridge University Press.

Kerr, Ruth (2008). Physics (3rd edition). Victoria : IBID Press.

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