Oscillating Systems Overview and Worked Solutions

March 20, 2013

Introduction to SHM
To begin with lets consider a single mass on a spring, ignoring gravity1 and assuming no drag as shown in gure 1. This is the archetypical example for simple harmonic motion (SHM). Figure 1: A simple mass on a spring, no gravity

k T x m

If the spring follows Hookes Law, the force is proportional to extension: F = kx. By Newtons 2 x 2nd law of motion mx = kx (where x is shorthand for d dt2 ) so we have a linear second order ordinary dierential equation. There are several ways of solving such equations but for our purposes it only matters that the general solution is sinusoidal since d2 [sin (t + )] = 2 sin (t + ) dt2
d ie d t2 f (t) = cf (t) where f (t) is a function of time and c is a constant. This is exactly what is required to satisfy the equation of motion. By comparing results, 2 = k/m and the solution for x
2

is x (t) = A sin

k m

t .

1 Actually even if we include gravity, once the system is in equilibrium we can take that position as the new origin and we get exactly the same results.

Figure 2: Diagram for question 1: 2 masses, 2 walls, 3 springs

k 1

1 m

k 2 x1

2 m x2

k 3

Question 1 and Normal Modes

The fact that the equation of motion is linear allows us to combine solutions: if there are two solutions f (t) and g (t) then af (t) + bg (t) is also a solution. This can be seen since d2 [cos (t + )] = 2 cos (t + ) dt2 or more directly since sin (t + ) = a sin (t) + b cos (t) and we know that sin (t + ) is a solution. Note that both terms have the same angular frequency . For a more general system, a Normal Mode is an oscillating motion associated with a single frequency. More formally, all parts of the system share the same periodic time dependence. The setup for question 1 is shown in gure 2. Rather than try to nd the equations of motions of the masses directly, let us consider the nature of the forces acting. Mass 1 will experience a force from spings 1 and 2 and mass 2 will experience a force from springs 2 and 3. The force from spring 1 is proportional to its extension: F1 = kx1 . Similarly for spring 3 F3 = kx2 . The force exerted by spring 2 however is dependent not on either x1 or x2 but rather on the dierence x1 x2 (since the extension is given by this dierence). Thus the equations of motion are mx 1 = kx1 k (x1 x2 ) mx 2 = kx2 k (x2 x1 ) (1) (2)

Matrices
This is a quick detour into some basic matrix theory since this provides a neat way of summarising the equations and nding solutions. An n m matrix can be thought o as a 2D array of numbers with n rows and m columns. An arbitrary 3 2 matrix is shown below. 5 2 Z = 8 16 1 9

Many of the standard arithmetic operations can be extended to matrices and I will go through the ones we need here. Matrices are added elementwise: denoting the element in the ith row and j th column of the matrix A as Aij (so that Z21 = 8, Z32 = 9) if C = A + B then Cij = Aij + Bij , eg 2 7 4 1 + 3 7 = 1 7 4 10

Note that in order for this denition to make sense, A and B must have the same dimensions (same number of rows and columns). A matrix can be multiplied by a scalar simply by elementwise multiplication: (kA)ij = k (Aij ) eg 1 4 8 4 6 4 24 4 = 32 16 6 16 24
j

Matrices can be multiplied by vectors: (Ax)i = 2 1 3 4 x y =

Aij xj eg

2x + 3 y x + 4y

The nth identity matrix is the n n matrix composed of 1s on the leading diagonal and 0s everywhere else eg I2 = and 1 I3 = 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Multiplying an identity matrix by any vector returns the original vector. This last example shows how we can represent sets of simultaneous equations with matrices. If we have the set ax + by + cz = , dx + ey + f z = and gx + hy + iz = then we can write them as x a b c d e f y = z g h i To divide by a matrix, you multiply the equation by the matrix inverse. This is dened such that A1 A = AA1 = I . Though I havent explained how you multiply matrices together, the key point that well need is that an inverse matrix exists if and only if the determinant of A is non-zero. The determinant of a 2 2 matrix is given by det (A) = det a c b d = ad bc

We can express the determinant of a 3 3 matrix in terms of a set of 2 2 determinants: a b c e f d f d e det d e f = a det b det + c det h i g i g h g h i In general the determinant of an n n matrix can be dened recursively using the same approach: take A11 and multiply it by the determinant of the ((n 1) (n 1)) matrix that doesnt contain any of row 1 or column 1. Subtract A12 times the determinant of the matrix that doesnt contain row 1 or column 2 etc. eg for a 4 4: a b c d f g h e g h e f h e f g e f g h det i j k l = a det j k l b det i k l +c det i j l d det i j k n o p m o p m n p m n o m n o p 3

Finishing Q1
With the required maths now reviewed, let us rewrite equations 1 and 2 in matrix form: m 1 0 0 1 x 1 x 2 =k 2 1 1 2 x1 x2

We expect sinusoidal solutions so let us try x1 x2 x 1 x 2 = 2 = x1 x2 A sin (t) B = 2 A sin (t) B

This gives us (cancelling the sin (t) from both sides) m 2 1 0 0 1 A B =k 2 1 1 2 A B

Which we can write (by bringing everything onto one side) as 2k m 2 k k 2k m 2 A B = 0 0

We know that the matrix isnt a zero matrix (this implies the springs have no stiness and either the masses are massless or theyre not moving. None of these are true.). The only other possibility comes from dividing by the matrix to get the vector of amplitudes to be the zero vector. Since this again implies nothing is happening (oscillations with zero amplitude?) we dismiss this solution as well. The only way we can avoid this incredibly dull fate is if we cant divide by the matrix in the rst place (akin to trying to divide by 0 - things dont work properly if you try it) ie the determinant of the matrix is 0. Recalling the formula for the determinant of a 2 2 matrix, this means that 2k m 2 or 2k m 2 = k m 2 = 2k k So 2 = k/m or 2 = 3k/m. Having got the frequencies of oscillation, lets investigate the shapes of the normal modes. We do this by substituting back into the matrix equation. Firstly let 2 = k/m: 1 1 A 0 k = 1 1 B 0 This gives one equation relating A and B : A B = 0 so B = A. Thus the normal mode is any multiple of 1 1 in the sense that both masses move together with the same amplitude. In this mode the central spring remains unstretched at all times since x1 (t) = x2 (t). Ive tried to show this motion in gure 3.
2

k2 = 0

Figure 3: Question 1 mode 1

The other solution, 2 = 3k/m gives k 1 1 1 1 A B = 0 0

ie A B = 0 or B = A giving a motion that is a multiple of 1 1 which means the masses move with the same amplitude but in opposite directions. Ive tried to capture the motion in gure 4. Figure 4: Question 1 mode 2

Note that this is the mode with higher frequency which makes sense - the higher the frequency of an oscillation the greater its energy and this mode involves the middle spring as well as the two outer ones whereas the low-frequency mode only involves the two outer springs.

Konrad Harradine