TRNG I HC S PHM TP. H CH MINH.

TI LIU LU HNH NI B - 2003

MC LC
Li ni u ................................................................................................................... 04 Phn th nht : VT

L NGUYN T ............................................. 05I:

Chng I : CC MU NGUYN T THEO L THUYT C IN ........................................................05 1. Mu nguyn t Tomxn (Thomson)........................................................................................05 2. Mu nguyn t Rdepho (Rutherford)....................................................................................06 3. Mu nguyn t N. Bohr. ..........................................................................................................11 4. L thuyt N. Bohr i vi nguyn t hydr v cc in tng t hydr (He+, Li++, Be+++, )................................................................................................................14 5. Kim chng l thuyt N.B ohr bng thc nghim. ..................................................................18

Chng II: C S CA L THUYT LNG T ................................................................. 21

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. L thuyt photon. ....................................................................................................................21 Hiu ng quang in. ..............................................................................................................22 Hiu ng tn x Compton. ......................................................................................................24 Sng D Bri (De Broglie) ca ht vi m................................................................................26 Kim chng gi thuyt sng D bri. .....................................................................................28 H thc bt nh Haisenbc (Heisenberg). .............................................................................29 Hm sng v phng trnh Sroding......................................................................................32 Ht trong hp th nng............................................................................................................33

Chng III : CU TRC NGUYN T THEO L THUYT LNG T ................................. 36

1. Cu trc nguyn t hydr v cc in tng t hydr (He+, Li++, Be+++, ).................................................................................................................36 2. Mu nguyn t theo l thuyt lng t...................................................................................38 3. Momen t ca electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn............................................................40 4. Spin ca electron.....................................................................................................................40 5. Th nghim Stern ( Gerlc.....................................................................................................41 6. Cu trc nguyn t phc tp ( Nguyn t kim loi kim. .......................................................42 7. Bng phn hng tun hon Mendelep. .................................................................................45 8. Tia X v ph tia X. ...................................................................................................................46 Chng IV: LIN KT NGUYN T TRONG PHN T ........................................................................50 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Lin kt ion. .............................................................................................................................50 Lin kt ng ha tr ( phn t hydr H2.................................................................................51 Trng thi nng lng ca phn t.........................................................................................52 Quang ph phn t. ................................................................................................................54 rng ca mc nng lng v vch quang ph..................................................................56 Bc x t pht v bc x cng bc (Hay bc x cm ng)................................................57 Nguyn tc hot ng ca my pht Laser.............................................................................59 Hiu ng Diman thng..........................................................................................................60 Hiu ng Stark.........................................................................................................................62

Chng V :NHNG NH HNG BN NGOI LN NGUYN T BC X ....................... 56

Phn th hai : VT

L HT NHN ........................................................................... 64

Chng VI : I CNG V HT NHN ............................................................................... 64

1. Cc c trng c bn ca ht nhn........................................................................................64 2. Lc ht nhn............................................................................................................................69 3. Nng lng lin kt ht nhn. .................................................................................................71

Chng VII : CC MU CU TRC HT NHN..................................................................... 73

1. Mu git. ..................................................................................................................................73 2. Mu v ht nhn. .....................................................................................................................75

Chng VIII : PHN R PHNG X........................................................................................ 78

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Hin tng phn r phng x. ................................................................................................78 nh lut phn r phng x. ....................................................................................................78 Quy tc dch chuyn. H phng x t nhin. ..........................................................................81 Phn r ( .................................................................................................................................83 Phn r ( ..................................................................................................................................86 Phng x ( ...............................................................................................................................90 Tc ng ca tia phng x i vi mi trng vt cht..........................................................91

Chng IX : CC PHN NG HT NHN...............................................................................................92 1. Khi nim v phn ng ht nhn. ..........................................................................................92 2. Cc nh lut bo ton trong phn ng ht nhn....................................................................93 3. Cc my gia tc ht.................................................................................................................95

Chng X : NNG LNG HT NHN .................................................................................. 96

1. Phn ng phn hch. ..............................................................................................................96 2. L phn ng ht nhn ( Nh my in nguyn t. .................................................................99 3. Phn ng nhit ht nhn (nhit hnh)...................................................................................102

Chng XI : CC HT C BN ............................................................................................ 105

1. M u. .................................................................................................................................105 2. Phn loi cc ht c bn v c trng ca chng................................................................105 3. Cc loi tng tc c bn ( Ht v phn ht).......................................................................108 4. Cc nh lut bo ton...........................................................................................................109 5. Vi nt v vn h thng ha cc ht c bn....................................................................109 Ti liu tham kho .....................................................................................................................................112

LI NI U
Vt l nguyn t v ht nhn l hc phn nm trong chng trnh o to cho sinh vin ngnh vt l ca cc trng i hc S phm. Hc phn ny gn lin vi nhng thnh tu rc r v ng dng to ln ca ngnh Vt l nguyn t v Ht nhn i vi cuc sng ca con ngi, i vi cc lnh vc kinh t v khoa hc, k thut hin i khc. Gio trnh ny gm hai phn: Vt l nguyn t v Vt l ht nhn. Phn Vt l nguyn t cung cp cho sinh vin cc kin thc c bn v cc mu nguyn t theo l thuyt c in, c s ca l thuyt lng t nghin cu cu trc nguyn t; lin kt nguyn t trong phn t v nhng nh hng bn ngoi ln nguyn t bc x. Phn Vt l ht nhn trnh by nhng vn c bn v cc c trng ca ht nhn, cc mu cu trc ht nhn, s phn r phng x, cc phn ng ht nhn, nng lng ht nhn v mt s vn v cc ht c bn. Gio trnh ny l ti liu tham kho cho sinh vin cc trng i hc s phm v sinh vin ca cc trng i hc, Cao ng khc. Mc d c gng v nghim tc vi cng vic bin son, nhng chc chn khng trnh khi nhng thiu st. Chng ti mong cc bn c lng th v ng gp nhiu kin cho ni dung gio trnh, gio trnh ngy cng c hon chnh hn. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n cc ng nghip ng gp cho ni dung ca bn tho v xin cm n Ban n Bn Pht hnh ca Trng i hc S phm Tp. H Ch Minh to iu kin gip cho gio trnh ny sm ra mt bn c. CC TC GI

10

PHN TH NHT

VT L NGUYN T
Chng I

CC MU NGUYN T THEO L THUYT C IN

Vo nhng nm cui ca th k XIX v u th k XX, cc khm ph v tia phng x v Electron trong nguyn t pht ra ngoi lm o ln ton b nim cho rng nguyn t l phn t vt cht nguyn vn nh nht khng phn chia c. S xut hin ca tia phng x v electron chng t kch thc ca nguyn t cha phi l gii hn nh b nht. Bn trong nguyn t cn cha ng nhiu ht c kch thc cn nh b hn. Nhng ht y lin kt vi nhau to nn cu trc phc tp bn trong nguyn t. Cho n nay khoa hc i n nhng kt lun chnh xc v cu trc nguyn t nhng cha phi hiu ht cc chi tit ca n. Do vy chng ta ch cp n nhng quy lut c bn nhn bit c qua thc nghim v cu trc nguyn t xy dng cc m hnh nguyn t. Chng ta bt u xt cc mu nguyn t t n gin n phc tp theo l thuyt c in v bn c in. 1. MU NGUYN T TOMXN (THOMSON). nim v mu nguyn t c V. Tomxn xut ln u tin vo nm 1902. Sau t lu, vo nm 1904 J. Tomxn xy dng l thuyt v mu nguyn t da trn tng ca V. Tomxn. Theo J. Tomxn quan nim th nguyn t c dng hnh cu nhim in dng u khp vi bn knh c 10 -8 cm. Cc electron c kch thc nh hn kch thc nguyn t rt nhiu, c phn b theo cc quy lut xc nh trong khi cu tch in dng y. Mt khc electron c th chuyn ng trong phm vi kch thc ca nguyn t. V phng din in th tng tr s in tch m ca cc electron bng v ngc du vi khi cu nhim in dng. Do vy nguyn t l mt h thng trung ha v in tch. V d: Nguyn t Hydr l nguyn t n gin nht th khi cu tch in dng (+e) cn electron tch in m ((e). Nu electron v tr cch trung tm nguyn t mt khong r, trong khi bn knh ca nguyn t l R ln hn khong cch r. Khi electron s chu

11

12

tc dng ca lc tng tc tnh in Culon t pha khi cu nm trn trong vng gii hn bi bn knh r. Lc tng tac nay hng ve tam cau co tr so bang: e. e e2 F = K r2 = K r2 = f.r trong l h s t l trong h n v SI v K = 1 trong h n v CGS. Tr s e( = e. Ti tm nguyn t (r = 0) electron trng thi cn bng (F= 0), khi lch khi v tr cn bng (r ( 0) electron s thc hin dao ng iu ha quanh v tr cn bng di tc dng ca lc gi n hi (f.r) vi f l h s n hi. Do electron ng vai tr nh mt dao ng t iu ha khi dao ng quanh v tr cn bng s bc x sng in t vi tn s: vi m l khi lng ca electron. Vi gi tr r = 10 -8 cm th tn s bc x ( nm trong vng nh sng nhn thy. Nu trong nguyn t phc tp cha Z electron th cc v tr cn bng r0 s ng vi v tr cn bng gia lc ht tnh in ca electron bt k no vo tm ca khi cu nhim in dng v lc tng tc y ln nhau ca cc electron cn li ca nguyn t. Da vo mu nguyn t, Tomxn tnh ton i vi nguyn t Hydr bc x nng lng in t c bc sng trong vng c tr s c ( = 0,6 (m th kch thc ca nguyn t bng: R = 3.10 -8 cm Kt qu ny ph hp vi kt qu cho c t cc l thuyt khc, iu chng t s ng n ca mu nguyn t Tomxn. Ngy nay mu nguyn t Tomxn c xem nh mt biu tng v nguyn t mang ngha lch s nhiu hn l ngha vt l v n qu n gin khng kh nng gii thch nhng tnh cht phc tp ca quang ph bc x ca nguyn t Hydr v cc nguyn t phc tp khc.
2. MU NGUYN T RDEPHO (RUTHERFORD).

Khi nghin cu cc hin tng xuyn thu qua cc lp vt liu ca cc ht mang in tch chuyn ng vi nng lng ln lm thay i quan nim v cu trc ca nguyn t. Nm 1903 Lenard nhn thy cc chm ht ( nng lng cao d dng xuyn qua cc l kim loi dt mng. iu chng t phn nhim in dng trong khi cu nguyn t khng th phn b u trong ton b nguyn t m ch nh x mt vng c kch thc nh hn rt nhiu so vi R = 10 -8 cm. Nhng nhn xt ca Lenard c Rdepho khng nh bng nhng th nghim v hin tng tn x ht ( ln l kim loi vng dt mng trong nhng nm (1908 1910). Tia ( chnh l chm ht nhn ( 2He4 ) mang in tch (+2e) pht ra t cc ngun phng x vi vn tc kh ln. V d: Cht phng x RaC cho cc ht ( phng x vi vn tc v ( 2. 109 cm/s tng ng vi ng nng E ( 7. 106 eV. Nu hng chm ht ( bay trong chn khng t nguon phong xa N qua qua khe hep cua bo loc L hng thang vao la kim loai vang dat mong V. pha sau la vang dat mong at knh anh K th ni nao co hat ap vao knh anh se e lai vet en

13

14

tham so vi nhng cho khng c ht ( p vo.

Kt qu th nghm cho thy du vt cc ht ( li trn knh nh khng phi l mt m en m l mt vng lm tm hnh trn. Hin tng ny phn nh s tn x ca chm ht ( khi xuyn qua l vng mng. Rdepho kho st hin tng tn x ca chm ht ( khi xuyn qua l vng mng v nhn thy cc ht ( b tn x di nhiu gc khc nhau t ( = 00 cho ti ( =1800 i vi nhng ht ( b tn x di gc ln ( =1800 khng th gii thch c nu da vo mu nguyn t Tomxn. Do vy, Rdepho buc phi a ra gi thuyt mi v cu to nguyn t. Nm 1911 Rdepho gi thit l trong nnguyn t c mt trung tm tch in dng v hu nh tp trung ton b khi lng ca nguyn t c bn knh nh hn bn knh nguyn t gp nhiu ln gi l ht nhn nguyn t. Kch thc ca nguyn t xc nh bi khong cch t tm l ht nhn cho n cc electron phn b xung quanh ht nhn. Nh vy mu nguyn t Rdepho hon ton khc so vi mu nguyn t Tomxn. khng nh gi thuyt v mu nguyn t ny Rdepho xy dng l thuyt tn x ht ( ln ht nhn nguyn t v kim nghim li bng thc nghim. Ni dung chnh ca l thuyt tn x ht ( ln ht nhn nguyn t l kho st nh lng s phn b ca cc ht ( b tn x theo gc tn x ( v i chiu vi kt qu thc nghim. Theo l thuyt tn x ht ( ln ht nhn mang in tch dng do Rdepho xut th: Ht ( vi khi lng m mang in tch (+2e) bay vi vn tc v thm nhp vo vng tc dng ca trng lc Culon ca ht nhn mang in tch dng (+Ze) gy ra. Nu gi s ht nhn (+Ze) ng yn v ht ( bay ti gn ht nhn s b lc y ca ht nhn nn qu o bay ca ht ( c dng l mt nhnh ca Hyperbon. (Hnh v).
r P

r P
2

+2e

r Fn
r
2

r P
N

r F
b +Ze

r P0

Hnh 1.3. Minh hoa ly thuyet tan xa hat len h t h

Lc tng tc y tnh in Culon bng: F = K (+Ze)(+2e) 2Ze2 = K 2 r r2

trong K l h s t l, r l bn knh tng tc gia ht nhn (+Ze) v ht anpha (+2e). Trn hnh v minh ha cho l thuyt tn x ht ( ln ht nhn trong trng hp ht ( bay ngang qua cch ht nhn mt khong b gi l khong nhm. Nu ht ( bay vi khong nhm b nh s chu lc y tnh in Culon ca ht nhn mnh lm cho gc tn x ( ln, ngc li khi bay vi khong nhm b ln s chu lc y tnh in Culon t ht nhn yu

15

16

lm cho gc tn x ( nh. Nh vy gia gc tn x ( v khong chm b c quan h t l nghch. Chng ta c th thit lp quan h gia b v ( da trn nh lut bo ton ng lng v mmen ng lng i vi trng lc xuyn tm trong qu trnh tn x ca ht anpha (+2e) ln ht nhn tch in dng (+Ze). Gi l ng lng ban u ca ht ( bay ti ht nhn (trc lc tn x), sau khi tn x trn ht nhn theo kiu va chm n hi gia ht ( v ht nhn nn ng lng ht r r anpha l p = mv . Ket qua cua qua trnh tan xa lam xuat hien so gia vec t ong lng gia vec t ban u v vc t sau khi tn x (Xem hnh v minh ha). Tr s ca vc t s gia ng lng bng: r r p = 2 p 0 sin 2 = 2mv sin 2 Mt khc theo nh l v xung lng ta c: p = Fn dt
0 t

Trong Fn = F. cos( l hnh chiu ca lc tng tc y tnh in ca ht nhn (+Ze) ln ht ( (+2e) ln phng ca vct s gia ng lng . T hnh v cho thy nn do : Fn = Fcos = F.sin 2 + biu din: hay v Ta c: Cn tch phn ly t ( = 0 ng vi ht ( bay ln t bn tri b tn x theo mt nhnh Hyperbon i ra xa v cng men theo ng tim cn ng vi gc ( = (( ( (). Do tng tc gia ht ( vi ht nhn trong trng lc xuyn tm nn mmen ng lng bo ton: L = mv.b = m.r2 Suy ra: v.b = .r2. Do ta c: p 2Ze + d = v.b sin 2
0 -

= const

2Ze2 v.b 2cos 2

ng nht hai biu thc: v ta c: 2Ze2 2mv.sin 2 = v.b 2cos 2 Suy ra kt qu: cotg 2 = mv2 2Ze2 b

Hm l hm nghch bin, vy khi b gim th ( tng v ngc li khi b tng th ( gim. Kt qu ban u ny phn nh qu trnh tn x ca mt ht ( ln mt ht nhn kh ph hp vi d bo.

17

18

Trong thc t chm ht ( gm nhiu ht bay ti b nhiu ht nhn trong l kim loi gy tn x, do vy vic gi thit mt ht ( b mt ht nhn gy tn x ch l trng hp n gin ha vn xem xt ban u. By gi ta xt c chm ht ( bay ti l kim loi. Ta gi thit cc ht ( trong chm ht bay song song v cch u nhau. Chm ht ( c tit din ngang l S. Nhng ht ( no bay theo khong nhm b ti ht nhn s b tn x di gc (, cn nhng ht ( no bay theo khong nhm (b ( db) s b tn x di gc ln hn (( + d(). Trong thc nghim khng th xc nh c tng ht ( b ht nhn d gy tn x nhng xc sut ht ( b tn x hon ton c th xc nh b c. Xc sut ht ( b tn x trn mt ht nhn db l t s gia din tch ca hnh vnh khn bao quanh ht nhn: dS = dS = 2bdb 2(.b.db v tit din S ca chm ht ( v nhng ht Hnh 1.4 (; no tin n gn ht nhn trong l kim loi vng Au (hnh 1.4) trong vng khong nhm b bin thin t b n (b + db) s ri vo din tch hnh vnh khn dS = 2(.b.db l vng b ht nhn tn x. Cn nhng ht ( nm trong tit din ngang S ca chm ( ngoi gii hn ca din tch hnh vnh khn dS = 2(.b.db s khng b tn x mnh nh trong vng din tch hnh vnh khn ang xt. Do vy, xc sut s ht ( b mt ht nhn gy tn x l: . Nu c n ht nhn gy tn x th xc sut s bng:
Au

dW =

2.b.db N.S. S

(1.1)

Trong : N l mt nguyn t trong l kim loi vng gy tn x (l s nguyn t cha trong mt n v th tch l kim loi ). ( l b dy l kim loi. S l tit din chm ht ( ph ln b mt l kim loi. Kt qu ta c: dW = T biu thc: suy ra: 1 d mv2 = 2Ze2 db 2 sin2 2 2.b.db.N.

Thay th vo biu thc (1.1) ta c:

19

20

2 2Ze dW = N.. mv2 2 cotg 2

d 2sin2 2

tin tnh ton ta c th biu din h thc: cotg 2 cos 2 sin 2 sin = = sin2 2 sin4 2 2sin4 2 Suy ra:
2 2 d 2Ze 2.sin.d Ze dW = N.. mv2 = N.. 2 mv sin4 2 sin4 2 trong d( = 2(.sin(.d( l gc khi bao ly gc tn x ca chm ht ( t gc ( n (( + d). Cng thc ny gi l cng thc Rdepho i vi qu trnh tn x ca chm ht ( ln l kim loi. Cng thc ny l kt qu ca l thuyt tn x ht ( ln cc ht nhn nguyn t trong l kim loi. Nm 1913, cng thc Rdepho c kim chng bng thc nghim. Nh vy gi thit v s tn ti ca ht nhn trong nguyn t hon ton c th chp nhn. Da vo m hnh nguyn t c ht nhn ngi ta tin hnh xc nh bn knh tng tc ngn nht gia ht nhn v ht ( khi ht ( bay trc din vo ht nhn. Bn knh tng tc ngn nht c xc nh: mv2 (+2e).(+Ze) 2Ze2 = K = K 2 rmin rmin T nhn c kt qu rmin i vi mt s kim loi c gi tr vo c rmin ( 1,13. 10 -13 cm. T kt qu ny cho php suy on s b kch thc ca ht nhn nguyn t. Nh vy nu kch thc nguyn t vo c 10 -8 cm th kch thc ca ht nhn vo c 10 -13 cm, tc l bn knh ht nhn nh hn bn knh nguyn t khong 5 bc.

Da vo cng thc Rdepho v o c bng thc nghim i vi s ht ( b tn x di nhiu gc khc nhau (quan st di knh hin vi cc du vt ca ht ( li trn mn cm quang) ngi ta xc nh gi tr ca Z ng bng s electron c mt trong thnh phn ca cc nguyn t trung ha v hon ton trng khp vi s th t ca nguyn t ha hc trong bng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc ca Mendelep. Theo mu nguyn t c ht nhn cc electron phn b trong khng gian bao quanh ht nhn. Kch thc cu hnh ca cc electron bao quanh ht nhn c trng cho kch thc ca nguyn t. Theo l thuyt in ng lc hc Irnsoi th mt h gm cc electron mang in tch m v ht nhn mang in tch dng c tr s bng nhau khng th tn ti trong mt h cn bng tnh ti m ch c th tn ti di dng cn bng ng. Vn dng l thuyt ny Rdepho bt cc electron phi chuyn ng quanh ht nhn theo cc qu o khp kn theo kiu tng t nh cc hnh tinh chuyn ng quanh mt tri. V vy, mu nguyn t cha ht nhn ca Rdepho c gi l mu hnh tinh nguyn t. cho h nguyn t bn vng v mt c hc th khi cc electron chuyn ng trn qu o trn vi bn knh R v vn tc v phi m bo sao cho cc lc ly tm qun tnh ca electron cn bng vi lc ht tnh in Culon ca ht nhn: Ze2 mv2 R = K R2

21

22

Mt khc nng lng lin kt gia electron v ht nhn trong nguyn t bao gm ng nng v th nng tng tc gia electron v ht nhn: E = E + Et = mv2 Ze2 K 2 R

n gin ta gi thit ht nhn nguyn t hu nh ng yn, ch c electron quay quanh ht nhn. T biu thc trn ta suy ra: mv2 Ze2 2 = K 2R Th vo biu thc nng lng lin kt ta c: Ze2 Ze2 Ze2 E = K 2R K R = K 2R trong K l h s t l ( trong h n v SI hay K=1 trong h n v CGS); cn e l in tch ca electron. Nhng theo quan im in ng lc hc th mt h nh vy khng th tn ti bn vng v khi electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn tng ng nh mt dng in trn khp kn c mmen lng cc in v mmen t. Mmen lng cc in ca nguyn t I s quay theo kiu nh mmen ng lng ca con v quay trong trng lc hp dn ca qu t xung quanh trc thng ng vung gc vi mt t. Khi mmen lng cc in I quay s bin thin tun hon theo thi gian, bc x sng in t nn nng lng lin kt E s b gim dn, ko theo lm cho bn knh qu o ca electron gim dn. Cui cng th electron s ri vo ht nhn nguyn t. Nh vy nguyn t khng tn ti bn vng; iu ny hon ton mu thun vi thc t. Nguyn t l h tn ti bn vng nhng theo mu nguyn t Rdepho th khng bn vng. Nh vy tng xy dng mu nguyn t theo kiu c hc thin th khng thnh cng. Nhn li hai mu nguyn t Tomxn v Rdepho, ta nhn thy c nhng mt c v mt cha c. Trong mu nguyn t Tomxn bt cc electron bi trong qu cu nhim in dng, cn trong mu nguyn t Rdepho bt cc electron quay quanh ht nhn u khng hp l. Nh vy chng t khng th p dng rp khun c hc c in cho th gii nguyn t. Mun thot khi nhng b tc ny ch c cch phi t b cc phng php truyn thng ca vt l hc c in, sng to ra l thuyt mi. N.Bohr l ngi i theo hng tm kim l thuyt mi cho th gii vi m th gii nguyn t. Nhng hn ch ca mu nguyn t Rdepho c khc phc trong mu nguyn t N. Bohr.
3. MU NGUYN T N. BOHR.

Nm 1913 N. Bohr xy dng mu nguyn t Hydr l nguyn t n gin nht. xy dng mu nguyn t mi ny N. Bohr s dng nhng kt qu ca quang ph bc x nguyn t Hydr, vn dng tng lng t ca thuyt Plank v thuyt photon nh sng ca Anhstanh. I. TNH QUY LUT CA QUANG PH NGUYN T HYDR. Vo nhng nm cui ca th k XIX, khi nghin cu quang ph ngi ta nhn thy cc bc sng trong ph nguyn t hp thnh nhng dy vch xc nh gin on gi l dy ph. Nm 1885 Banme (Balmer) l mt nh ton hc Thy S thit lp c biu thc m t cc vch trong dy quang ph bc x ca nguyn t Hydr trong vng nh sng nhn thy. Dy quang ph ny mang tn dy quang ph Banme. Trong dy quang ph Banme vch c bc sng di nht v r nht ( = 6564 A0 c k hiu l H( , vch tip

23

24

thp k hiu l H( , vi bc sng (=4863 A0. Theo chiu gim ca bc sng cc vch ph cng b tr st vo nhau v cng sng yu dn cho n mt vch gii hn m t khng cn phn bit c cc vch ring l na m ch thy mt dy m lin tc. Cng thc Banme cho dy quang ph Hydr trong vng nhn thy c biu din bng cng thc: 1 1 1 = = R 22 - n2 Trong : * gi l s sng l s bc sng trn mt n v di; n = 1, 2, 3, 4, l cc s nguyn t nhin * R l hng s Ritbe (R = 1,096776. 107 m-1 ) T cng thc ny, tnh c gi tr ca vch u tin H( ng vi n = 3, vch th hai H( ng vi n = 4, vch th ba H( ng vi n = 5, vch th t H( ng vi n = 6 v vch gii hn (vch ranh gii) H( ng vi n ( (. Tt c nhng gi tr tnh ton theo cng thc Banme ph hp tt vi cc kt qu thc nghim Cc dy quang ph bc x ca nguyn t Hydr c minh ha hnh 1.5. Ngoi dy Banme, ngi ta cn tm thy cc dy quang ph khc trong vng hng ngoi v t ngoi cng c quy lut tng t.

H
Vung hong ngoai

Vung nhn thay Vung t ngoai

Hnh 1.5

Trong vng t ngoi c dy Lyman vi cc s sng: vi n = 2, 3, 4, ( Trong vng hng ngoi c cc dy quang ph: - Pasen: - Brakt: - Phund: vi n = 4, 5, 6, ( vi n = 5, 6, 7, ( vi n = 6, 7, 8, (

Hp nht cc cng thc trn thnh mt dng chung c gi l cng thc Banme tng qut: vi m > n Nu gi nguyn tr s n = 1 thay i m = 2, 3, 4, ta c dy Lyman ; n = 2 v thay i m = 3, 4, 5, ta c dy Banme ; nu gi nguyn n = 3 v thay i m = 4, 5, 6, ta c dy Pasen v v.v ta s c tt c cc dy quang ph. S tn ti ca tnh qui lut quang ph nguyn t Hydr cng nh quang ph ca nhiu nguyn t phc tp khc l nhng bng chng v mt qui lut mi m, l tnh gin on khng lin tc ca quang ph nguyn t. II. THUYT N. BOHR. Ni dung ca thuyt N. Bohr c xy dng trn hai nh v mt iu kin v lng t ha mmen ng lng qu o. Nhng nh ny c a ra da trn c s vn dng khi nim lng t nng lng ca Plank (( = h() v khi nim photon nh sng

25

26

ca Anhstanh (Einstein) kt hp vi nhng ni dung ca l thuyt Rdepho v tnh qui lut ca quang ph nguyn t Hydr. 1. nh th nht v cc qu o dng (trng thi dng ca nguyn t). Electron trong nguyn t chuyn ng theo cc qu o trn c nng lng hon ton xc nh gi l cc qu o dng hay trng thi dng. Khi chuyn ng theo cc qu o dng trong nguyn t electron khng bc x nng lng in t. 2. iu kin lng t ha v mmen ng lng qu o. Khi electron chuyn ng trn qu o dng phi tha mn sao cho mmen ng lng qu o ca n lun lun bng mt s nguyn ln ca hng s Plank chia cho 2( ( h tc l = ): 2 L = m.vnrn = n ? vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, Trong : m l khi lng ca electron. l vn tc ca electron. l bn knh ca qu o dng. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, c gi l lng t s chnh. 3. nh v tn s (c ch bc x). Nguyn t ch hp th hay pht x nng lng di dng bc x sng in t theo c ch nh photon nh sng khi n chuyn t trng thi dng ny sang trng thi dng khc c xc nh: h = Eni Enk ng vi

vi l nng lng trng thi u v l nng lng trng thi cui. Nu qu trnh pht x v nu ng vi qu trnh hp th. Ni dung ca nh ny c minh ha trn hnh 1.6: Mi qu o dng tng ng vi mt mc nng lng dng. Mi mc nng lng c biu din bng mt vch nm ngang.

Nh vy electron trong nguyn t c th chuyn ng theo cc qu o dng khc nhau, s tng ng vi cc mc nng lng khc nhau. Cc mc nng lng phn b gin on khng lin tc. Cc bc chuyn ca electron trong nguyn t t trng thi dng ny sang trng thi dng khc c biu din bng nhng mi tn. Cc bc chuyn t trng thi nng lng thp hn sang trng thi nng lng cao hn tng ng vi qu trnh hp th ca nguyn t. Ngc li cc

27

28

bc chuyn t trng thi nng lng cao hn sang trng thi nng lng thp hn tng ng vi qu trnh bc x ca nguyn t. Vi nhng nh trn, l thuyt N. Bohr khc phc c mt hn ch ca l thuyt Rdepho v s tn ti bn vng ca nguyn t v ph bc x ca nguyn t c dng vch gin on (khng lin tc).
4. L THUYT N. BOHR I VI NGUYN T HYDR V CC IN TNG T HYDR (He+, Li++, Be+++ )

Nguyn t Hydr cu to t ht nhn l photon (p) mang in tch dng(+e) v mt electron mang in tch m (-e) chuyn ng theo qu o trn bn knh r quanh ht nhn. Cc in tng t Hydr nh He+, Li++, Be+++ (Hydr c Z = 1, cn Heli c Z = 2, Liti c Z = 3, Berili c Z = 4, ), v phng din cu trc th c mt ht nhn v lp ngoi cng c mt electron tng t nh nguyn t Hydr; cho nn gi l cc in tng t Hydr. Do vy c th p dng chung l thuyt N. Bohr cho c Hydr v cc in tng t Hydr. cho h nguyn t bn vng th nng lng lin kt ca electron vi ht nhn bng: Ze2 E = K 2r Vn dng iu kin lng t ha mmen ng lng qu o N. Bohr:

Ln
Trong :

= m.vn.rn = n

m l khi lng electron (xem nh nguyn t cu to t electron v ht nhn, ch c electron chuyn ng cn ht nhn ng yn). n = 1, 2, 3, 4, gi l lng t s chnh. ? l hng s Plank chia cho 2( (? vn l vn tc ca electron. rn l bn knh qu o ca electron. ) Mmen ng lng qu o Ln ch ph thuc vo lng t s n.

29

30

iu kin cn bng ca electron chuyn ng trn qu o trn l: mv2 Ze2 = K r2 r Suy ra: vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4,

T iu kin lng t ha mmen ng lng qu o dn n bn knh qu o ca electron cng b lng t ha. Bn knh qu o cng ch ph thuc vo lng t s chnh n. Vi n = 1 ta c: Vi n = 2 ta c: Vi n = 3 ta c: v.v

i vi Hydr Z = 1 v n = 1 ta c: 2 r1 = a0 = Kme2 = 0,529. 10 -8 cm

a0 gi l bn knh qu o N. Bohr l bn knh qu o ca electron gn ht nhn nht, cc qu o khc ng vi n = 2, 3, 4, 5, c xc nh: r2 = 22.a0, r3 = 32.a0, i vi cc in tng t ta c: vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, Electron chuyn ng trn tng qu o tng ng vi vn tc hon ton xc nh: vi n = 1, 2, 3, Tuy nhin trn mi qu o dng vn tc ca electron lun lun khng i m bo cho qu o n nh v nng lng khng thay i theo yu cu ca nh v nng lng trng thi dng. Biu thc nng lng lin kt ca electron trong nguyn t: Ze2 En = - K 2r n = -K
2 4 Ze2 2 Z me = K 2 2 2 2 2n n . 2 KmZe2

vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, Nh vy nguyn t khng th nhn mi gi tr nng lng ty m ch nhn nhng gi tr gin on (khng lin tc); ng vi n = 1 ta c E1 , n = 2 ta c E2 , vi n = 3 ta c E3 v.v T quan h ca nng lng cho thy lng t s n ng vai tr chnh ca nng lng nn c gi l lng t s chnh. S b nh gi l thuyt N. Bohr i vi Hyr Z = 1 cho thy: 2 a0 = K me2 = 0,529.10 -8 cm me4 2 E1 = - K 2.12. 2 = - 13,53 eV

31

32

Cc kt qu ny hon ton ph hp vi cc l thuyt khc v ph hp vi thc nghim. iu chng t l thuyt N. Bohr hon ton ng n ph hp vi cc qui lut ca nguyn t. Khi n ( ( th nng lng lin kt ca electron trong nguyn t En ( 0 l trng thi nng lng cao nht ca nguyn t, ng vi trng hp electron khng cn lin kt vi nguyn t na, nh vy nguyn t bin thnh in dng v gi l s in ha nguyn t. Tr s ca nng lng in ha ca nguyn t Hydr bng: Eion = E E1 = 0 + 13,53 = 13,53 eV Kt qu ny hon ton ph hp vi thc nghim. Vn dng l thuyt N. Bohr ta cng nhn c cng thc Banme tng qut v quang ph bc x ca nguyn t Hydr: 2 4 2 4 2 Z me 2 Z me h = Eni - Enk = -K 2 2.n 2 + K 2 2.n 2 i k Z2me4 1 h = K2 2 2 n 2 k Nu t: K2me4 1 R = 2 2 hc = K2me4 4c 3 = 1,09677.107 m -1 1 n 2 i

c gi tr ng bng hng s Ritbe. Kt qu ny cng khng nh thm s ng n ca l thuyt N. Bohr. Biu din cng thc trn thng qua s sng ta thu c kt qu:
= 1 = c = Eni - Enk me4 2 2 1 = K hc 2 2.hc Z nk2 1 - n 2 i

vi m > n Biu thc ny c dng trng vi cng thc Banme tng qut nu t ni = m v nk = n. V bn cht th n = 1, 2, 3, trong cng thc Banme ch l nhng con s s hc thun ty khng cha ng ni dung vt l nhng trong l thuyt N. Bohr n c mt ngha vt l, l lng t s, c trng cho cc trng thi nng lng trong nguyn t. Mi vch quang ph Hydr thu c t thc nghim tng ng vi qa trnh chuyn gia hai mc nng lng tng ng trong nguyn t. Nh c ch ny m tnh qui lut ca quang ph nguyn t Hydr v cc in tng t Hydr c lm sng t. ng gp ny ca l thuyt N. Bohr tht l ln lao v gp phn thc y ngnh quang ph hc pht trin mnh m v t nhiu thnh tu bt ng trong khoa hc k thut. Thng qua hng s Ritbe biu thc nng lng lin kt ca electron trong nguyn t c th biu din di dng: En Trong : h = 6,6. 10 -34 J.S l hng s Plank. c = 3. 108 m/s l vn tc nh sng. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, l lng t s chnh. = R.h.c 2 Z n2

33

34

Ni dung l thuyt N. Bohr v c ch to ra cc dy quang ph c th minh ha trn cng mt gin sau: (Hnh 1.8)
En O E >0 n

En l nng lng lin kt electron trong nguyn t:

- R.h.c 2 Z n2

E4 E3 E2

Day Day Pasen Day B

n= n= n= n=

En =

< 0

r4 E1 Day Lyman r1 r3 r2 n=

n = 1 l mc c bn. n = 2, 3, 4, 5, ( l cc mc kch thch. Bn knh qu o r1 ng vi mc E1 v r2 ng vi mc E2 , r3 ng vi mc E3 , r ng vi nng lng .Khi electron s ri xa nguyn t v bin nguyn t thnh in dng.

Hnh 1.8

Bn cnh nhng thnh cng ni bt, l thuyt N. Bohr gii quyt nhiu vn v cu trc v quang ph bc x nguyn t; tuy nhin l thuyt N. Bohr cng bc l nhiu hn ch. Trc ht l thuyt N. Bohr ch p dng thnh cng cho nguyn t Hydr, i vi cc nguyn t phc tp l thuyt N. Bohr cha th gii quyt c. L thuyt N. Bohr cha ng mu thun ni ti cho nn ni dung ca n cha tht hon chnh th hin s kt hp va l thuyt c in ln l thuyt lng t di dng cc nh c tnh cht p t. L thuyt N. Bohr cha cp n cng v b rng ca cc vch ph, c bit vn cu trc tinh t ca cc vch quang ph khng th l gii c.

35

36

Cho d l thuyt N. Bohr cn b hn ch, nhng nhng g m l thuyt N. Bohr lm c, c th ni l nhng vic lm mang tnh cch mng trong vt l hc. L thuyt N. Bohr c xem nh mt qu trnh chuyn tip t vt l hc c in sang vt l lng t hin i.
5. KIM CHNG L THUYT N. BOHR BNG THC NGHIM.

Nm 1914 Frank v Hc tin hnh th nghim cho php xc nh trc tip s tn ti ca nhng trng thi nng lng gin on ca nguyn t v c ch bc x v hp th ca n. Th nghim tin hnh nh sau: Trong mt ng chn khng bng thy tinh c b tr Catt (K), Ant (A) v cc li (L). tng ca th nghim ny l dng chm electron pht ra t K c tng tc trong in trng va chm trc tip vo cc nguyn t ca cht kh cn kho st c bm vo trong ng thy tinh ban u ht ht khng kh c chn khng nht nh. S th nghim c biu din theo nguyn tc sau:
K e L A
G

ng thy tinh hnh tr c chn khng vi p sut 0,10 mm Hg. Gia Catt (K) v li L c ni vi th tng tc V1 , gia li v Ant (A) cng c ni vi in th nh hn V2 (khng ln hn 0,5V).

Trong ng thy tinh Hnh 1.9. S o th nghiem Frank c cha hi thy ngn, Hec khi electron thot ra t K s va chm vo cc nguyn t kh thy ngn theo hai cch:

( Cch va chm th nht l va chm n hi, trong cch va chm ny nng lng ca electron khng b bin i m ch thay i hng bay. Th tng tc V1 c th iu chnh linh hot iu khin dng in Ant. ( Cch va chm th hai l va chm khng n hi, kt qu ca loi va chm ny lm cho nng lng ca electron b bin i do truyn nng lng cho cc nguyn t kh thy ngn. Theo l thuyt N. Bohr th nguyn t hi thy ngn ch nhn tng lng nng lng do electron truyn cho ch khng phi nhn mi gi tr bt k. Kt qu nguyn t thy ngn chuyn ln mt trong s cc trng thi kch thch c th c i vi nguyn t thy ngn. Trng thi kch thch gn nht chnh lch so vi trng thi c bn mt gi tr nng lng c 4,86 eV. Chng no cc electron pht ra t K cha c tng tc ln, tc l cha t tr s eV1 = 4,86 eV th va chm gia electron vi cc nguyn t thy ngn ch l va chm n hi v dng in Ant tng ln. Khi va tng gi tr ng nng ca electron

37

38

n 4,86 eV, tc th din ra va chm khng n hi gia cc electron vi cc nguyn t hi thy ngn. Trong va chm khng n hi electron truyn ton b nng lng cho nguyn t thy ngn lm cho nguyn t thy ngn b kch thch lm cho mt trong s cc electron nguyn t thy ngn chuyn t trng thi c bn ln trng thi kch thch. Do mt nng lng nn electron sau khi va chm khng n hi khng th n Catt c. Do vy khi hiu in th gia Catt v li (L) bng 4,86 eV th dng in Ant phi gim xung. Hin tng s t xy ra khi nng lng ca electron bng eV1= 2. 4,86 eV ; eV2=3. 4,86 eV ; tc l eV1 = n. 4,86 eV, th electron c th tham gia va chm khng n hi hai, ba hay nhiu ln. ng c trng Von Ampe I=f(V) m t s ph thuc ca dng in Ant v hiu in th t vo Catt v li (L) khng nh tnh ng n v trng thi nng lng dng trong nguyn t ca l thuyt N. Bohr.

Trong th nghim Frank v Hc khi tng hiu in th V ngi ta nhn thy nhng st dng in ng vi cc gi tr in th V=4,86V ; V=9,72V; V= 4,58 V; ng thi cng pht hin thy trong ng thy tinh c bc x t ngoi pht ra vi bc sng (= 2537 A0. Cc nguyn t kh thy ngn sau khi c kch thch bi cc va chm vi electron, tr v trng thi c bn v pht ra cc phtn c nng lng h( = 4,9eV ng bng nng lng hp th ca electron. Nh vy th nghim ca Frank v Hc xc nhn s tn ti ca cc mc nng lng gin on ca nguyn t, tc l khng nh tnh ng n ca hai tin c bn trong l thuyt N.Bohr. Th nghim Frank v Hc cng chng t rng nguyn t khng phi d dng nhn ty tin nng lng ca electron t bn ngoi cung cp cho nguyn t, chng no nng lng ny cha ng bng nng lng cn thit chuyn n t mc ny sang mc khc, tc l t trng thi dng ny sang trng thi dng khc.

39

40

41

42

Chng II

C S CA L THUYT LNG T
1. L THUYT PHOTON.

C s ca l thuyt photon c xy dng trn tin cho rng: nh sng v cc loi bc x in t c cu thnh t cc ht mang nng lng nh v gin on gi l cc photon hay lng t. Mi photon mang theo nng lng ph thuc vo tn s bc x in t tun theo h thc:

= h
Trong :

= h

h = 6,626. 10 -34 J.S l hng s Planck. c = 3. 10 8 m/s l vn tc lan truyn ca bc x in t trong chn khng (k c vn tc lan truyn nh sng). ( l tn s. ( l bc sng.

Mi photon s tng tc hon ton hoc khng tng tc vi vt cht, ngha l n hoc c th truyn ton b nng lng ca mnh hoc khng truyn mt t nng lng no c. V cc photon chuyn ng vi vn tc nh sng nn theo thuyt tng i Einstein, khi lng ngh ca chng bng khng, do nng lng ca cc photon ch c th c ngun gc ng hc. Nu mt photon tn ti th n s chuyn ng vi vn tc nh sng, nu photon khng chuyn ng vi vn tc nh th na th n cng khng cn tn ti. i vi photon khi lng ngh m0 = 0, h thc nng xung lng tng i tnh c dng: E = p.c Kt qu ny suy ra t h qu ca thuyt tng i:

m =

v2 1 - c2
ta c:

m0

nu nhn hai v ca biu thc ny vi

2 4 m2 c4 m2 v2 c2 = m0 c

Mt khc theo h thc lin h gia nng lng v khi lng: E = m c2 v E0 = m0c2 Vi ng nng bng: E = mc2 - m0c2 Trong E l nng lng v E0 l nng lng ngh tng ng vi khi lng ngh m0. Do ta c:

43

44

Khi m0 = 0 th nng lng bng: E = p.c Theo quan nim lng t th cng ca bc x in t (trong c cng nh sng) t l vi s photon p ln mt n v din tch t vung gc vi phng truyn ca bc x: I = N.h Trong : h( l nng lng ca mt photon. N l thng lng photon (s photon ti trn mt n v din tch trong mt n v thi gian) p n im ang xt. Da vo thuyt photon ngi ta gii thch c nhiu hin tng nh hin tng quang in, hin tng tn x Compton v.v
2. HIU NG QUANG IN.

Hiu ng quang in l hin tng gii thot cc electron t b mt kim loi khi c cc bc x in t thch hp chiu vo n. Cc electron bt ra t b mt kim loi gi l quang electron. C th nghin cu bng thc nghim hin tng quang in da vo s in t (hnh 2.1): Trong mt ng thy tinh ht ht khng kh ri b tr vo hai in cc Ant (A) v Catt (K). H thng ny c mc vo mt s c hiu in th u. Khi di mt chm bc x in t thch hp vo Catt (K) trong mch xut hin dng in qua n k G. Thay i hiu in th u gia Catt v Ant c ghi nhn qua vn k V. T kt qu thc nghim nhn c ng c trng Von Ampe c dng l mt ng cong c biu din qua th hnh 2.2. T th ng c trng Von - Ampe I = f(u) ta nhn thy: 1. Ban u cng dng in tng theo hiu in th u; khi t n gi tr u xc nh th dng in tr nn bo ha (Ibh) tc l khi u c tng thm th dng in vn khng tng na. 2. Ngay ti tr s u = 0 cng dng quang in vn c gi tr khc khng I0 ( 0. iu ny chng t khi cc electron thot ra khi Catt c sn ng nng ban u mv2 E0 = 2 . 3. C th trit tiu dng quang in ban u bng cch tc dng vo hai in cc Ant v Catt mt hiu in th ngc gi l hiu in th cn (uc) ; hiu in th cn uc c gi tr sao cho cng cn ca in trng

45

46

bng ng nng ban u cc i ca cc quang electron:

mvmax = e.uc 2
Hin tng quang in c gii thch theo thuyt photon nh sau: Cc electron t do b nht trong kim loi khng th t ng thot ra khi gii hn ca kim loi. thot ra ngoi kim koi, t nht electron phi c ng nng bng cng thot A1 tng ng vi tng cht liu ca kim loi xc nh. Bnh thng ng nng chuyn ng nhit trung bnh ca electron trong kim loi nh hn cng thot A1. Tuy nhin khi di bc x in t c tn s thch hp vo b mt kim loi, cc electron trong kim loi hp th photon. Mi electron hp th mt photon, tc l n nhn thm nng lng ( = h(. Nng lng ny mt phn chuyn thnh cng thot A1 v phn cn li chuyn thnh ng nng ban u ca electron. ng nng ban u cng ln khi electron nm cng gn b mt kim loi do electron nm trn b mt kim loi s c ng nng cc i. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng ta c: c h = h = A1 mvmax + 2
2

Biu thc ny gi l phng trnh Anhstanh. Da vo phng trnh trn c th gii thch cc qui lut ca hiu ng quang in.

1. nh lut gii hn quang in.

Nh bit, ng nng khng bao gi c gi tr m m lun lun dng nn ta c: 2 mvmax c - A1 = h 2 > 0 c c - A1 > 0 hay h > A1 Suy ra: h Nu t Gi tr (0 hay (0 gi l gii hn quang in, y l iu kin cn thit hiu ng quang in c th xy ra. Nh vy i vi mi kim loi xc nh, hiu ng quang in ch c th xy ra khi di chm bc x c bc sng ( phi nh hn bc sng gii hn (0 hay c tn s ( phi ln hn tn s gii hn (0. Mi kim loi c mt gi tr (0 (hay (0) c trng ca n. 2. nh lut v dng in bo ton. Dng quang in bo ha t c khi c bao nhiu electron b nh bt ra khi Catt (K) u hng v Ant (A) do vy dng in s cc i v khng i theo thi gian. Nhng s quang electron thot khi b mt Catt t l vi s photon m kim loi ch to Catt hp th. S photon li t l vi cng ca chm bc x di vo Catt, chnh v th m cng dng quang in bo ha (Ibh) t l vi cng ca chm bc x di ti. ng cong bo ha (1) ng vi cng chm bc x di ti Catt nh hn so vi ng cong bo ha (2) ng vi cng chm bc x di ti Catt ln hn. 3. nh lut ng nng cc i ca quang electron. ng nng cc i ban u ca quang electron ch ph thuc vo tn s ca chm bc x di ti kim loi m khng ph thuc vo cng ca n. Theo cng thc Anhstanh ta c:

47

48

mvmax 2 h Suy ra:

= h - h0 = h( - 0)

Nu n quan h gia cng cn v hiu in th cn ta c: = h0 + e.uc

e.uc = h( - 0)

T cho thy ng nng cc i ca quang electron ch ph thuc vo tn s bc x di ti b mt kim loi.

3. HIU NG TN X COMPTON.

Nm 1922 Compton lm th nghim cho mt chm tia X vi bc sng ( xc nh di vo cc cht liu: paraphin, grapht, v.v , v nhn thy khi truyn qua cc cht liu ny, chm tia X b tn x (truyn lch phng so vi phng ban u). Trong ph tia X thng thng, ngoi vch ph ng vi gi tr bc sng ti ( cn xut hin vch ph ng vi bc sng (( c gi tr ln hn ( (tc l (( > (). Cc kt qu thc nghim cho thy bc sng (( khng ph thuc vo cu to ca cht b di bi tia X m ch ph thuc vo gc tn x ( (Xem hnh 2.3). tng ca bc sng do kt qu tn x c xc nh:

= - = 2c sin2 2
hoc cn c th biu din di dng: Trong : gi l bc sng Compton m = 9,1. 10 -31 kg l khi lng ca electron. c lvn tc nh sng

= - = 2c (1 - cos)

h l hng s Planck.

Da vo thuyt photon ca Anhstanh c th gii thch hin tng tn x Compton. Hiu ng tn x Compton c th xem l kt qu ca qu trnh tn x n hi ca chm photon tia X di ti cc in t trong nguyn t cht gy tn x.

49

50

Trong ph tia X, vch ng vi bc sng ( c th xem nh tia X b tn x trn cc electron nm cc lp in t bn trong nguyn t b tr gn st vi ht nhn, nhng electron ny lin kt mnh vi ht nhn nh khng th no nh bt chng ra c, cn vch ng vi bc sng (( > ( tng ng vi s tn x ca chm tia X vi electron lp ngoi lin kt yu vi ht nhn nguyn t (c th xem nh electron t do) nn chm tia X nh bt electron lin kt ra khi phm vi nguyn t. Kt qu ca qu trnh tn x ny chm photon tia X nhng mt phn nng lng nh bt electron, phn cn li mang theo khi b tn x cho nn nng lng ca n gim i lm cho bc sng tng ln, kt qu ta nhn c (( > (. Trong thc nghim Compton s dng tia X vi bc sng ( = 0,7A0 tn x trn Grapht. V nng lng tia X tng ng vi gi tr c 1,8. 104 eV, gi tr ny ln hn rt nhiu so vi nng lng lin kt ca electron cc lp bn ngoi ca nguyn t Ccbon l thnh phn chnh ca Grapht. Chnh v vy m c th xem cc electron lp ngoi ca nguyn t l t do so vi nng lng chm tia X di ti Grapht. Da vo nh lut bo ton nng lng v bo ton ng lng trong qu trnh tn x chm tia X ln electron trong nguyn t, thu nhn cng thc tn x Compton. Tia X xem nh photon ti c nng lng v ng lng: Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng ta c: hc + m0c2

hc + mc2

(2.1)

v nh lut bo ton ng lng: p = p + pe

(2.2)

T cng thc (2.2) suy ra: pe = p - p pe c gi tr c xc nh bi cng thc: pe

2

(2.3)

p2 + p2 - 2ppcos

P =

h E = h

h E = h P= X e

e y

Hnh 2.4. S tan xa tia X len e

r p'

Ee = mc2 Pe = mv

51

r pe

52

Trong m0 l khi lng ngh ca electron v m l khi lng ca electron chuyn ng vi vn tc v. Ly phng trnh th (2.1) bnh phng tr hai v cho phng trnh th hai (2.2) bnh phng hai v ta c:

m0c2 ( - )

= h (1 - cos)

c h.c2 c m0c2 - = (1 - cos) .

- h.c2 c = (1 - cos) m0c2 . . Suy ra: Hay:

= =

- -

h = m c (1 - cos) 0
h = m c 2sin2 2 0 .

Trong d ta t

dn n kt qu

Nh vy l thuyt photon gii thch y hiu ng tn x Compton.

4. SNG D BRI (DE BROGLIE) CA HT VI M.

1. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng. Vt l hc khng nh nh sng c bn cht hai mt gi l lng tnh sng ht: Tnh cht sng th hin s giao thoa, nhiu x, phn cc Tnh cht ht photon th hin hiu ng quang in, hiu ng tn x Compton. Theo l thuyt photon, nh sng c cu thnh t nhiu phn t b nh gi l photon nh sng. Mi photon nh sng mang nng lng v ng lng (hay xung lng) hon ton xc nh theo h thc Anhstanh:

E = h h p =
Cc i lng: nng lng E v xung lng p c trng cho tnh cht ht, cn bc sng ( v tn s ( c trng cho tnh cht sng. Hai c trng sng v ht c lin h vi nhau thng qua hng s Plank h. Hm dao ng ca nh sng c th biu din thng qua nng lng v xung lng. Nu xem s lan truyen cua anh sang la s lan ta trong khng gian ca sng phng, th mt dao ng sng n sc ti O c

(2.4) (2.5)

53

54

biu din:

u0

= A cos2 t

trong A l bin , ( l tn s; th sau thi gian t sng nh sng s truyn n v tr M cch O mt khong d s c dng sau: d uM = A cos2 t - c trong c l vn tc nh sng. Gia tn s v bc sng nh sng c quan h:

OM = r

d = r cos

= ( r . n)

vi l php tuyn vc t n v hng theo phng truyn sng. Dao ng sng ti M c biu din:

uM

= A cos2 (t -

r .n

Di dng phc hm sng nh sng c biu din: Nu th vo biu thc ta c:

= A.e
trong

i - (Et - p. r )

l hng s Planck chia cho 2(. l vc t hng theo phng truyn sng

Nu biu din thng qua vc t sng c tr s , hm sng c dng:

= A.e

Et - i

k. r

2. Lng tnh sng ht ca ht vi m sng D Bri. Nm 1924 D Bri khi qut ha lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng cho cc ht vi m nh electron, photon, ntron v.v D Bri cho rng khi mt ht chuyn ng t do c nng lng v xung lng xc nh s tng ng vi mt sng phng n sc lan truyn theo phng chuyn ng ca ht, c m t bi hm sng:

= A.e

Et - i

k. r

55

56

gn lin vi bc sng v tn s xc nh:

h = p vi p = mv E = h
Sng D Bri l loi sng khng c ngun gc dao ng c hc, cng khng c ngun gc in t, n l loi sng gn lin vi ht vt cht khi chuyn ng. Khc vi sng nh sng ch, gia tn s v bc sng D Bri khng c quan h . Bc sng D Bri lin h trc tip vi khi lng v vn tc chuyn ng ca ht: .
5. KIM CHNG GI THUYT SNG D BRI.

Mun khng nh tnh cht sng ca mt i tng no , iu cn thit l phi o c bc sng ca n. Cng vic ny c Ing thc hin vo nm 1801 khng nh tnh cht sng ca nh sng v Laue tin hnh vo nm 1912 xc nhn bn cht sng ca tia X. khng nh bn cht sng ca electron ngi ta kho st hin tng nhiu x ca n qua n tinh th, tng t nh kho st hin tng nhiu x tia X. Nu qu tht electron c bn cht sng th n phi cho hnh nhiu x. Chng ta s b nh gi bc sng D Bri ca electron chuyn ng trong in trng vi hiu in th u c gi tr bng:

h = mv

h 2mE

E= viong nang

p2 2m

ng nng ca electron do nng lng in trng cung cp v bng

mv2 2

= e.u

nu thay cc tr s khi lng m, in tch e v hiu in th u tnh bng Von v bc sng tnh bng A0, ta c bc sng:

12,25 0 A u(v)

Nm 1927
C.J. Davinxn tin hnh th nghim cho electron nhiu x trn n tinh th Ni (Niken). Khi Davinxn iu chnh chm electron c tng tc bi hiu in th u nh bin tr

57

58

R xuyn qua khe lc L hp vi b mt tinh th Niken mt gc ( tha mn iu kin nhiu x Vunph Brc:

(? = ?2 ( ?1
Trong :

= 2d sin( = n( vi n = 1, 2, 3,

(? l hiu ng i ca hai tia bng mt s nguyn ln bc sng.

d l hng s mng tinh th Niken ng vai tr l cch t nhiu x (d = 0,91 A0 cng bc vi bc sng D Bri ca electron). Qu nhin hai chm tia phn x ca electron t b mt mng tinh th cho cc cc i nhiu x an xen vo nhau. Kt qu ny khng nh tnh cht sng ca electron. Cng trong nm 1927, c lp vi Davinxn; P. Tomxn tin hnh kho st nhiu x chm electron xuyn qua l kim loi mng. Bn cht vt l ca chm electron n nng nhiu x trn l kim loi mng c P. Tomxn l gii nh sau: trong l kim loi cha nhiu tinh th nh hng ngu nhin, trong s c nhng n tinh th sp xp theo mt trt t xc nh, cho nn khi iu chnh cc thng s thch hp P. Tomxn thu c hnh nhiu x c dng nhng vn trn ti sng an xen vo nhau. Sau Tomxn tip tc th nghim vi bt nhm p thnh l mng ri cho chm tia electron n nng xuyn qua vi bc sng thch hp cng bc vi bc sng tia X, P. Tomxn cng thu c cc cc i nhiu x i vi chm tia electron. Cng trn mu nhm y P. Tomxn cho chm tia X xuyn qua th cng thu c cc cc i nhiu x, hon ton ging nh cc cc i nhiu x ca sng D Bri ca electron. y l mt kt qu bt ng ht sc th v. iu ny mt ln na khng nh tnh cht sng D Bri ca electron.
6. H THC BT NH HAISENBC (HEISENBERG)

i vi electron khi chuyn ng v nguyn tc th chng ta c th o c c v tr (ta ) ln xung lng (p = mv) ca n ti bt c thi im no vi ta chnh xc

59

60

khng hn ch. Nhng iu khng th lm c. khng phi l do nhng kh khn no trong khi tin hnh o m do mt nguyn nhn g ? iu m chng ta gp phi, l mt hn ch c tnh cht c bn i vi khi nim ht vi m. H thc bt nh Haisenbc to cho chng ta mt o nh lng ca s hn ch . Gi s chng ta o c v tr ln xung lng ca mt electron b gii hn khi chuyn ng qua khe c b rng l d hng theo trc x. Gi s (x l bt nh trong php o v tr v (px l bt nh trong php o xung lng ca electron. Haisenbc pht biu h thc bt nh (cn gi l nguyn l bt nh): Tng t nh vy i vi hai trc y v z:

x.px z.pz

h h
X

tm hiu ngha ca h thc bt nh ta xt trng hp: x.px h

e

r p

(nu cn n s chnh xc hn ngi ta cn biu din h thc bt nh di dng:

hoc x.px h 4

r p

thay
L

cho h, tm thi chng ta khng quan tm n s khc bit nh ny).

iu c ngha l, nu ta dn dng mt th nghim xc nh v tr ta ca electron mt cch chnh xc nht (c th c) bng cch lm cho (x nh ty , th s khng o c tht chnh xc xung lng ca n (v (px s tr nn ln hn). Ngc li nu dn dng mt th nghim lm tng chnh xc ca php o xung lng th chnh xc ca php o ta s km i. Tch ca hai bt nh lun ln hn hoc bng hng s Planck (h). Ta v xung lng l hai vc t, nn h thc trn cng ng cho hai ta v xung lng theo y v z. Gi s mt electron c biu din bng mt sng D Bri p vp mt khe c rng (x trn mn chn L. Ta s th xc nh chnh xc v tr theo phng thng ng x v cc thnh phn xung lng ca electron ti thi im i qua khe. Nu electron i qua khe, th ta s bit v tr ca n ng thi im vi bt nh (x. Bng cch thu nh rng d ca khe, chng ta c th xc nh v tr theo phng thng ng ca electron vi bt k chnh xc no m ta mong mun. Tuy nhin, cc sng D Bri ca ht vt cht, cng ging nh cc sng khc s b loe ra do nhiu x khi chng i qua khe. Hn th na, khe cng hp th chng b loe cng nhiu. Theo quan im ht, s loe c ngha l electron s c c thnh phn thng ng ca xung lng khi n i qua khe. C mt gi tr c bit ca thnh phn thng ng ca xung lng s a electron n cc tiu u tin ca bc tranh nhiu x, im N trn mn hng nh nhiu x electron qua khe (Mn M). Chng ta ly gi tr ny lm s o bt nh (px ca xung lng chiu ln phng trc x. Cc tiu u tin ca bc tranh nhiu x c xc nh theo biu thc: d.sin( = n.( vi n = 1, 2, 3, y l quy lut xc nh cc v tr cc vn ti ca sng nhiu x qua khe hp. Cc tiu u tin ng vi n = 1 nn ta c:

61

62

d.sin = b rng ca khe d c xc nh chnh xc n (x nn c th xem nh (x = d, vy ta c: sin = x , do ta c:

Nu gc ( nh ta c th thay th sin( = ( v = h p.x

Trong : p l thnh phn xung lng theo phng nm ngang. t ti cc tiu u tin th gc ( cng cn phi tha mn iu kin: = px p h

T ta suy ra: (x.(px (

Mt pht biu khc ca h thc bt nh Haisenbc l pht biu qua nng lng v thi gian, c hai u l nhng i lng v hng: E.t h Nh vy, nu chng ta th o nng lng ca ht trong mt khong thi gian no . Php o ny s chu mt lng bt nh l (E lin h bi . hon thin chnh xc (E ta phi tin hnh php o nng lng ko di trong thi gian lu hn. iu ny p dng cho nguyn t th b rng mc nng lng kch thch (E cng ln th thi gian tn ti ca n cng ngn. i vi mc nng lng c bn tn ti lu bn, c th xem nh (t ( (, do vy bt nh v nng lng ca n xem nh (E ( 0. V d: Xt electron chuyn ng trong nguyn t c kch thc xp x bng 10-10 m. Vn tc chuyn ng trung bnh ca electron trong nguyn t l 106 m/s. Theo h thc bt nh:

h 6,6.10 34 m v x = = = 7,2.10 6 31 10 m.x 9,1.10 .10 s c ngha l sai s v vn tc (vx c gi tr tng ng vi gi tr vn tc ca electron. S d c nghch l ny l do chng ta bt electron chuyn ng theo qu o trn quanh ht nhn. Khi vn dng h thc bt nh cho thy s p buc l v l. Vy khng th xem electron ging nh vt v m. Nh vy h thc bt nh Haisenbc c xem nh mt gii hn cho bit khi no vt l c in cn hiu lc. khng xut hin nghch l trn ch c cch l khng xem electron chuyn ng theo qu o khp kn quanh ht nhn trong nguyn t m mang c tnh sng, khng chuyn ng theo qu o no ht. V d: Cng l electron nhng chuyn ng trong bung bt Winsn th li c qu o r rt. i vi electron chuyn ng trong bung bt Winxn c qu o r rt v qu o l mt chui ca nhng git nc nh nh du v tr ca electron trn ng i. Kch thc ca cc git nc khong chng 10 - 6 m cho nn c th ly (x = 10 - 6 m. Khi lng ca mi git nc c chng m = 10 - 3 g do vy sai s v vn tc theo h thc bt nh:
m h 6,6.10 34 = = 6,6.10 22 6 6 m.x .10 .10 s Sai s ny v cng nh do vy trong trng hp ny c th p dng vt l c in cho electron chuyn ng trong bung bt Winxn. v x =
7. HM SNG V PHNG TRNH SRODING.

63

64

1. Phng trnh Srding. Nm 1926 Srding xut phng trnh vi phn m nhng tnh cht ca n p ng cc qui lut vn ng ca cc ht trong th gii vi m. Phng trnh Srding c xem l mt trong nhng c s quan trng ca l thuyt lng t. Chng ta quan tm n phng trnh dng l phng trnh cp n cc hin tng v cc qu trnh khng ph thuc vo thi gian, c dng:

+
Trong

2m 2 [E - U] = 0

: U = U(x,y,z) l hm th tng tc ca ht vi m trong trng th. E l nng lng ton phn ca ht. m l khi lng ca ht vi m. ( l hm sng m t trng thi ca ht vi m. ( l ton t Laplace c dng:

2 2 2 = + + x2 y2 z2
Khi gii phng trnh Srding i vi hm th U v cc iu kin bin cho trc, ta s xc nh c nghim ( (x,y,z). Tuy nhin khng phi mi nghim ( (x,y,z) u l nghim vt l. Trong nhng nghim ( (x,y,z) ch c nhng gi tr no tha mn cc iu kin: n tr, hu hn v lin tc th mi c xem l nghim vt l. Ngoi ba iu kin trn hm sng ( (x,y,z) c xem l nghm vt l, cn i hi thm iu kin o hm bc nht ca n cng phi n tr, hu hn v lin tc. Vn ngha ca hm sng c tranh lun trong mt thi gian kh di v cui cng i n s tha nhn rng ri l: Hm sng m t trng thi ca ht vi m v n mang ngha xc sut i vi th gii cc ht vi m. Theo gi thuyt D Bri, chuyn ng ca ht t do c m t bi hm sng tng t nh sng phng n sc:
i - [Et - p. r ] = 0.e

hoc c dng: Trong : l vct sng c tr s bng (0 gi l bin ca hm sng c xc nh bi biu thc:

= 2

= .*

Biu thc trn gi l hm sng D Bri. Ni chung, i vi cc ht vi m chuyn ng trong trng th, hm sng ca n l mt hm phc tp ca ta v thi gian:

( r ,t)

= (x,y,z,t)

2. ngha ca hm sng. hiu r ngha ca hm sng ta i chiu vi ngha sng ht ca photon nh sng truyn trong khng gian. Gi s ti im M trong khng gian c mt chm sng di vo. Ta vy quanh im M bi mt yu t th tch (V. Theo quan im sng th cng sng ti M s t l vi bnh phng bin dao ng sng ti M.

65

66

I = 0. c. E2
Trong : Cng sng I l nng lng trn mt n v din tch trong mt n v thi gian (0 l hng s in. c l vn tc nh sng. E l cng in trng. Trong trng hp ny nu bnh phng bin dao ng sng th im M cng sng. Theo quan im ht th cng sng ti M bng: ti M cng ln

I = N. h
Trong : h( l nng lng ca mt photon. N l thng lng photon (s photon ti trn mt n v din tch trong mt n v thi gian) ti im M. Nh vy, theo quan im ht, sng ti M t l vi nng lng ca cc ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M, ngha l t l vi s ht c mt trong n v th tch . Do s ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M t l vi bnh phng bin dao ng sng ti M. Nu s ht trong n v th tch cng nhiu th kh nng tm thy ht trong cng ln. V th ngi ta ni rng bnh phng bin sng ((( 2 ti M c trng cho kh nng tm thy ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M. V vy, ngi ta gi ((( 2 l mt xc sut tm thy ht ti M (xc sut tm thy ht trong mt n v th tch). T cho thy xc sut tm thy ht trong th tch bt k dV l: ( ((( 2.dV). Nu i tm trong ton b khng gian chc chn phi thy ht, tc l:
+

2.dv = 1
-

iu kin ny c p dng chun ha hm sng gi l iu kin chun ha. Hm sng ( khng m t mt sng thc no trong khng gian nh sng c hay sng in t m ch cho php ta tnh xc sut tm thy ht ti mt trng thi no . Hay ni cch khc hm sng ( mang tnh xc sut.
8. HT TRONG HP TH NNG.

Vn dng phng trnh Srding cho trng hp mt ht vi m trong hp th nng. Ta xt trng hp n gin l ht chuyn ng theo phng x trong vng c th nng c xc nh theo iu kin sau: U =
U U= U=
0

trong vung 0 < x < a trong vung x 0 va x 0 Min nh vy, c gi l hp th nng hay h th nng c b rng l a. Nh vy ta ch xt trng hp ht vi m ch chuyn ng trong phm vi trong lng hp th v khng
a x

U=0 0

67

68

Hnh 2.10

th vt ra ngoi gii hn ca hp th. (Trng hp ny c th tng ng vi electron trong kim loi ch khng th t thot ra ngoi c). Gii phng trnh Srding cho ht trong hp th c khi lng m: + 2m 2 [E - U] = 0 2m 2 E = 0

Bn trong hp th, th nng tng tc U = 0, nn phng trnh c dng: +

V ch xt hp th mt chiu, nn hm ( ch ph thuc vo mt ta x: 2m d2 2 + dx 2 E(x) = 0 t phng trnh c dng:

d 2 dx2 +

k2(x) = 0

Phng trnh ny thuc loi chnh tc, c nghim c xc nh di dng: (x) = A sinkx + B coskx A, B l nhng hng s c xc nh da vo cc iu kin c th ban u ca bi ton vt l. V ht ch tn ti bn trong lng hp th, nn trn thnh tr ra ngoi hp th ht khng c mt, do ta c: (0) = (a) = 0 Th vo: Vy ta c Th iu kin V A ( 0 nn: a.k = n vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . n Suy ra: k = a Vy: xc nh A ta da vo iu kin chun ha hm sng:
a

2.dx = 1
0

th vo: Ly tch phn ta c: Vy hm sng c xc nh hon ton: n 2 n (x) = x vi n =1, 2, 3, 4, ... sin a a Kt qu nng lng: 2 2 Suy ra: En = n2 2ma2 Kt lun chung: En vi n = 1, 2, 3,

E4

69

n=4

n=4

70

1) Mi trng thi ca ht ng vi mt hm sng (n(x). 2) Nng lng ca ht trong hp th nng ph thuc vo s nguyn n = 1, 2, 3, 4, tc l nhn nhng gi tr gin on, khng lin tc gi l b lng t ha. 3) Mt xc sut tm thy ht trong hp th bng: 2 2 n x a sin a Hnh 2.11 minh ha cc mc nng lng v mt xc sut tm thy ht vi m trong hp th, tng ng vi cc trng thi khc nhau. n(x)2 =

71

72

Chng III

CU TRC NGUYN Y THEO L THUYT LNG T

1. CU TRC NGUYN T HYDR V CC ION TNG T HYDR (He+, Li++, Be+++, )

Theo quan nim lng t th nguyn t Hydr v cc in tng t Hydr nh He+ (Z=2), Liti Li++ (Z = 3), Berili Be+++ (Z=4), c cu to t ht nhn mang in tch dng (+Ze) v mt electron mang in tch m (-e). tin kho st cc tnh cht ca nguyn t ta xem nh ht nhn ng yn, ch c electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn. Chn ht nhn lm gc ta v r l khong cch t ht nhn n electron.
y

Hnh 3.1. Nguyen t trong he toa o cau

Phng trnh Srding i vi nguyn t c dng: 2m + 2 [E U] = 0 Trong : m l khi lng ca electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn. (Trong trng hp xem electron v ht nhn khng ng yn ta thay th khi lng ca electron m bng khi lng rt gn ca c h electron ht nhn vi M l khi lng ht nhn). U(r) l th tng tc gia ht nhn (+Ze) v electron mang in tch m (-e) c tnh cht i xng cu, do vy bi ton s gii trong h ta cu (r,(,() th tin li hn. Gia h ta cu v h ta (Oxyz) c quan h: x = r sin.sin y = r sin.cos z = r cos Th nng tng tc gia ht nhn v electron c dng: ze2 U = -k r k l h s t l (trong h n v o lng SI: , trong h n v o lng CGS: k = 1). Th K vo phng trnh ta c:

73

74

 + Trong :

2m Ze2 E + k r = 0 2

E l vo nng lng lin kt ca electron vi ht nhn. ( l ton t Laplace trong h ta (Oxyz) c dng: = 2. 2. 2. + + x2 y2 z 2

Th ton t vo phng trnh ta c: 2 2 2 2m Ze2 = 0 2 E + k 2 + 2 + 2 + r x y z Chuyn sang h ta cu (r,(,() phng trnh c dng: 1 2 1 1 2 r + 2 sin + 2 2 r 2 r r sin r sin 2 r 2m Ze2 + 2 E + k r = 0 y l phng trnh vi phn o hm ring cp hai, c th gii theo cch phn ly bin c, bng cch t: (r,,) = R(r). Y(,) Trong : R(r) gi l hm bn knh Y((,() gi l hm cu. Ring hm cu c th tip tc phn ly bin s: Y(,) = ().() Vy nghim tng qut ca phng trnh c dng: (r,,) = R(r).().() Trong v s nghim ca phng trnh, ch c nhng nghim no hi iu kin n tr, hu hn v lin tcmi l nghim vt l ch thc. Nghim ca hm ( c dng: ( = A.ei.m.( , trong A l hng s chun ha. cho ((r,(,() tha mn iu kin n tr, hu hn v lin tc th m = 0. ( 1, ( 2, ( 3, ,. Nghim ca hm ( c dng: |m| +|m| 2 2 d 2 () = c(1 x ) +|m| (x - 1) d vi x = cos( ; c l hng s. cho ((() tha mn iu kin n tr, hu hn v lin tc th ? = 0, 1, 2, 3, (n 1) vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, v (m( = 0, 1, 2, 3, , ? Nghim ca hm ( c dng: ar0 R = c.e Trong : - c l hng s.

75

76

lng:

gi l bn knh qu o N. Bohr.

Kt qu gii phng trnh Srding thu c hm sng ((r,(,() v biu thc nng En = k2me4Z2 2n2 2

Vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, gi l lng t s chnh, c trng cho s lng t ha nng lng lin kt ca electron trong nguyn t. Thng qua hng s Ritbe biu thc nng lng c dng: Rhc En = n2 Z2 i vi nguyn t Hydr (Z = 1) cn cc in tng t Hydr th Z > 1 (V d: i vi He+ th Z = 2,vi Liti (Li++) th Z = 3, vi Berili (Be+++) th Z = 4, ). Hm sng m t trng thi lng t ca electron trong nguyn t, li ph thuc vo h lng t s n, ?, m. Mi lng t s c trng cho mt i lng vt l. Mi trng thi nng lng ph thuc vo ba lng t s c k hiu nh sau:

(r,,)
n,,m

R (r) ()
n, ,m

()
m

Trong qu trnh gii phng trnh Srding cn nhn c nhng kt qu v momen ng lng qu o L, gi tr hnh chiu ca momen ng lng Lz ln phng u tin Oz c xc nh:

? vi ( = 0,1, 2, 3 (n-1) ? gi l lng t s momen ng lng qu o. Lz = m ? vi m = 0 (1, (2, (3, ((

m gi l lng t s t xc nh gi tr hnh chiu ca vct momen ng lng L ln trc Oz, gm c thy (2? + 1) tr s khc nhau.
2. MU NGUYN T THEO L THUYT LNG T.

Theo l thuyt lng t th nguyn t l mt h thng gm c ht nhn l trung tm v cc electron phn b quanh ht theo cc qui lut xc sut thng k lng t, ch chng khng chuyn ng theo qu o c th no c. C th l mi trng thi lng t xc nh vi mt xc sut tm thy electron trong nguyn t, c c trng bi (((2 th xc sut tm thy electron bng:

.dv =

(r, , n , l, m

. r 2 sin d.d.dr

vi dV l yu t th tch, trong electron tn ti quanh ht nhn: dV = r2.sin.d.d.dr Biu thc xc sut c th tch lm hai phn: mt phn ph thuc vo bn knh v mt phn ph thuc vo gc. Nu gi mt xc sut tm thy electron quanh ht nhn trong yu t th tch dV ph thuc vo bn knh l v ph thuc vo gc l th xc sut tm thy electron: Xc sut theo bn knh r:

77

78

Theo cc gc (, (: Y (,)2.sin.d.d = ,m

W (,).sin.d.d m
,

R.R*.r2 n=1 l=0 n = 1, l = 0

minh ha ta ch xt ng cong biu din mt xc sut tm thay electron quanh ht nhn nguyn t bn knh r: Trc tung l mt xc sut tm thy n = 1, l = 0 electron quanh ht nhn R2.r2 = 10 11 12 r R.R*.r2 , trc honh l bn knh tnh t tm O ht nhn, r ly theo n v a0 l bn knh qu o N. Bohr : a0 = 0,53A0 .

1 2

3 4

7 8

Hnh 3.2

T th cho thy bt k khong cch no ca r (ngoi tr trong ht nhn r = 0) u c kh nng tm thy electron: mi trng thi ng c tng ng xc sut ln nht; ngha l ti kh nng tm thy electron l ln nht. V d trng thi c bn (n = 1 th ? = 0) hm bn knh c dng: R1,0 Z 2 a0 = 2 a .e 0
3 zr

Xc sut tng ng: tm gi tr ca bn knh r ng vi xc sut cc i ta i tm gi tr cc tr ca hm bng cch cho o hm bc mt ca hm bng khng:
2 a0 dW1,0 zr z = 4 .e .2r 1 a dr a 0 0 zr

o hm trit tiu ti r = 0 v . Nghim r = 0 b loi v khng ph hp ngha vt l, v electron khng tn ti trong ht nhn. Vy xc sut cc i ng vi bn knh , i vi Hydr Z = 1 nn r = a0 = 0,53 A0 . Khong cch ny ng bng bn knh qu o N. Bohr. Nh vy hai kt qu ca hai l thuyt ph hp vi nhau l thuyt ca N. Bohr v l thuyt lng t cho cng mt tr s ca bn knh r qu o gn ht nhn nht. T kt qu trn cho thy electron trong nguyn t khng chuyn ng theo qu o nht nh nh quan nim c in. V mt hnh thc ta c th hnh dung electron bao quanh ht nhn nh mt m my xc sut ni no s c mt ca electron thng xuyn hn th ni xc sut tm thy electron ln hn cc ni khc. Ni no khng c electron th xc sut tm thy n phi bng khng. Kt qu ny khng nh lng tnh sng ht ca ht vi m.

79

80

3. MOMEN T CA ELECTRON CHUYN NG QUANH HT NHN.

Electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn nn c momen ng lng L. Nhng v electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn khng theo qu o xc nh do mi trng thi vc t momen ng lng khng c hng xc nh. Tuy nhin vc t momen ng lng li c tr s xc nh bng:

? vi ( = 0, 1, 2, 3 (n - 1)
v gi tr hnh chiu ca vc t momen ng lng ln phng u tin z c xc nh: Lz = m? vi m = 0, (1, 2(, (3, (( Nh vy, hnh chiu ca momen ng lng cng nhn nhng gi tr gin on (khng lin tc) tng t nh tr s ca vc t momen ng lng. Nhng i lng ch nhn nhng gi tr gin on gi l b lng t ha. Electron mang in tch (-e) nn khi chuyn ng quanh ht nhn s tng ng nh mt dng in kn, do vy n c momen t. Gia momen ng lng v momen t c mi lin h: e = 2me L trong me l khi lng electron, du tr y biu hin s nh hng ngc chiu ca momen t v momen ng lng. Hnh chiu ca momen t ln phng u tin z c xc nh: e z = 2m Lz e Mt khc , nn ta c: e z = 2m m e t: gi l Magnheton Bohr v c coi l n v o momen t trong vt l nguyn t v ht nhn. Ta c: Nh vy, momen t ( v hnh chiu ( z u b lng t ha.
4. SPIN CA ELECTRON.

Electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn c momen ng lng, ngoi ra cn thc hin chuyn ng t quay xung quanh trc ca n. c trng cho chuyn ng ring ny ngi ta a vo khi nim spin. Momen spin hay gi tt l spin v mt hnh thc ng vai tr nh momen ng lng ring c gi tr xc nh: S = s (s + 1) vi gi l lng t s spin, i lng ny trong vt l hc c in cha c bit n, n l i lng thun ty mang sc thi lng t. Gi tr hnh chiu ca spin ln phng u tin z bng: 1 sz = ms vi ms = 2 trong gi l lng t s hnh chiu spin. Tng ng vi momen spin, electron c momen t ring hay cn gi l spin t: e s = me S Gi tr hnh chiu:

81

82

Nh vy, vc t spin t lun hng ngc chiu vi vc t spin v nh hng dc theo phng z. Tr s hnh chiu ca momen t ring ln phng trc z, c gi tr ng bng Magnheton N. Bohr. Nu tnh n spin th momen ton phn ca electron trong nguyn t bng:

J =

+ S

Vi tr s: j gi l lng t s momen ton phn. Trng thi ca electron trong nguyn t c m t bi hm sng (. Hm sng ( c c trng bi bn lng t s (n, ?, m, ms) hhoc c c trng bi ba lng t s (n, ?, j). V s tn ti spin ca electron, cho nn nhng trng thi ca nguyn t ng vi cc mc nng lng t n = 2 tr i u nhn nhng gi tr ca ? ( 0. iu ny ng vi , tc l mi mc nng lng chnh u b tch thnh hai mc ng vi v (ngoi tr trng hp ? th mc nng lng khng b tch thnh hai mc). Mc nng lng th n no ng vi s cao hn mc nng lng ng vi . Khong cch gia hai mc con ny rt nh, cu trc nh vy gi l cu trc tinh vi ca mc nng lng. Nh vy nh c khi nim spin ngi ta l gii c cu to tinh vi ca cc mc nng lng m trc vt l c in khng gii thch c. S tn ti ca spin v hin tng nh hng ca n trong khng gian c khng nh bng nhng kt qu ca th nghim Stern Gerlc vo nm 1929.
5. TH NGHIM STERN GERLC.

Nguyn tc ca th nghim Stern Gerlc c minh ha hnh (3.3). Ton b th nghim c b tr trong chn khng p sut c 10- 5 mm Hg. Th nghim gm mt ngun nguyn t bc Ag, c nung nng n nhit va cho nguyn t bc bc hi cho bay qua khe hp L vi vn tc trung bnh 100 m/s (tng ng nhit bc hi ca bc). Chm nguyn t bc bay qua vng t trng khng u do nam chm in t to ra vi gi tr vc t cm ng t hng theo phng trc z. Sau khi qua t trng , chm nguyn t bc s p ln mn quan st M (dng knh nh hng chm nguyn t bc ghi nhn li nhng du vt ca n). tng ca th nghim l: Khi chm nguyn t bc bay qua t trng khng u , s chu tc dng ca lc t ln momen ca cc nguyn t bc c gi tr bng: dB F = z dZ Trong : (z l hnh chiu ca momen t ln phng A trc z g l phn b t trng Nguo theo trc z. n

Z S

Theo quan nim c in th trn mn M s xut hin mt dy du vt lin tc ca cc Hnh 3.3. S o th nghiem Stern Gerlac nguyn t bc p ln mn . Dy du vt ny m nt khu vc trung tm v m nht dn v hai pha ca vng trung tm. Nhng kt qu th nghim nhn c khng theo nh

83

84

d kin ca l thuyt c in. Trn mn M ch nhn thy hai vch m nt b tr i xng nhau theo phng trc z. iu ny khng l gii c theo quan nim ca vt l c in. Nh ta bit nguyn t bc trng thi bnh thng (trng thi c bn n = 0 tc l ? = 0). Nguyn t bc c Z = 47, tc l cha 47 electron, trong 46 electron to thnh cc lp in t khp kn y xung quanh ht nhn ch v ch cn li 1 electron ha tr lp ngoi cng. Nguyn t bc trng thi c bn n = 1, ? = 0 th momen t ca n bng khng. S kin chm nguyn t bc b lch khi bay qua t trng , chng t trong chm nguyn t tn ti mt loi momen t ring no khc vi momen t nguyn t (. Vy ch c th l momen t ring ca in t ha tr lp ngoi cng, v cc lp in t trong cng c tng momen t bng khng. (V 46 in t cc lp trong cng hp thnh cc vnh kn momen t ca chng trit tiu ln nhau). Theo kt qu tnh ton, cn c vo nhng s liu thu thp c t th nghim Stern Gerlc, nhn c kt qu ( sz = (0 . Nh vy l spin v momen t ring c xc nhn. Th nghim Stern Gerlc khng nh c hai ni dung mi ca l thuyt lng t l: S tn ti ca spin v s nh hng khng gian ca spin. Spin ch c hai kh nng nh hng song song hoc phn song song vi t trng ngoi. Mt khc momen t v momen t ring ch nhn nhng gi tr gin on (khng lin tc) tc l b lng t ha th hin 2 gi tr ca 2 vt trn mn quan st M.
6. CU TRC NGUYN T PHC TP NGUYN T KIM LOI KIM.

Nhng nguyn t c t 2 electron tr ln gi l nguyn t phc tp (Z > 2). Trong nguyn t Hydr ch c mt electron tng tc vi ht nhn, trong nguyn t phc tp electron tng tc vi ht nhn cn phi tng tc U cc electron khc, do hm th tng tc U s tr nn phc tp hn. gii quyt bi ton cu trc nguyn t phc tp, ch c th s dng phng php gn ng x l dng tng tc ca hm th U ca cc electron trong nguyn t. Do tnh cht quyt nh ca lc ht ht nhn i vi tng electron trong nguyn t nn ta vn c th xem trng lc trong nguyn t phc tp vn l trng lc xuyn tm gia cc electron vi tm l ht nhn. Tuy nhin tc dng thc s ca trng lc ny i vi tng electron khng ng nht. Electron gn ht nhn chu tc dng lc ht ht nhn mnh hn so vi cc electron b tr xa ht nhn. Do vy in tch thc t ca ht nhn khng phi bng (Ze) m ch bng gi tr trung bnh hiu dng (Z*e) nh hn gi tr thc s (Ze). V rng cc electron gn ht nhn ng vai tr nh mn chn in tch m lm gim lc ht ht nhn i vi cc electron pha ngoi. Nh vy c th xem mt cch gn ng l in tch hiu dng ca nguyn t (Z*e) bng in tch thc s ca ht nhn khu tr i tng in tch m ca cc electron nm gn ht nhn hn so vi cc electron c xt xa ht nhn hn. Trng lc nh vy gi l trng t hp do Hatri Fok xut vo nm 1930. Da vo phng php trng lc t hp Hatri Fok, vic gii quyt bi ton cu trc nguyn t phc tp tr nn n gin hn. Mi electron trong nguyn t phc tp, by gi c xem nh chuyn ng trong trng lc xuyn tm hiu dng do ht nhn v (Z - 1) electron cn li to ra, tc dng ln electron ang xt. Nh vy electron ang xt lin kt yu vi phn cn li ca nguyn t gm ht nhn v cc electron cn li cn to ra, phn ny gi , l li nguyn t hay khung nguyn t. Trong s cc nguyn t phc tp, cc nguyn t kim loi kim (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs v.v ) c cu trc tng t nh cu trc ca nguyn t Hydr v lp ngoi cng ca kim loi kim ch cha mt in t ha tr. Ta c th xem chuyn ng ca electron ha tr nh chuyn ng trong trng lc Culon hiu dng, gy ra bi li nguyn t ging nh electron trong nguyn t Hydr chuyn ng quanh ht nhn.

85

86

1. Nng lng ca electron ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim. Nng lng ca electron ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim s khc vi nng lng ca electron trong nguyn t Hydr, nhng s khc bit ny khng ln lm. S d nh vy l v ngoi nng lng tng tc gia ht nhn v electron ha tr, cn c nng lng ph gy ra bi tng tc gia electron ha tr vi cc electron khc cn li. Nh vy mi electron trong nguyn t kim loi kim cng tn ti nhng trng thi lng t xc nh bi h lng t s (n, ?, m, ms). Tuy nhin, khc vi nguyn t Hydr, nng lng ca electron ha tr trong kim loi kim trng thi y, ph thuc vo hai lng t s n v ?, do vy nng lng ca electron ha tr c xc nh: E n, = Rhc * n2 Z

trong Z* c trng cho in tch hiu dng ca li nguyn t thay th cho Z c trng cho in tch ca ht nhn trong nguyn t Hydr, tc l: Z* e = (Z a) e Rhc 2 n2 (Z a) trong a l h s b chnh, cho nn biu thc nng lng c dng: E n, =

Ni chung nng lng tng khi cc lng t s n v ? tng. Nhng nhng trng thi thp, ng vi n nh, th s ph thuc ca vo lng t s ? khng mnh lm, tuy nhin cc mc nng lng ng vi lng t s n ln (cc mc nng lng cao) th n ph thuc vo ? rt mnh; thm ch lm o ln trt t sp xp cc mc nng lng trong nguyn t, c ngha l:

E n + 1,

> E n,

i vn n nh th ng vi cng mt tr s ca n v ? th mc nng lng ng vi (n + 1) s nm cao hn mc nng lng ng vi n. Ngc li i vi n ln th:

E n,

> E n + 1,

tc l ng vi n ln vi lng t s ?( > ? th mc nng lng ng vi (n + 1) s nm thp hn mc nng lng ng vi n. th hn c tnh ni trn ta c th biu din nng lng thng qua h s b chnh ( phn nh s ph thuc ca nng lng vo momen ng lng ?: E n, = Rhc Z2 (n + )2

2. Cc lp in t trong nguyn t. Cc lp in t trong nguyn t c sp xp tun theo hai nguyn l Paoly v nguyn l cc tiu nng lng. a) S in t trong nguyn t cng chung lng t s n v ? khng th qu s in t do nguyn l Paoly quy nh. b) Trong tt c cc trng thi kh d vi n v ? cho trc, in t phi trng thi no c nng lng nh nht.

87

88

Nguyn l Paoly cho rng trong nguyn t khng th c qu 1 in t cng c trng bi 4 lng t s: n, ?, m, ms ; c ngha l trng thi c trng bi 4 lng t s ni trn ch c th cha 1 electron duy nht. T nguyn l Paoly suy ra cc h qu sau: ( Trng thi ca electron trong nguyn t c m t bi hm sng (, mi trng thi c c trng bi 4 lng t s (n, ?, m, ms) v c k hiu . ( Trong n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, l lng t s chnh. ( ng vi mt tr s ca n th ? nhn cc gi tr sau: ? = 0, 1, 2, 3, , (n - 1), tc l nhn n n gi tr khc nhau. ( ng vi mi tr s ca ? th m nhn cc gi tr sau: m = 0, ( 1, ( 2, ( 3, , ( ?, tc l nhn (2? + 1) tr s khc nhau. ( Mi in t c spin bng v lng t s spin ms ch nhn 2 gi tr (hoc song song hoc phn song song); cho nn momen ton phn ca in t trong nguyn t , v do ng vi mi tr s ca ? c thm 2 tr s na, v vy s c 2(2? + 1) tr s. S electron ti a c th chim mt lp v bng:
n 1 l=0

2(2l + ) = 2[1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 2(n 1)] = 2n

T cho thy s trng thi ng vi s in t, c ngha l ng vi n xc nh s c khng qu 2n2 in t. Nhng in t cng lng t s n lp thnh mt lp vi k hiu: n = 1 gi l lp K ; n = 2 gi l lp L ; n = 3 gi l lp M ; n = 4 gi l lp N ; n = 5 gi l lp O Nhng in t c chung lng t s n v li c chung lng t s ? na c xp thnh lp con (hay phn lp) vi k hiu: ? = 0 gi l phn lp s ; ? = 1 gi l phn lp p ; ? = 2 gi l phn lp d ; ? = 3 gi l phn lp f ; ? = 4 gi l phn lp g v.v mi phn lp cha ti a: 2(2? + 1) in t. (Xem bng lit k sau).
P. lp
Lp n

0 (s) 2 2 2 2 2

1 (p) 6 6 6 6

2 3 (d) (f) 2 (2 + 1) 10 10 10 14 14

4 (g) 18

= 2n2 2 8 18 32 50

1 (K) 2 (L) 3 (M) 4 (N) 5 (O)

T bng thng k cho thy: Lp K ch gm 1 phn lp 1s cha ti a 2 lectrn Lp L cha 2 phn lp 2 s v 2p c ti a 2+6= 8 lectrn. Lp M cha 3 phn lp 3s , 3p v 3d c ti a 2 + 6 + 10 = 18 lectrn v cho cc lp khc, nh lp N, lp O

phn nh cu trc lp in t trong nguyn t ngi ta dng cng thc cu hnh nh sau: 1s, 2s2p, 3s3p4s3d, 4p5s4d5p6s4f, 5d6p7s5f. V d: Cu hnh in t ca ngyn t Na (Z = 11) l 1s22s2 2p6 3s1 (nhng s nh, ghi pha trn k hiu ca phn lp l s electron m phn lp c). 3. Quang ph kim loi kim. Khi nguyn t kim

89

90

loi kim b kch thch th in t ha tr s chuyn ln cc trng thi kch thch vi nng lng cao hn v tm tr ti mt thi gian ngn c 10- 8 s). Sau li chuyn v trng thi c nng lng thp hn v bc x photon (h). Qu trnh thc hin cc bc chuyn phi tun theo iu kin lc la sau: = 1 tc l cc bc chuyn ca in t ha tr trong nguyn t ch c th din ra gia cc trng thi c lng t s momen ng lng chnh lch nhau ( 1 n v (quy tc lc la ny th hin nh lut bo ton momen ng lng trong nguyn t). Chnh do s chuyn trng thi nng lng, m hnh thnh nn quanh ph kim loi kim c minh ha trn hnh 3.4. Trn hnh v trnh by s to thnh quang ph ca nguyn t Liti (Z= 3), lp trong cng lp y 2 in t (phn lp 2s), in t ha tr th 3 nu b kch thch s chuyn ln cc mc cao hn l p, d, f, Khi tr v trng thi c nng lng thp hn s bc x photon h( v cho quang ph. Trng thi thp nht ca nguyn t Liti ng vi 2s (n = 2, ? = 0), so vi quang ph nguyn t Hydr th trng thi thp nht ca n l 1s (n = 1, ? = 0). Do tng tc ca in t vi nhau lm cho cc trng thi c cng lng t s n tch thnh cc trng thi con s, p, d, f v v.v trong khi nguyn t Hydr vn gi nguyn khng b tch ra. Hin tng chng chp cc trng thi con s, p, d, f, trong quang ph nguyn t Hydr gi l hin tng suy bin nng lng. Bc suy bin nng lng k hiu l g v c gi tr bng g = 2n2 v rng in t ng vi lng t s n c th tn ti 2n2 trng thi khc nhau. T cho thy s vch ph trong quang ph kim loi kim tr nn phong ph hn v phc tp hn. Nh vy trong quang ph nguyn t Hydr c s suy bin nng lng, tc l mt mc nng lng c th tn ti nhiu trng thi khc nhau, cc trng thi ny b chng chp li vi nhau. Cn trong quang ph kim loi kim cc trng thi con ng vi mc nng lng n b tch ra ring bit, hin tng ny gi l s kh suy bin. Do b kh suy bin nng lng m quang ph nguyn t kim loi kim c nhiu dy: - Dy chnh gm nhng vch ph ng vi cc bc chuyn t np v mc 2s vi n = 2, 3, 4, . v ? = 1. - Cc dy ph ng vi cc bc chuyn ns (vi n = 3, 4, 5, v ? = 0) v mc 2p v cc bc chuyn nd (vi n = 3, 4, 5, v ? = 2) v mc 2p. - Dy c bn ng vi cc bc chuyn nf (vi n = 4, 5, 6, v ? = 3) v mc 3d.
7. BNG PHN HNG TUN HON MENDELEP.

Nm 1869 Mendelep xy dng bng phn hng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc, da trn c s nguyn t lng ca cc nguyn t ha hc, tc l cc tnh cht ha hc v l hc ca chng lp li tun hon theo chiu hng tng dn nguyn t lng. Theo quan nim ca l thuyt lng t do N. Bohr xng th tnh cht tun hon ca cc nguyn t ha hc do in trng ca nguyn t quyt nh, tc l s tun hon ca

91

92

cc tnh cht ha hc v l hc ph thuc vo cch sp xp mt cch tun hon ca cc electron theo cc lp trong nguyn t quyt nh. Mi chu k trong bng Mendelep tng ng vi mt lp in t. u mi chu k l mt nguyn t hot ng ha hc mnh v kt thc mi chu k l mt kh tr l nguyn t ha hc bn vng, hot ng ha hc km. Theo quan im lp in t th nguyn t ha hc u mi chu k c cu trc cha hon chnh, lun c xu hng thu thm in t v vy hot tnh ha hc mnh. Cn nguyn t ha hc cui mi chu k c cu trc lp in t hon chnh, kh thu thm v kh bt i s in t cho nn rt bn vng. Nguyn tc ny th hin cc chu k sau: V d nh chu k I bt u t Hydr (H) c mt in t thn nhpc xp vo lp th nht (lp K), lp ny c mt phn lp 1s cha ti a 2 in t, song vi Hydr ch c 1 in t cho nn n c xu hng phi thu thm mt in t na. n nguyn t th hai trong chu k ny l Heli (He) c 2 in t, 2 in t ny xp y phn lp 1s, to thnh mt cu trc lp hon chnh. iu ny l gii ti sao Heli l kh tr. in t th 3 khng th thm nhp vo lp th nht c na, buc phi chuyn ln lp cao hn l lp L (tng ng vi chu k II trong bng Mendelep). Nguyn t m u cho chu k II l Liti (Z = 3). Liti c 3 in t th in t th 3 phi xp vo phn lp 2s. Phn lp 2s cn 2 in t mi lp y, i vi Liti ch c mt in t c xp vo phn lp 2s cho nn n cn phi thu thm 1 in t na, do vy hot tnh ha hc mnh. Lp th hai cn 8 in t c phn b cng vi 2 in t phn lp 2s mi to nn cu trc in t hon chnh. Nguyn t Neon (Ne) c 10 in t p ng yu cu ny. Vy Neon l kh tr cui chu k II, c cu hnh in t hon chnh. Tng t nh vy chu k III bt u t Natri (Na c Z = 11) v kt thc Argon (Ar c Z = 18) l mt kh tr, chu k IV bt u t Kali (K c Z = 19) v kt thc Kripton (Kr c Z = 36) cng l mt kh tr. T nguyn tc ny l gii to sao u mi chu k u bt u t nguyn t kim loi kim c cu trc lp in t cha hon chnh v cui mi chu k kt thc bng mt kh tr c cu trc lp in t hon chnh. Nh vy tt c cc tnh cht tun hon phc tp do Mendelep tm ra c gii thch y bi s phn b cc electron thnh lp v phn lp da theo cc lng t s n v ?. iu lu y l Mendelep khng th l gii nhiu trng hp ngoi l v tnh cht quang ph nguyn t phc tp theo quan im nguyn t lng. Nhng iu c khc phc nh vo l thuyt tng tc ca cc in t vi in trng ca ht nhn nguyn t. Nhng kt qu ca l thuyt lng t gp phn lm chnh xc ha nhng d on trong bng tun hon Mendelep. T kt qu ny tn vinh thm cho nhng d on ca Mendelep v khng nh tnh ng n ca bng tun hon Momen nhng theo quan im lp in t ch khng theo quan im nguyn t lng.
8. TIA X V PH TIA X.

1. Tia X (hay tia Ronghen). Nm 1895 Ronghen khm ph ra mt loi bc x do cc chm tia in t pht ra t Katt, c tng tc trong in trng vi hiu in th cao p vo Ant v c gi l tia X. Tia X c bn cht l sng in t vi bc sng ngn ( = 0,01 A0 ( 800A0.
Mun thu c tia X ngi ta dng mt chm in t c vn tc rt ln p vo Ant (cn gi l i m cc), c lm bng vt liu cn nghin cu. Trong ng pht tia X

Tia X

93

94

c ht ht khng kh n chn khng c 10 - 6 mm Hg, gia Katt (K) v Ant (A) b tr hiu in th c (10 3 ( 10 6) V. i m cc A s bc x tia X c nhiu bc song khc nhau. Tp hp cc tia X to thnh ph tia X.

Trong nhng my gia tc hin i (nh Btatron hay Xyclotron) c th tng tc chm electron ln n 102 MeV hoc cao hn cho p vo i m cc nhn nhng chm tia X c ph a dng. 2. Ph tia X. Ph tia X gm hai loi: ph lin tc v ph vch (cn gi l ph c trng). Trn th minh ha s ph thuc ca cng bc x tia X vo bc sng (. T cc ng cong thc nghim cho thy cng v bc sng ca tia X ph thuc vo hiu in th u t vo K v i m cc A. Trn hnh 3.6 minh ha ba ng cong ng vi cc hiu in th: 50 kV ; 30 kV v 20 kV. Ph lin tc ca bc x tia X xut hin l do hin tng bc x hm ca cc electron trn b mt ca i m cc. Trong qu trnh b hm electron chuyn ton b ng nng thnh dng nng lng in t di dng cc photon (h(). Mt khc ng nng electron c c l nh cng ca lc in trng ( ). Ton b ng nng chuyn thnh nng lng in t pht ra di dng cc photon vi tn s tng ng: (max h max = hay: h c min = e.u e.u

tin o c trong thc nghim, thay th cc tr s ca c, h, e, biu th bc sng bng A0 v hiu in th u bng kV ta c: 12,35 min = u(kV) A0 Mi ng cong trn th u bt u t mt tr s ca bc sng cc tiu. Gi tr bc sng cc tiu ng vi u = 50 kV l nh nht, gi tr cc tiu ca bc sng ng vi u = 30 kV th ln hn v gi tr cc tiu ca bc sng ng vi u = 20 kV l ln hn c.

95

96

Ngoi ph lin tc, ph vch ca bc x tia X c trng cho cu trc cc lp in t trong nguyn t, nn c gi l ph c trng. C ch to ra ph tia X c trng, c th hnh dung nh sau: Trong s cc in t p vp i m cc b hm li, c nhng electron nng lng ln xuyn su vo lng nguyn t, va chm vi electron lp trong cng ca nguyn t. Khi in t t ngoi vo va chm vi in t lp trong cng ca nguyn t lm cho n bt ra khi nguyn t. Ch trng m in t va b ri khi nguyn t lp v in t trong cng b cc in t t lp cao hn xung chim ch. Qu trnh chim ch din ra lin tip nhau. Km theo bc x photon h(. Trng hp lp K b nh bt i 1 in t li mt ch trng, lp tc t cc lp bn ngoi L, M, N electron s chuyn xung chim ch trng lp K s lm xut hin cc vch ph K( ,K( , K( , Tng t nh vy nu lp L b nh bt i 1 electron li mt ch trng, th t cc lp v ngoi M, N, O, in t chuyn xung chim ch km theo pht x cc vch ph L( ,L( , L( , v tng t nh vy khi in t lp ngoi chuyn xung ch trng lp M cho cc vch ph M( ,M( , M( , xc nh bc sng tia X ph c trng, ta vn dng biu thc nng lng lin kt ca in t trong nguyn t phc tp (Z > 1). V ch c nguyn t phc tp mi cho ph tia X (tc l ch c cc nguyn t vi Z ln). E n, = Rhc * 2 n2 (Z )

vi Z*e = (Z - a) e gi l in tch trung bnh hiu dng, a l h s mn chn in tch m i vi ht nhn. H s a ny thay i ty theo tng lp in t. i vi lp K th h s a = 1, vy khi in t chuyn t lp L vo ch trng lp K s cho vch ph K( tng ng vi tn s:
v = EL EK 3 1 1 = R.C 2 2 ( Z 1) 2 = R.C( Z 1) 2 h 4 1 2

Trong : R l Ritbe. hng s

c l vn tc nh sng Z l nguyn t s

97

98

ca nguyn t ha hc ch to nn m cc. Biu thc trn c gi l nh lut Moseley, cng thc ny ng vi cc nguyn t c nguyn t s Z > 30 (tc l nhng nguyn t t trung bnh n cc nguyn t nng). Mi dy ph u c vch u v vch cui gi l vch ranh gii. Vch u l K( , L( , M( vch cui l K, L , M.

99

100

Chng IV
LIN KT NGUYN T TRONG PHN T

Trong cc chng trc chng ta ch xt nguyn t thun ty trng thi c lp. Trong thc t cc nguyn t thng khng tn ti c lp m lun lin kt vi nhau to thnh phn t. Cc phn t lin kt vi nhau to thnh cc cht. Nu kch thc ht nhn nguyn t c 10 -13 cm, kch thc nguyn t c 10 -8 cm th kch thc phn t vo khong 10 -6 ( 10 -7 cm. Phn t l mt h thng phc tp, y ch cp n nhng tnh cht lin kt ca cc nguyn t thnh phn t, ch khng cp ton b nhng vn v cu trc phn t . Nh chng ta bit, nng lng lin kt ca cc in t vi ht nhn trong nguyn t c hng chc eV th nng lng lin kt ca cc nguyn t to thnh phn t nh hn 10eV. Chng hn, nng lng lin kt ca phn t Cl2 l 2,5 eV, ca phn t H2 l 4,8 eV). Cc gi tr nng lng lin kt cc nguyn t trong phn t khng ln lm, chng cng bc vi nng lng cc trng thi ngoi cng ca nguyn t. iu ny chng t qu trnh to thnh cc phn t cng nh cc phn ng ha hc ch lin h n cc electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t (l nhng electron ha tr). Chng ta quan tm n hai loi lin kt c trng ca phn t l lin kt in (hay lin kt d cc) v lin kt ng ha tr (hay lin kt ng cc). Vic phn loi lin kt ny ch mang tnh c l, v c nhiu phn t khng th xp vo loi no cho tha ng.
1. LIN KT ION.

Phn t mui n NaCl c th xp vo loi lin kt in tiu biu. Theo qui lut sp xp cc lp in t trong nguyn t, nguyn t Na (Z = 11) c cu hnh: Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1

Nguyn t Cl (Z = 17) c cu hnh: Cl: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5

Nu a nguyn t Na v Cl li gn nhau chng s lin kt to thnh phn t NaCl bng cch in t lp 3s1 ca Na chuyn sang lp 3p5 ca Cl v kt qu Na nhng 1 in t bin thnh in Na+ v Cl thu thm 1 in t bin thnh in Cl(. Hai in ny nh lc ht tnh in Culon to thnh phn t. Tuy nhin nng lng lin kt phn t NaCl khng bng nng lng tnh in Culon gia hai in dng v m. trn chng ta mi xt mt cch hnh thc, thc ra qu trnh lin kt ny phc tp hn. Tht vy, khi y thc vy khi in t chuyn t trng thi 3s1 sang 3p5 km theo nhng hiu ng nng lng sau: Trc ht phi k n nng lng in ha Natri trng thi 3s1. K n phi k n nng lng i lc ha hc ca Clo dng vo mc ch thu nhn thm 1 in t t Na chuyn sang bin thnh in m Cl(. Cui cng l nng lng lin kt Culon. Nh vy to thnh phn t NaCl cn n 3 dng nng lng:

101

102

= E ion

+ E ai + E Cu

Nhng phn t c lin kt in in hnh l nhng phn t cha cc nguyn t kim loi kim v h Halogen.
2. LIN KT NG HA TR - PHN T HYDRO H2

Xt phn t n gin nht l Hydr (H2). Nu dng mu lin kt in th khng th gii thch s tn ti ca phn t Hydr. Lin kt trong phn t H2 cng nh nhiu phn t khc gi l lin kt ng ha tr mt hiu ng c bit ca l thuyt lng t. Nm 1927 Hailer v London vn dng l thuyt lng t gii quyt thnh cng l thuyt v lin kt ca cc phn t ng ha tr, tiu biu l phn t Hydr. i vi phn t Hydr, phng trnh Srding c dng sau:

i=1

2 2 2 2m + + x2 2 2 + 2 [E U] = 0 y i z i i

trong th tng tc:

e2 U = r 12 e2 + r e
2

i=1

1 + 1 r r bi ai

Trong : r l khong cch gia hai ht nhn a v b. r12 l khong cch gia hai in t (1) v (2). r1a l khong cch t ht nhn a n in t (1). r2a l khong cch t ht nhn a n in t (2).

r1b l khong cch t ht nhn b n in t (1). r2b l khong cch t ht nhn b n in t (2). Kt qu ca vic gii phng trnh Srding nhn c biu thc nng lng lin kt ca h 2 nguyn t Hydr to thnh phn t H2 c dng tng qut: C(r) A(r) E p(r) = 1 S(r)

Hnh 4.1

103

104

Trong : S(r) l thnh phn c trng cho s che ph ln nhau ca mt xc sut tm thy electron trong phn t. C(r) l thnh phn c trng cho tng tc tnh in Culon gia ht nhn vi cc electron trong phn t H2. A(r) l thnh phn c trng cho tng tc trao i v tr ca cc electron trong phn t H2. Cc kt qu tnh ton cho thy vi nhng khong cch trung bnh ca r (vo c cng bc vi bn knh qu o N. Bohr r0 = 0,53 A0 ) th thnh phn C(r) v A(r) u c gi tr m v (A(r)(> (C(r)(, do hai gi tr nng lng tng tc ca 2 nguyn t trong phn t Hydr c dng:
E +p(r) = E (r) = p C(r) + A(r) 1 + S(r) < 0

C(r) A(r) > 0 1 S(r)

Trng hp E(r) < 0 ng vi trng thi lin kt bn vng ca phn t H2. Trng hp E(r) > 0 tng ng vi nng lng y nhau lm cho h phn t Hydr khng bn vng. Kt qu tnh ton nng lng tng tc ph thuc vo khong cch r, c biu din trn hnh 4.2. Trc tung E vi n v nng lng tnh bng eV, trc honh l khong cch r tnh bng n v a0 (bn knh qu o N. Bohr) Nng lng cc tiu ca ng cong tng tc ht (E < 0) ng vi khong cch r = 1,6 a0 (tc l r = 0,83 A0). H phn t H2 bn vng, cc electron trong phn t lun lun c spin nh hng ngc chiu nhau v h phn t H2 khng lin kt (tng ng vi ng cong nng lng tng tc y), cc electron trong phn t Hydr lun lun cng chiu E. Nhng kt qu tnh ton ca Hailer v London ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim.
3. TRNG THI NNG LNG CA PHN T.

Khi cc nguyn t lin kt to thnh phn t, th trng thi nng lng ca phn t tng i phc tp, v phi tnh n mi kh nng tng tc ca cc electron vi cc ht nhn v gia electron vi nhau. n gin ha vic tnh ton, thng thng ngi ta tin hnh theo cch phn tch chuyn ng ca phn t thnh nhng chuyn ng thnh phn v nghin cu cc chuyn ng thnh phn ring r. C 3 dng chuyn ng ph bin trong phn t l: chuyn ng ca electron, chuyn ng dao ng ca phn t v chuyn ng quay ca phn t. Vn nghin cu cu to phn t v l thuyt, cng nh thc nghim, cho n nay vn cn l vn nan gii, s d nh vy l v phn t l mt h gm nhiu nguyn t lin kt vi nhau bng nhng lc m bn cht ca chng, thc ra cha c xc nh mt cch c th. Chng ta ch cp n phn t gm 2 nguyn t l phn t n gin nht.

105

106

Lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t to thnh phn t l lc tng tc gia cc in t vnh ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t. Cc in t vnh trong khng tham gia vo lin kt phn t. V tnh cht phc tp ca lin kt phn t, mt cch gn ng c th xem nng lng ton phn ca h phn t bao gm nng lng in t Et , nng lng dao ng ca ht nhn nguyn t Ed v nng lng quay ca phn t Eq: E = Et + Ed + Eq Bc x do phn t pht ra l do s bin thin nng lng ton phn (E. Bc x pht ra photon (h() c tn s xc nh: Et Ed Eq E = + + h h h h Thc nghim cho thy bin thin nng lng in t thin nng lng quay l nh nht: = Eq Ed Et

l ln nht cn bin

Ph phn t thng nm vng hng ngoi, vng nhn thy v vng t ngoi. hnh dung s khc bit gia cc trng thi nng lng , v , cc mc nng lng ca in t trong phn t c minh ha trn hnh v. Khong cch gia cc mc nng lng in t chnh lch nhau khong vi eV. Khong cch gia cc mc nng lng dao ng chnh lch nhau trong khong (10(2 ( 101) eV Khong cch gia cc mc nng lng quay chnh lch nhau trong khong (10 5 ( 10 3) eV. Nng lng in t trong nguyn t c xc nh: En = Rhc n2 . Z2 vi n = 1, 2, 3

hd ht

hq hd

Mc ien t

Mc dao ong

Mc dao ong

Mc quay

Hnh 4.3

107

108

Nng lng dao ng ca h phn t quanh v tr cn bng c xc nh:

1 Ed = h0 N + 2 vi N = 0, 1, 2, 3,

Trong : (0 l tn s dao ng ring ca h phn t ((0 ph thuc vo khi lng cc ht nhn v cu hnh in t ca phn t). N = 0, 1, 2, 3, gi l lng t s dao ng.

phn t tn ti bn vng th hm th tng tc U=U(r), ph thuc vo khong cch gia cc ht nhn ca cc nguyn t trong phn t. Ti r = r0, phn t c nng lng cc tiu v phn t trng thi bn vng. Khi khong cch gia cc nguyn t trong phn t bin i r < r0 hay r > r0, s lm xut hin nhng lc gi n hi c xu hng khi phc li trng thi cn bng bn ca phn t. Nhng lc ny lm cho cc nguyn t dao ng quanh v tr cn bng. S cc mc nng lng dao ng c minh ha trn hnh 4.3. Phn t cn c kh nng quay i vi phn t gm 2 nguyn t th h phn t quay quanh khi tm vi nng lng c xc nh:
L2 Eq = 2I Q(Q + 1)

vi L l momen ng lng v I l momen qun tnh ca h phn t. Thay tr s ca momen ng lng ta c: 2 Eq = 2I ( + 1) vi = 0, 1, 2, 3 (n - 1) V momen qun tnh I ca phn t ln, do vy nng lng nh hn rt nhiu so vi nng lng dao ng v nng lng in t .
4. QUANG PH PHN T.

Nghin cu quang ph phn t chng ta thy chng c nhng c im rt khc so vi quang ph nguyn t. Nh bit ph ca nguyn t gm nhiu vch ring bit hp thnh tng dy.

109

110

Ngc li ph phn t gm rt nhiu vch nm st nhau to thnh tng m, m ngay c khi dng nhng my quang ph c nng sut phn gii cao cng khng th tch cc m ny thnh nhng vch ring bit. V th ph phn t gi l ph m. Cc m quang ph phn t gm cc vch ph sp xp theo qui lut sau: - Tp hp cc vch ring bit to thnh m. - Tp hp mt s m to thnh nhm. - Tp hp mt s nhm to thnh ph phn t S xut hin cc vch ph m lin quan n cc bc chuyn trng thi ca electron trong phn t. Tp hp cc photon pht ra do nguyn t chuyn t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc trong tp hp cc dng nng lng in t, nng lng dao ng v nng lng quay, to nn hnh nh phc tp ca ph m.

111

112

Chng V

NHNG NH HNG BN NGOI LN NGUYN T BC X

Khi nghin cu ph bc x ca nguyn t Hydr v l thuyt N. Bohr chng ta nhn thy s bc x ca nguyn t lin h mt thit vi cu trc nguyn t. Thi gian u, vn bc x ca nguyn t cha phi c gii quyt mt cch thu o; m ch sau khi khm ph ra electron l thnh phn cu to nn nguyn t th vai tr ca n trong c ch bc x ca nguyn t mi c khng nh. Theo l thuyt c in, nhiu hin tng bc x ca nguyn t c th gii thch da trn m hnh lin kt gia electron v ht nhn nguyn t to thnh h nguyn t. Trong nhiu trng hp h nguyn t c xem tng ng nh mt lng cc. S bc x ca nguyn t l bc x ca h lng cc khi dao ng. Song song vi l thuyt c in, l thuyt lng t m rng v b sung cho l thuyt c in. Chng hn, khi gii thch ngun gc gin on cc vch quang ph th l thuyt c in t ra bt lc, nn phi dng n l thuyt lng t. Mc d vy l thuyt lng t vn c hn ch nh: khng th gii thch v tnh ton chnh xc cng bc x, phn cc hoc s phn b cng bc x trong khng gian. Trong khi , bng cch ng nht s bc x ca nguyn t vi bc x ca h lng cc, l thuyt c in c th tnh ton chnh xc cc i lng trn. T , dng nguyn l tng ng, c th dn n nhng kt qu ph hp vi thc nghim. Chnh v th m cn xc nh ranh gii p dng cho c l thuyt c in ln l thuyt lng t.
1. RNG CA MC NNG LNG V VCH QUANG PH.

Trong thc t cc vch quang ph nguyn t bao gi cng c rng nht nh, iu chng t nng lng cc trng thi dng khng th ch c mt tr s chnh xc n mc tuyt i, m c bao trong mt khong xc nh vi mt sai s no v thng c gi l bt nh v nng lng. Nh bit khi nguyn t chuyn t mc nng lng cao hn Ek sang mc nng lng thp hn Ei s bc x photon h(: h = Ek Ei

Nu gi (Ek l rng ca mc nng lng, th nng lng trng thi k s bng: v nng lng trng thi i bng: . Do mc nng lng c rng nn tn s bc x ca nguyn t c xc nh: + Ek Ek Ei 2 h Ei 2

113

114

Suy ra:

En 2
Ei

En > E

En > 0

Ek

Gi s:
E k

E4 E3 E3
Ek

= E i = E

ta c: (E chnh l rng ca mc nng lng. Khi nim rng mc nng lng, hon ton ph hp vi h thc bt nh Haisenbc: E.t h

E2

E2

Ei

E1

E1

Hnh 5.1. o rong mc nang lng h h

C ngha l vi trng thi c bn n = 1, mc nng lng E1 tn ti lu bn vi thi gian (t ty v c th xem nh (t ((, nn b rng mc nng lng (E(0. Cc mc nng lng ng vi n = 2, 3, 4, 5, u c b rng (E ( 0. Nu thi gian tn ti ca mc nng lng (t (gi l thi gian kch thch) cng nh th b rng mc nng lng cng ln. Ngoi ra rng cc vch ph ph thuc vo b rng hai mc nng lng tng ng vi cc bc chuyn ca electron trong nguyn t.
2. BC X T PHT V BC X CNG BC (HAY BC X CM NG).

Khi nguyn t nhn cc tc ng t bn ngoi n s b kch thch. Nu khng c tc ng lm cho nguyn t b kch thch th n khng th t ng chuyn t trng thi nng lng thp ln trng thi nng lng cao hn (nh lut bo ton nng lng khng cho php). Do vy nguyn t ch c th thc hin cc bc chuyn cng bc t trng thi nng lng thp ln trng thi nng lng cao hn. Ngc li khi nguyn t trng thi nng lng kch thch ln hn s c hai con ng chuyn sang trng thi c nng lng thp hn: l chuyn mc nng lng bng cch t pht v bng cch cng bc. 1. S hp th photon. Nu nguyn t nhn photon h( chuyn t trng thi E1 ln trng thi E2 th photon bin mt lm cho nguyn t b kch thch:
h = E2
E 1.

Trong qu trnh ny nguyn t hp th photon h( nn gi l s hp th.

115

116

2. Bc x t pht. Nguyn t khi hp th nng lng, b kch thch, sau khong thi gian c 10-8s n s t ng chuyn sang trng thi c nng lng thp hn v pht ra 1 photon h( mt cch hon ton t pht. Cc bc x t pht theo mi hng u nh nhau, theo qui lut t nhin. Mi vt khi b nung nng s bc x t pht. 3. Bc x cm ng. Ngoi cch bc x t pht, nu nguyn t ang trng thi kch thch chu tc ng ca photon h( t bn ngoi, nguyn t s chuyn sang trng thi c nng lng thp hn nhng by gi bc x 2 photon thay v 1 photon nh trng hp bc x t pht. S bc x ca nguyn t do tc ng t bn ngoi gi l bc x cm ng. c im ca bc x cm ng l photon h( ca bc x cm ng lun ng nht vi bc x tc ng vo n, c ngha l bc x cm ng h( c cng nng lng, cng hng, cng pha v cng phn cc. Nh c im ny m hin tng bc x cm ng din ra theo kiu dy chuyn k tip nhau s c nhiu photon h( pht ra lin tc y l c s khuch i cc bc x cm ng to ra chm tia Laser.

Trong thc t khng c nguyn t no ng c lp mt mnh m phi tn ti trong cng ng nhiu nguyn t. Nh vy trng thi nng lng E2 cng nh E1 bao
gi cng c nhiu nguyn t. Theo tnh ton ca Bonsman cho thy trng thi cn bng nhit ng ng vi nhit T xc nh th s nguyn t mt trng thi Ek bng: nx = C.e
EK KT

E2 E1

E2 E1
Hnh 5.5. S ao lon mat o nguyen t

Trong :

117

118

c l hng s KT l nng lng chuyn ng nhit trung bnh ca mt nguyn t nhit T. Nh vy nhit cng cao th c nhiu nguyn t chuyn ln trng thi nng lng cao hn. Do t s gia cc nguyn t hai trng thi nng lng khc nhau bng: n2 n1 = e
(E2 E1) KT

V E2 > E1 nn < 1, tc l mc nng lng cao s c t nguyn t hn mc nng lng thp. iu ny hon ton hp l, nu mt cc nguyn t cc trng thi ch c xc nh bi tc dng ca chuyn ng nhit. Nu dng photon h( lin tc chiu ri vo h nguyn t, cc nguyn t s hp th photon v chuyn ln trng thi nng lng cao hn. Sau nguyn t bc x photon theo hai con ng t pht v cm ng. Nhng qu trnh bc x t pht thng ln t qu trnh bc x cm ng. Mt khc c c bc x cm ng theo mong mun th phi to ra mi trng sao cho s nguyn t trng thi E2 cao hn s nguyn t trng thi E1. Trong iu kin cn bng nhit ng, ng vi nhit T xc nh, th kh c th thc hin c vic trn. Qu trnh to cho mc nng lng E2 c nhiu nguyn t hn so vi mc nng lng E1, gi l s o ln mt nguyn t. Bng thc nghim, vt l hc khm ph ra nhng mi trng vt cht c bit c kh nng to ra s o ln mt nguyn t thnh cng ny m ng cho cng ngh ch to cc my pht lng t ra i: ch to ra Laser.
3. NGUYN TC HOT NG CA MY PHT LASER.

My pht Laser u tin c ch to vo nm 1960 da vo nguyn tc bm quang hc s dng mi trng pht chm tia Laser l Rubi (Hng ngc hay ). Rubi l loi tinh th Al2O3 c pha in Crm vi nng 0,5%. Laser l cm t vit tt ca tinh Anh: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, c ngha l khuch i nh sng bng bc x cng bc (cm ng), tng v Laser c Anhstanh xut t nm 1913. Nguyn tc hot ng ca Laser hng ngc nh sau: dng n Xenon cng sut ln, kch thch cc in Crm, chuyn chng t mc nng lng E1 ln mc E3. Sau 10 8 s cc in Crm chuyn v mc gi bn E2 , thi gian tn ti trng thi ny c 10 - 3 s. Mc E2 tr thnh ni tch ly cc in Crm, lm cho mt mc ny cao hn mt

119

120

cc in Crm mc E1. Nh vy iu kin o ln mt c thc hin. Cc in Crm t mc E2 chuyn v mc E1 s pht ra tia Laser. Ngi ta bm Laser Rubi bng n Xenon cng sut ln (c th n vi trm kW). n bm Laser thng dng c dng hnh xon, ch u, v.v v c t gn hoc bao quanh thanh Rubi. Rubi dng trong Laser c ch to thnh hnh tr c ng knh t 1cm n vi cm hay vi chc cm. Thanh Rubi cng di, cng sut Laser cng ln. Hai u thanh Rubi c mi nhn tht song song v vung gc vi trc ca thanh. S cu to ca Laser Rubi c minh ha trn hnh 5.7. Thanh Rubi c t gia hai gng phn x t song song vi nhau. Mun cho Laser hot ng, trc tin phi tch in cho t in ln, sau cho phng in qua n xon Xenon. n Xenon pht ra nhng xung sng mu xanh lc c cng sut ln kch thch Laser hot ng. Laser Rubi pht ra tia sng mu vi bc sng ( = 6943 A0. Ngy nay k thut ch to hng chc loi Laser rn khc nhau, ngoi ra cn c Laser kh, Laser bn dn, Laser cc cht mu hu c
4. HIU NG DIMAN THNG.

Khi t nguyn t trong t trng, vch quang ph do nguyn t bc x b tch thnh 3 vch. l hiu ng Diman. Hiu ng ny c Faray tin on, sau Diman lm sng t bng thc nghim. quan st hiu ng Diman, ngi ta phi dng mt t trng mnh vi cng H = 105 A/m. Ngun sng c t gia hai cc ca nam chm in t to ra t trng khng u, thng thng l h quang kh Hydr t trong chn khng cho vch quang ph tng i hp.

121

122

Khi quan st theo phng vung gc vi phng ca t trng ngi ta quan st y 3 vch thnh phn b tch ra. Nu quan st theo phng song song vi phng ca t trng th ch quan st thy 2 vch.

Hnh 5.8. S o th nghiem Di man

Nguyn nhn lm tch cc vch quang ph l do tng tc gia mmen t ca cc lectrn trong nguyn t: e L = 2me Vi t trng nam chm in t E = t ( .B ) =

, kt qu electron nhn thm nng lng ph:

B cos

l hnh chiu ca ( ln phng ca trc z: E = z B

Mt khc ta c: z = m 0 vi m = 0, 1, 2, ,

(0 l Magnheton Bohr, t cho thy lectrn nhn thm nng lng ph bng:
E = m 0 B

Do mc nng lng h 0 b tch thnh (2?+1) mc con, i xng vi nhau ko theo m= vch quang ph = 0 0 b tch lm nhiu vch.

m = 1, 0, 1

m = +1 m=0 m =-1

0- 0 0+
Hnh 5.9

m= 0

123

124

Trn hnh 5.9 minh ha qu trnh tch mc nng lng v tch vch ph i vi nguyn t trng thi ? = 1 chuyn v trng thi ? = 0 (tc l chuyn t trng thi p sang trng thi s). Khi t trng B = 0 ch c mt vch ph ng vi tn s (0 , khi t trng B ( 0 xut hin thm hai vch nm i xng qua vch c tn s (0 l . Nh vy thay v c mt vch quang ph, khi nguyn t cha t vo t trng ngoi th s xut hin 3 vch quang ph, khi a nguyn t vo t trng B mnh. Tn s cc vch quang ph c th xc nh nh sau: Nu nng lng ban u ca electron trong nguyn t khi cha t vo t trng l E th khi t vo trong t trng B s l E(. Nu k hiu nng lng ca electron trong nguyn t trng thi 1 l E1 v trng thi 2 l E2 , th sau khi t vo t trng ngoi s l c xc nh:
E1 E2

= =

E 1 + m 10 B E 2 + m 20 B

Tn s tng ng vi bc chuyn gia trng thi 1 v 2 bng:

E2 E1 E2 E1 (m 2 m 1) 0 B = = + 0 B = 0 + m h h h h

Theo l thuyt lng t, iu kin cho php chuyn trng thi ch khi no (m = 0, ( 1, do vy 3 gi tr tn s (0 v s tng ng vi 3 vch ph. Kt qu tnh ton ny hon ton ph hp vi thc nghim.
5. HIU NG STARK.

Tng t nh hiu ng Diman thng c khm ph vo nm 1896, nm 1913 Stark li khm ph thm s tch vch quang ph nguyn t khi t vo trong in trng Hin tng ny gi l hiu ng Stark. Nhng kt qu nghin cu u tin ca Stark cho thy cc vch quang ph nguyn t Hydr thuc dy Banme: = 1 1 R 22 n2 vi n = 3, 4, 5, 6,

Trong : l s sng. n = 3, 4, 5, 6, l lng t s chnh, u b tch thnh nhiu vch b tr i xng v hai pha ca vch quang ph ban u khi cha t vo trong in trng. c im ca hiu ng Stark l s thnh phn cc vch ph tng ln khi lng t s chnh n tng.

Nguyn nhn lm xut hin hiu ng Stark l do trong nguyn t cc trng thi n > 0 u c momen lng cc in pe ( 0. Khi t vo trong in trng ngoi vi cng in trng E th lng cc nguyn t nhn thm nng lng ph t l vi cng in trng. E =

(pe.E)

Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi cc nguyn t b phn cc. Trong in trng khng mnh lm, th momen lng cc cm ng ca nguyn t t l vi cng in trng:

125

126

pe
Trong :

= 0..E

(0 l hng s in.

l phn cc ca nguyn t. Kt qu gi tr nng lng ph b sung cho nguyn t bng:

0..E2 2

Nng lng ny l nguyn nhn lm tch cc vch quang ph thnh nhiu thnh phn.

127

128

PHN II

VT L HT NHN

Chng VI

I CNG V HT NHN

1. CC C TRNG C BN CA HT NHN.

Th nghim tn x ca ht ( trn nguyn t ca Rdepho khng nh s tn ti ca ht nhn. Trong cu trc nguyn t, ht nhn c coi nh mt cht im v c kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc nguyn t, nhng li cha ton b in tch dng v chim gn nh ton b khi lng ca nguyn t. S khc bit r rt gia kch thc ca nguyn t 10(10 m v kch thc 10 ( 14 m ca ht nhn. Cu trc ca ht nhn khc vi cu trc nguyn t v nhiu yu t kh c bit. Ngun gc tng tc to thnh lin kt trong nguyn t l lc tnh in, cn lc tng tc gia cc thnh phn ca ht nhn, cho n nay vn cha c bit r hon ton. Khi nguyn t b kch thch, khi nhn mt nng lng khng qu 100 eV, pht ra quang ph hoc tia X, th i vi ht nhn, nng lng kch thch ny c vi MeV. Mt nguyn t khi mt nng lng kch thch th ch bc x phtn, nhng ht nhn b kch thch c th pht x phtn v c cc ht khc na. Tuy vy, c nguyn t v ht nhn vn phi tun theo cc nh lut chung nht: l cc quy tc ca thuyt lng t, cc nh lut bo ton khi lng, in tch, xung lng, mmen xung lng v.v Sau y ta s xt mt s c trng c bn ca ht nhn. 1. Cu to ht nhn. Theo gi thit ca Ivanenk Haidenbec a ra nm 1932 th ht nhn nguyn t cu to bi hai loi ht sau: Prtn (k hiu p) l ht mang in dng, v tr s tuyt i bng in tch nguyn t e ca electrn: 1,6.10 ( 19 C, c khi lng ngh mP = 1,67252.10 ( 27 kg Ntrn (k hiu n) l ht khng mang in c khi lng ngh: mn = 1,67482.10 ( 27 kg Hai loi ht prtn v ntrn c tn chung l nucln. Thc nghim xc nhn gi thuyt ca Ivanenk Haidenbec l ng. S prtn trong ht nhn bng s th t Z ca nguyn t trong bng tun hon Menlp. in tch ca ht nhn l + Ze. Tng s cc nucln trong ht nhn gi l s khi lng (k hiu l A). S ntrn trong ht nhn l N = A ( Z. Ngi ta thng k hiu ht nhn ca nguyn t l (vi X l tn nguyn t tng ng) V d:

129

130

( Ht nhn Hyr c k hiu l ( Ht nhn Hli c k hiu l ( Ht nhn Liti c k hiu l

c Z = 1, A = 1 c Z = 2, A = 4 c Z = 3, A = 7

+ +
4 2 He

1 1H

2 1H

+ +

7 3 Li

3 1H

la proton la ntron Hnh 6.2

Hat nhan Hyro, Dteri va Triti

Hnh 6.1

Trong nguyn t, hu nh ton b khi lng u tp trung ht nhn, v khi lng ca electrn l rt nh v tng khi lng cc electrn trong nguyn t nng nht cng nh hn phn trm khi lng ca nguyn t. V vy ta c th coi: Mhn = mnt Zme Mnt Nhng ht nhn c cng s Z nhng s N khc nhau (ngha l cng in tch nhng khc khi lng) c gi l nhng ht nhn ng v (hnh 6.2)

131

132

V d: Ht nhn Hyr c ba ng v: Hyr: tri: Triti:

3 1H

Nhng ht nhn c cng s A, nhng s Z khc nhau th gi l nhng ht nhn ng khi lng. V d: v v l cc cp ht nhn ng khi lng

Trong s nhng ht nhn ng khi lng ta cn gp nhng cp ht nhn m s prtn ca ht nhn ny bng s ntrn ca ht nhn kia. Ta gi chng l nhng cp ht
nhn gng (hnh 6.3) V du:
3 1H 7 3 Li 11 5 B 3 2 He 7 4 Be 11 6 C

3 1H

la nhng cap hat nhan gng

+
Hnh 6.3
Hat nhan gng

3 2 He

2. Kch thc ht nhn. Ngi ta c th coi ht nhn nh mt qu cu bn knh R v xc nh bn knh bng nhiu phng php thc nghim khc nhau. Sau y ta xt s lc mt vi phng php: 2.1. Kho st tn x ntrn: Ngi ta bn ph ht nhn bng n ntrn nng lng t 20 ( 50 MeV. V ntrn khng mang in nn d xuyn thu vo ht nhn v v ntrn mang nng lng ln nn n tng tc mnh vi ht nhn. Thc nghim cho bit xy ra phn ng t l tit din hnh hc ca ht nhn (R2. Do nu bit c bn knh R ca ht nhn: V d: R ( 10 ( 14 m i vi cc ht nhn nng nh: Pb, U R ( 6.10 ( 15 m i vi cc ht nhn trung bnh nh: Fe 2.2. Kho st phn ng ht nhn vi cc ht tch in:

133

134

Khi bn ph ht nhn bng ht tch in, th gia ht nhn v ht tch in xut hin lc y Culng. Do c th coi nh mt hng ro th nng tng tc lm cho ht tch in kh xuyn vo ht nhn. Nhng do hiu ng ng ngm, nn ht tch in tuy c nng lng nh hn hng ro th nng, vn c th xuyn qua hng ro th nng v gy ra phn ng ht nhn c. Thc nghim cho bit xc sut gy ra phn ng t l vi xuyn qua hng ro th nng. T ngi ta tm c kch thc ht nhn: R 1,4.10 15. A1/3 m 2.3. So snh nng lng lin kt cc ht nhn gng. So snh nng lng lin kt (s gii thch phn di) ca cc ht nhn gng ta thy ht nhn c nhiu prtn s c nng lng lin kt ln hn ht nhn nhiu ntrn. V d: Nng lng lin kt ca bng ( 8,485 MeV, cn nng lng lin kt ca bng ( 7,723 MeV. Nguyn nhn l v mi khi thay mt ntrn bng mt prtn th lc y Culng tng ln v gy ra mt nng lng ph bng . Bit hiu nng lng lin kt cc ht nhn gng, ta s tnh c bn knh ht nhn: R = 1,3.10 15 A1/3 m Kt qu l bng nhng phng php o khc nhau, ngi ta thy bn knh ht nhn ph hp theo cng thc thc nghim: R = r0 A1/3 vi r0 ( (1,2 ( 1,5) 10 ( 15 m (6.1) Ngi ta gi r0 l bn knh in v n xc nh kch thc ca min chim bi cc ht tch in trong ht nhn. T (6.1) ta i n mt kt lun quan trng l: Th tch ht nhn t l vi s ht trong ht nhn. Ni cch khc mt khi lng ht nhn l khng i i vi mi ht nhn. Nu k hiu mt khi lng ht nhn l , ta c: = Mhat nhan 4 3 3 R mp.A = 4 3 45 3 (1,5) .A.10 1,67252.10 27 = 4 3 45 3(1,5) .10 ( 10 14 tn/m3 Ta thy mt khi lng ht nhn cc k ln. Thc nghim chng minh rng khi lng ht nhn khng phn b u m tp trung gia to thnh li, cn lp ngoi mt khi lng gim nhanh nhng khng t ngt.

3. Spin ht nhn. Mt c trng quan trng khc ca nucln l n c mmen ng lng ring (mmen spin) hay thng gi l spin. Cng ging nh electrn, prtn v ntrn c spin . Ta c th gii thch spin ca nucln hay ca ht nhn nh l mt thuc tnh lng t gn lin vi bn cht vi m ca cc ht ny. Ngoi ra nucln cn c mmen orbital do chuyn ng ca nucln bn trong ht nhn, v vy mi nucln chuyn ng bn trong ht nhn s c mmen ng lng ton phn:

Ji

+ si

135

136

trong , l mmen orbital v mmen spin ca nucln th i. Do mmen ng lng ton phn ca ht nhn s l:

Ji

Ngi ta gi l mmen spin ca ht nhn, n c trng cho chuyn ng ni ti ca ht nhn. Theo c hc lng t, gi tr tuyt i ca mmen spin ht nhn l: J =

J(J + 1)

Vi J l lng t s spin ca ht nhn gi tt l spin ht nhn, n c gi tr nguyn 0, 1, 2, 3, nu A chn v c gi tr bn nguyn , , , nu A l (xem bng 6.1) 4. Mmen t ht nhn. Khi nim mmen t ca ht nhn do Paoli nu ra gii thch cu trc siu tinh t ca cc vch quang ph. Paoli gi thit rng s tch cc vch quang ph l do tng tc ca cc electron vi t trng ca ht nhn. V ht nhn c mmen t tc dng vi t trng gy bi chuyn ng ca electrn trong lp v nguyn t, nn electrn c thm nng lng ph do tng tc t. Tr s nng lng ph ny ty thuc vo tr s ca mmen t ht nhn v s nh hng ca n so vi phng ca t trng ca electrn. Php tnh chng t mmen t ca ht nhn ch c th nh hng theo mt s phng nht nh so vi t trng ca electrn ha tr. V vy nng lng tng tc c mt dy gi tr gin on. S mc ny ty thuc vo tr s spin ca ht nhn, cn khong cch gia cc mc th ty thuc tr s mmen t ht nhn. Mmen t ht nhn thc cht l do mmen t ca cc nucln to thnh. V c mmen c spin, nn cc prtn v ntrn u c mmen t spin. Ring prtn v mang in nn cn c mmen t orbital. V vy mmen t ht nhn s bng tng mmen t spin ca mi nucln v tng mmen t orbital ca mi prtn. Do ht nhn gm A nucln v Z prtn s c mmen t bng:

i=1

li (p) + si (p) + si (n)

i=1 i=1

AZ

Trong :

l mmen t orbital ca prtn th i l mmen t spin ca prtn th i

l mmen t spin ca ntrn th i n v o mmen t ht nhn c tn l manhtn ht nhn c tr s bng: e I = 2m = 5,0505.10 27 J/T p Bng thc nghim, ngi ta tm thy gi tr ca mmen t ca prtn l + 2,79276 (I. Du + chng t rng mmen t prtn hng cng nhiu vi spin ca n. Mt iu c bit l mc d ntrn khng mang in song ntrn vn c mmen t v c tm thy vi gi tr l: ( 1,91315 (I. Du ( c ngha mmen t ca ntrn hng ngc vi spin ca n. V mmen t ca prtn khng ng bng (I v mmen t ca ntrn khng bng 0, nn chc chn c prtn v ntrn u c cu trc ni ti phc tp. Bng (6.1) cho ta gi tr spin v mmen t ca mt s ht nhn.

137

138

Ht nhn 2 1H 3 2 He 27 29 40 91 Al Si K Zr

Spin

Mmen t o bng n v manhetn ht nhn

1 1 2 5 2 1 2 4 5 2

+ 0,86
2,13

+ 3,65
0,55 1,30 1,29

2. LC HT NHN.

Trong ht nhn c cc ht mang in dng (p) v c cc ht khng mang in (n), vy m ht nhn li c cu trc kh bn vng. iu chng t cc nucln trong ht nhn phi ht nhau bng nhng lc rt mnh. Lc ch xut hin trong phm vi ca ht nhn v c gi l lc ht nhn. Nh nhng s kin thc nghim ta tm ra mt s c tnh ca lc ht nhn: 1. Lc ht nhn c bn knh tc dng v cng nh. Th nghim tn x ht ( trn nguyn t ca Rdepho cho thy gc tn x ca cc ht ( khng tun theo ng nh lut tng tc Culng na khi vt qu gi tr cc i ca gi tr ny; khi khong ngm P l cc tiu. l phm vi tc dng ca lc ht nhn vo c 10 -15 m. Trong phm vi ny lc ht nhn rt mnh. Ngoi phm vi , lc ht nhn gim nhanh xung n gi tr khng. Ngi ta chn mt n v chiu di o kch thc ht nhn, ng thi l bn knh tc dng ca lc ht nhn: 1 fcmi = 10 15 m. 2. Lc ht nhn khng ph thuc vo in tch. Thc nghim cho thy trong ht nhn, lc tng tc gia hai prtn (p p), gia hai ntrn (n n) hay gia mt prtn v mt ntrn (p n) l hon ton ging nhau, nu cc nucln trong cng nhng trng thi nh nhau. u tin ta hy xt gia hai prtn. Phng php trc tip kho st lc ny l da vo th nghim tn x prtn prtn. Trong th nghim, ngi ta cho chm prtn pht ra t my gia tc, va chm vo mt bia cha nhiu hyr tc l cha prtn. T phn b gc ca cc ht nhn tn x, c th rt ra kt lun v tnh cht lc tc dng gia hai prtn, lc ny c th biu din gn ng bng ng cong th nng trn hnh (6.4) T th ny ta thy khong cch xa, cc prtn y nhau vi lc Culng t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch. Ti khong cch xp x 3.10 15 m c s chuyn t ngt ca ng cong th nng t dng thnh m, chng t bt u xut hin lc ht nhn gia mt cp prtn: l lc ht rt mnh khong cch gn vo bc fecmi.

139

140

Lc tng tc gia mt ntrn v mt prtn c th c nghin cu bng th nghim tng t: Cho chm ntrn tn x trn mt bia cha prtn. Tng tc ny c biu din bng ng cong th nng trn hnh (6.5). T th ta thy khong cch xa, khng c lc gia hai ht, nhng ti khong cch xp x 2 fcmi, th xut hin lc ht mnh. So snh hai ng cong th nng ni trn, c th thy hai lc ht thuc cng mt bn cht. iu chng t rng tng tc ht nhn khng lin quan n in tch. V V

pp
3 fecnia

2 fecnia
Hnh 6.5

i vi tng tc gia mt cp ntrn, ta khng th tin hnh th nghim tn x trc tip nh hai trng hp trn v khng th to c bia cha ntrn t do. Tuy nhin bng nhng phng php thc nghim gin tip khc, cng thu c nhng kt qu tng t nh cc trng hp trn. 3. Lc ht nhn khng n thun ch l lc ht. Khi hai ht qu gn nhau th xut hin tng tc y. iu ny cng th hin trn th th nng (Hnh 6.4 v hnh 6.5) vi khong cch rt b so vi 10 15 m, th nng t ngt chuyn t m thnh dng. 4. Lc ht nhn c tnh cht bo ha. Mi nucln ch tng tc vi mt s nucln ln cn quanh n, ch khng tng tc vi mi nucln ca ht nhn. 5. Lc ht nhn l lc trao i. Theo Iucaoa, tng tc gia hai nucln c thc hin bng cch trao i mt loi ht gi l mdn ((). Ht mdn ( c khi lng vo c 200 ( 300 ln khi lng ca lectrn. C ba loi mdn (: (+, (0, ( - . Tng tc n p c th thc hin theo mt trong cc qu trnh sau:

Hnh 6.4

n +p hay n + p

(p + ) + p n + ( + + n)

p + ( + p) (n + +) + n

p + n p + n

nuclon nuclon

Hnh 6.6. Tng tac nuclon bang trao oi medon

Tng tc gia hai ht ng nht p p v n n c th xy ra theo cc qu trnh:

141

142

p +p (p + 0) + p p + ( 0 + p) p + p 0 0 n + ( + n) n + n hay n + n (n + ) + n Trong cc qu trnh ta u thy mt nucln bin i v to thnh mdn (. Mdn ny s b nucln th hai hp th. 6. Lc ht nhn ph thuc Spin ca cc nucln. Th nghim v tn x ntrn nhit (10 -1 ( 10 3 ) eV trn octhhir (phn t hyr trong hai prtn c mmen spin song song) v parahir (phn t hyr trong hai prtn c mmen spin i song) cho bit xc sut xy ra tn x ntrn trn cc ht nhn octhohir ln hn xc sut xy ra tn x ntrn trn cc ht nhn parahir khong 30 ln. Kt qu chng t lc ht nhn ph thuc nhiu vo s nh hng tng h ca mmen spin cc ht tng tc. T nhng c tnh trn, cho php ta i n kt lun: Tng tc ht nhn l mt loi tng tc rt mnh, v bn cht khc hn vi cc tng tc hp dn, tng tc in t. i vi tng tc ht nhn, mt prtn v mt ntrn c th xem l tng ng vi nhau. Trong l thuyt lng t cn c th quan nim prtn v ntrn nh l hai trng thi in tch khc nhau ca cng mt ht. Cho ti nay, vn bn cht lc ht nhn vn cha c bit mt cch y v cn c tip tc nghin cu.
3. NNG LNG LIN KT HT NHN.

o khi lng cc ht trong vt l ht nhn, ngi ta dng n v khi lng nguyn t (vklnt). Theo nh ngha, mt n v khi lng nguyn t bng khi lng nguyn t ng v . Vi gi tr thc nghim o c l: 1 vklnt = 1,6598. 10 27 kg C ngha l ng v c dng lm ng v chun v do duy nht ch c ng v ny c khi lng ng bng mt s nguyn thc s: A = 12 vklnt Theo h c Anhstanh gia khi lng v nng lng: W=m.c2 th 1 vklnt tng ng vi 931,48 MeV. Nh vy, mt ht nhn c khi lng m(vklnt) s c nng lng tng ng l mvklnt 931,48 MeV. Cc php o chnh xc, chng t rng khi lng M ca ht nhn bao gi cng nh hn tng khi lng cc nucln to thnh ht nhn mt lng (M bng: M = Zmp + (A - Z)mn - M (M c gi l ht khi ca ht nhn, trong M l khi lng ht nhn , cn mp v mn l khi lng ca prtn v ntrn. ht khi (M tng ng vi mt nng lng: E = M.C2 Trong mt ht nhn bn, cc prtn v ntrn d nhin c lin kt cht ch vi nhau. Do khi mun ph v ht nhn tch thnh cc nucln ring r, ta cn phi tn mt nng lng cung cp t bn ngoi cho ht nhn, nng lng ny c gi tr t nht phi ng bng v ngc du vi nng lng lin kt gia cc nucln, m ta gi l nng lng lin kt ht nhn. Nh vy nng lng lin kt ht nhn l nng lng c tr s bng cng cn thit tch ht nhn thnh cc nucln ring bit. Nng lng lin kt c k hiu l (W v c tnh theo cng thc: W = E = M.c2 hay (W = ( 931,48 (M (vklnt) Da vo gi tr nng lng lin kt ht nhn, ta c th nh gi c mc bn vng ca mt ht nhn, gi tr tuyt i ca nng lng lin kt cng ln th ht nhn cng

143

144

bn. Tuy nhin, gi tr nng lng lin kt ph thuc vo tng s nucln c trong ht nhn th hin qua ht khi (M, do so snh bn vng gia cc ht nhn, ta cn so snh gi tr nng lng lin kt trung bnh cho mt nucln m ta gi l nng lng lin kt ring. Nh vy nng lng lin kt ring ca ht nhn, ta k hiu l (, v gi tr tuyt i bng t s gia gi tr tuyt i ca nng lng lin kt v tng s nucln ca ht nhn: W = A Nng lng lin kt ring c gi tr tuyt i cng ln th ht nhn cng bn vng. Hnh 6.7 cho ta th biu din tr tuyt i ca nng lng lin kt ring theo s khi A ca ht nhn.
MeV

8 7 6 5
50 100
Hnh 6.7

150

200

T ng cong cho ta thy:

i vi cc ht nhn nh nht, nng lng lin kt ring tng nhanh t 1,1 MeV ( ) n 2,8 MeV ( ) v t gi tr 7 MeV ( ) i vi cc ht nhn nng c A t 140 (240 th nng lng lin kt ring gim dn, nhng rt chm t 8 MeV n 7 MeV i vi ht nhn trung bnh vi A t 40 (140 th nng lng lin kt ring c gi tr ln nht nm trong khong (8 ( 8,6) MeV. iu gii thch ti sao cc ht nhn trung bnh li bn vng nht. V hu ht mi ht nhn u c nng lng lin kt ring trong khong (7 (8,6) MeV nn c th coi gi tr trong khong l khng i v gi l gi tr bo ha. Gi tr bo ha ca nng lng lin kt ring c gii thch l do tc dng ngn v tnh bo ha ca lc ht nhn (mi nucln ch tng tc vi mt s gii hn cc nucln ln cn). Cn s gim chm ca nng lng lin kt ring trong cc ht nhn nng l do nng lng tng tc y Culng tng ln khi tng s prtn.

145

146

Chng VII

CC MU CU TRC HT NHN
V cha bit c chnh xc bn cht ca lc ht nhn v mt khc ht nhn l mt h thng nhiu ht (nhiu nucln) tng tc vi nhau rt phc tp, nn khi nghin cu ht nhn, ngi ta phi da trn nhng quan nim n gin ha v tng tc gia cc nucln v dng nhng phng php gn ng gii bi ton cu trc ht nhn. V da trn nhng phng php n gin ha nh th, nn hin nay khng c mu ht nhn no gii thch mt cch trit cc tnh cht ca mi ht nhn. Mi mt mu ht nhn ch c th gii thch c mt s tnh cht no ca mt s ht nhn no m thi. Sau y ta ch xt hai mu ht nhn l mu git v mu v (lp) ht nhn. 1. Mu git. Trong tt c cc mu ht nhn, mu git l mu n gin nht, mu git do N.Bohr ra nm 1936. Mc d n gin nhng mu git c ng dng c kt qu trong vic gii thch nhiu tnh cht ca ht nhn v phn ng ht nhn. Mt trong cc kt lun quan trng m ta thy l mt khi lng ht nhn khng i i vi mi ht nhn ( ( 10 14 tn/m3). Hin tng phn nh tnh khng chu nn ca cht ht nhn, tng t tnh khng nn c ca cht lng. Mt khc nng lng lin kt ring ( = hu nh khng i (v hu ht mi ht nhn u c ( trong khong t 7 ( 8,6 MeV m ta gi l gi tr bo ha). iu phn nh tnh bo ha ca lc ht nhn ging nh tnh bo ha ca lc lin kt cc phn t trong trong cht lng. T cc s kin trn cho php ta xy dng mu git, theo ht nhn c coi nh mt git cht lng siu nng, tch in v khng chu nn. Qung ng t do trung bnh ca cc nucln trong ht nhn rt nh so vi ng knh ht nhn, ging nh qung ng t do trung bnh ca cc phn t rt nh so vi kch thc ca git. S t l ca th tch ht nhn vi s nucln trong ht nhn, cng nh t l ca nng lng lin kt ca ht nhn vi s nucln. Nh vy theo quan im ca mu git, ht nhn phi l mt h tng tc mnh. iu l ng, v thc t, lc ht nhn c cng rt ln. Mi nucln trn mt ht nhn tng tc vi mt s nucln khc t hn s nucln chu tng tc vi mt nucln nm su trong ht nhn. V vy nng lng lin kt ton phn gim mt lng no t l vi din tch mt ca ht nhn. iu cho php ta ni n nng lng mt ca ht nhn. Sau y ta s m t ht nhn theo quan im git v nghin cu cc h qu c bn ca n. Nh mu git ta c th thit lp cng thc bn thc nghim tnh nng lng lin kt (Elk) v khi lng ht nhn qua s khi lng A v in tch Z. Cc i lng tham gia vo nng lng lin kt l: Nng lng th tch EV t l vi s nucln A: EV = V A trong (V l h s t l. Nng lng mt: Em lm gim Elk. Thc t cc nucln gn mt ht nhn ch chu lc ht vo pha trong (s lin kt ca cc nucln trn mt cha bo ha) nn nng lng lin kt gim mt lng t l vi mt ngoi ht nhn (( A2/3) Em = m A2/3

147

148

 Nng lng Culng EC: Mi prtn trong s Z prtn tng tc vi Z 1 prtn cn li, v vy lc y Culng gia cc prtn t l vi Z (Z 1) ( Z2 v t l nghch vi r ( A1/3. Nng lng mt EC cng lm gim nng lng lin kt: EC = C Z2 A 1/3 Hai s hng lin quan n tnh bn vng ca ht nhn. Ht nhn bn vng khi s prtn bng s ntrn (N= Z). S sai lch gia N v Z lm cho ht nhn km bn vng hn. Nng lng i xng Ex c trng cho ht nhn c xu hng cha s prtn bng s ntrn:

Ex = (x (A ( 2Z)2. A( 1
Hay Ex = (x (N ( Z)2. A( 1 S hng b sung ( (A, Z) c trng cho tnh cht l ht nhn chn chn (Z chn v N chn) bn nht, ht nhn l l km bn nht, cn cc ht nhn A l th trng thi bn vng trung gian. oi vi hat nhan chan chan (A, Z) = 0oi vi hat nhan A le +oi vi hat nhan le le V vy nng lng lin kt ca ht nhn c tnh theo cng thc:
Elk = ( (V A + (m A2/3 + (C Z2 A( 1/3 + (x (A ( 2Z)2.A( 1 ( ( (A, Z) (7.1)

Cng thc (7.1) c gi l cng thc Weizacker, cho php tnh c kh chnh xc nng lng lin kt ca cc ht nhn. T thc nghim ta xc nh c gi tr ca cc h s: V = 15,75 MeV ; m = 17,8 MeV (C = 0,71 MeV ; (x = 89 MeV = 34.A 3/4 MeV Nng lng ton phn E ca ht nhn c tnh theo cng thc: E = Mhn.c2 = (Z.mp + N.mn) c2 + Elk T cng thc (7.1) ta tnh c nng lng ton phn ca mi ht nhn theo cng thc: E = Mhn c2 = [Z.mp + (A Z)] c2 V A + m A2/3 + (C Z2 A( 1/3 + (x (A ( 2Z)2.A( 1 ( ( (A, Z) (7.2)

Khi lng ht nhn c tnh theo theo cng thc: E Mhn = c2 (7.3)

Cc gi tr tnh ton theo cc cng thc trn kh ph hp vi thc nghim. Nh vy t mu git cho php ta tnh c kh chnh xc khi lng v nng lng lin kt ca ht nhn. Ngoi ra mu git cn gip gii thch c c cu phn ng ht nhn hp phn ca N.Bohr: Ht nhn khi bt n hay p s trng thi kch thch mt thi gian kh lu ri mi phn r, ging nh trng thi bay hi chm ca cc phn t cht lng nhit thp.

149

150

Mu git cng cho php gii thch qu trnh phn hch ca ht nhn nng: Nucln khi xuyn thu vo git ht nhn, s gy ra cc dao ng lm cho ht nhn b bin dng. Lc y Culng gia cc prtn c khuynh hng lm ht nhn bin dng mnh thm; tri li lc cng mt ngoi li c khuynh hng a ht nhn tr v trng thi ban u. Nu in tch Z ca ht nhn cng ln th lc y Culng cng mnh, cc dao ng bin dng cng tng v ht nhn s d dng bin thnh hai mnh. Tuy nhin mu git khng gii thch c: - Ti sao cc ht nhn c s p hay n l cc s magc (2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126) li rt bn vng v tn ti ph bin trong t nhin? - Ti sao xc sut bt ntrn ca ht nhn li rt b ? - Ti sao khi ht nhn Uran v thnh hai mnh khng bng nhau, li c xc sut ln mt mnh c 50 ntrn v mt mnh c 82 ntrn ? Nhng vn s c mu lp (v) gii thch.
2. MU V HT NHN.

Trong qu trnh thu thp cc s liu thc nghim ngi ta nhn thy rng khi cc s N hay Z ca ht nhn bng 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 hay 126 th tnh cht ca ht nhn thay i mt cch r rt. Cc s trn y c gi l cc s magc (k l). Cc ht nhn tng ng u c bit bn vng v c s lng ln. Ngoi ra cc nucln cui cng (cn gi l cc nucln magc) lp y cc v s c nng lng lin kt ln. Nng lng cc trng thi kch thch u tin ca cc ht nhn magc ln hn nng lng cc ht nhn bn cnh. V d: Thic vi s magc Z = 50 c n 10 ng v bn (cng Z khc A); nng lng cn thit tch mt prtn vo c 11 MeV v trng thi kch thch u tin ca cc ng v chn chn cao hn khong 1,2 MeV so vi trng thi c bn. Trong khi i vi cc ng v Te bn cnh (Z = 52), nng lng tch prtn vo c 7 MeV, cn trng thi kch thch u tin ca cc ng v chn chn c nng lng ch vo c 0,6 MeV. lm c s cho mu v, ngi ta a ra mt s gi thit sau y: Nucln chuyn ng trong trng ht nhn theo cc nh lut ca c hc lng t. V vy nucln c th c mt s hu hn cc trng thi vi nng lng hon ton xc nh. Theo nguyn l Paoli th mi trng thi ch c th c mt nucln. Mt khc mi gi tr nng lng li tng ng vi 2? + 1 phng khc ca vct mmen qu o v hai phng khc nhau ca mmen spin. V th mi mc nng lng c th c 2(2? + 1) nucln cng loi (prtn hay ntrn). ( Cc v c 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 ntrn hay prtn v 126 ntrn l cc lp v kn rt bn vng ging nh cc lp v electrn trong nguyn t. V d cc ht nhn hai ln magc rt bn vng v c hm lng cao trong t nhin.
16 8 O (8p, 8n) 40 20 Ca (20p, 20n)

99,579 % 96,97 %

V cc v nucln kn, nn ntrn thm vo s lin kt rt yu vi ht nhn. iu gii thch v sao xc sut bt ntrn ca cc ht nhn li b. V vy c th coi rng mt s tnh cht ca ht nhn, c xc nh do tnh cht ca nucln tha hay thiu trn lp v kn. Trong ht nhn, tng tc gia mmen qy o v mmen spin rt mnh. Do mi mc nng lng ca nucln li tch thnh hai mc con vi cc gi tr mmen ng lng ton phn: j = ? + v j = ? ( (ng vi hnh chiu spin ( ). mi mc nng lng c th c 2j + 1 ntrn v 2j + 1 prtn. Mc (? + ) c lm y trc, mc (? ( ) c lm y sau. Khi ? tng, hiu nng lng gia cc mc (? + ) v (? ( ) cng tng. Mt khc vi ? cho trc, nng lng cn ph thuc s nh hng ca spin nucln i vi phng ca mmen qy o. Nng lng nh ng vi trng thi nh hng song song.

151

152

 Cc nucln c khuynh hng kt i vi mmen tng cng bng khng. Vi cc gi thit trn, l thuyt tm c cc gi tr nng lng tng ng vi cc lp v khc nhau trong ht nhn. Ta k hiu trng thi cc nucln nh sau: 1 1 3 3 5 1 1s 2 , 1p 2 , 1p 2 , 1d 2 , 1d 2 , 2s 2 , Cc ch s u ng vi lng t s chnh n bng 1, 2, 3, theo th t nng lng tng dn. Cc ch s s, p, d, f ng vi cc mmen qy o ?: (? = 0: trng thi s, ? = 1: trng thi p, ? = 2: trng thi d, ) cn cc ch s , , , ch cc gi tr ca j
126
1i13/2 1hg/2 2f5/2 3p1/2 3p3/2 2f1/2 14 10 6 2 4 8

82
1h11/2 1g1/2 2d3/2 3s1/2 2d3/2 12 8 4 2 6

50
1g9/2 1f5/2 2p1/2 2p3/2 10 6 2 4

28
1f1/2 8

20
1d/2 2s1/2 1d5/2 4 2 6

8
1p1/2 1p3/2 2 4

2
1s1/2 2

Hnh 7.1. S o mc nang lng

Hnh (7.1) cho ta s mc nng lng ca nucln trong ging th nng. Nh mu v ta c th m t cu trc ht nhn nh mu lp.

153

154

Bng 7.1 Cu trc cc ht nhn nh Ht nhn 2 1H 3 2 He 4 2 He 12 6 C 16 8 O 17 8 O Spin 1 1 2 0 0 0 5 2 1 (1s 2 )2 1 (1s 2 )3 1 (1s 2 )4 1 3 (1s 2 )4 (1p 2 )8 1 1 1 (1s 2 )2 (1p 2 )8 (1p 2 )4 1 1 1 5 (1s 2 )2 (1p 2 )8 (1p 2 )4 (1d2 )1 Cu hnh

Nh mu v c th gii thch c mt s tnh cht ca ht nhn trng thi c bn v trng thi kch thch thp. V d spin ca ht nhn. V cc nucln c khuynh hng kt i c mmen ng lng bng khng, nn cc ht nhn chn chn (c s chn prtn v s chn ntrn) c spin bng khng. Cn spin cc ht nhn c A l th c xc nh bi mmen ng lng ca nucln l khng kt i. Chng hn ht nhn c 8p v 9n. Mmen ca nucln khng kt i l j = . Spin ca ht nhn o c cng ng bng gi tr . Mu v tin on c tnh chn l ca ht nhn. V vy mt thnh cng ln ca mu v l vic gii thch ti sao mt s phn r (, ( tuy kh d v nng lng, li khng xy ra hay rt t xy ra. Cc chuyn di nh vy gi l b cm. Xc sut chuyn di ( hay ( ph thuc vo hiu s nng lng gia hai trng thi u v cui, nhng cn ph thuc mnh hn vo spin v chn l cc trng thi y. Mu lp cng gii thch c nhiu hin tng khc, nh s to thnh cc ht ( trong ht nhn v phng x (. Mu lp c nhng thnh cng ng k. N gii quyt c kh nhiu vn v l mt bc tin ln trong vic tm hiu cu trc ht nhn. Tuy nhin phm vi ng dng ca mu lp khng ln lm, n gii quyt rt ng n cc ht nhn magc v gn magc, nhng khng gii quyt c nhiu tnh cht ca ht nhn xa magc v c bit n tht bi khi p dng cho cc ht nhn c 155 < A v A > 225 l cc ht nhn bin dng. Trong trng hp ny ta phi dng n cc mu ht nhn khc. Hin nay c nhiu mu ht nhn hin i, chng hn mu siu chy, mu gi ht phnn, Mu gi ht phnn tnh ton c nng lng v cc c trng khc ca cc trng thi kch thch i vi cc ht nhn c s ntrn hay prtn gn vi s magc 50, 82. Cc kt qu thu c t mu ny ph hp rt tt vi thc nghim. Nh vy ta li thy rng, mi mu ch c kh nng gii thch c mt s s kin thc nghim, mt s tnh cht cho mt s ht nhn no m thi. Cho n nay vn cha tm c mt mu ht nhn duy nht c th gii thch c cu trc v cng phc tp ca mi ht nhn, cng nh cc tnh cht mun hnh mun v ca chng.

155

156

Chng VIII
PHN R PHNG X
1.HIN TNG PHN R PHNG X.

Nh vt l ngi Php Bcren l ngi u tin khm ph ra hin tng phng x vo nm 1896, khi ng pht hin t mui Urani pht ra nhng tia khng trng thy, nhng li c kh nng xuyn qua cc lp vt cht khng trong sut, ion ha c khng kh, tc dng ln knh v phim nh, hoc gy ra s pht quang i vi mt s cht. Hin tng phng x t nhin l mt qu trnh bin i t pht ca nhng ht nhn khng bn thnh nhng ht nhn khc km theo vi cc tia phng x pht ra v thng quan st thy nhng ht nhn nng, xp cui bng tun hon Menlp. Hin tng phng x tip tc c nhiu nh bc hc khc nghin cu, trong phi k n s ng gp to ln ca hai v chng nh bc hc Mari v Pie Quiri. Trong hn hai nm nghin cu vi nhng iu kin nghin cu ht sc thiu thn, kh khn, nm 1898 hai ng b tm ra hai cht phng x mi l Plni (Po) v Rai (Ra) c tnh phng x mnh hn nhiu so vi Urani. Tip theo, ngi ta ln lt tm thy hng chc cht phng x khc nh Thri, Actini, Neptuni, Cho n nay, thu c cc s liu thc nghim khng l v cc trng thi nng lng v s phn r ca hng nghn ht nhn ng v, gip ta hiu bit nhng vn quan trng v cu trc v cc tnh cht ca cc ht nhn. Cc cng trnh nghin cu thc nghim v hin tng phng x xc nhn sn phm phn r phng x ca ht nhn gm: ( Tia ( l chm cc ht tch in dng b lch trong in trng v t trng v d dng b nhng lp vt cht mng nh mt l nhm chng hn, hp th. V bn cht, tia ( chnh l chm ht nhn ca nguyn t Hli ( Tia ( cng b lch trong in trng v t trng, c kh nng xuyn su hn cc tia (. V bn cht tia ( l cc lectron ((( ) v cc Pditn ((+ ) ( Tia ( khng chu tc dng ca in trng v t trng, c kh nng xuyn rt su vo vt cht. V bn cht, tia ( chnh l cc phtn c nng lng cao.
2. NH LUT PHN R PHNG X.

Trong mt qu trnh phn r phng x, mt ht nhn, thng l khng bn gi l ht nhn m pht ra tia phng x v bin i thnh mt ht nhn con. Ht nhn con cng c th l ht nhn m trng thi nng lng thp hn (trng hp phn r () hoc l mt ht nhn mi (phn r ( v (). D khc nhau v loi tia phng x, cc qu trnh phn r ht nhn u tun theo mt nh lut l nh lut phn r phng x. Gi s thi im t, s ht nhn phng x cha phn r l N. Sau thi gian dt s tr thnh N ( dN v c dN ht nhn phn r. gim s ht nhn cha phn r (( dN) t l vi N v dt: dN = Ndt

Trong ( l h s t l, ty thuc vo cht phng x v gi l hng s phn r. Hng s phn r ( l xc sut phn r ca tng ht nhn trong mt n v thi gian.

157

158

Do :

(8.1)

Gi N0 l s ht nhn phng x c thi im ban u t = 0 v N l s ht nhn cn cha b phn r thi im t bt k, t ta c: dN N

N0 N

dt
0

N ln N Hay N

= t = N0 e t (8.2)

Ta thy s ht nhn phn r gim vi thi gian theo quy lut hm s m. l ni dung ca nh lut phng x. Phng trnh (8.2) khng phi l phng trnh cho gi tr xc nh m l mt phng trnh c tnh cht thng k, n cho bit s ht nhn m N hy vng cn tn ti thi im t. Tc phn r ca mt mu phng x cho trc, thng c xc nh thng qua chu k bn r T1/2 , l thi gian cho mt na s ht nhn b phn r. t t = T1/2 trong (8.2) tng ng vi N = N0 2 Ta suy ra: = T1/2 N0 e ln2 = 0,693 (8.3) ta c:

T1/2 =

Nh vy, nu lc u ta c N0 ht nhn, sau thi gian T1/2 cn li ht nhn; sau 2T1/2 cn li (hay ) ht nhn, .. Tng qut, sau thi gian n T1/2 cn li ht nhn. nh lut phn r phng x (8.2) c th biu din qua chu k bn r bng th nh hnh (8.1). Cc cht phng x khc nhau c th c nhng chu k bn r khc nhau. Chng hn 210P0 c T1/2= 138 ngy, 235U c T1/2 = 7,1.108 nm.
N N0

N0 2 N0 4 N0 8

T1/2

2T1/2
Hnh 8.1

3T1/2

159

160

Ngi ta cn s dng khi nim thi gian sng trung bnh ( ca mt ht nhn phng x l thi gian tn ti trung bnh ca mt ht nhn cho ti lc n phn r. Ta hy tnh gi tr ca (.

T (8.1) ta c: dN = N0 e t dt (8.4)

Thi gian sng trung bnh ca mt ht nhn chnh l thi gian sng trung bnh ca mi ht nhn chia cho tng s ht nhn c thi im ban u (ch tnh gi tr tuyt i)

t dN =
0

N0

1 t N0 N0e tdt
0

e t tdt
0

Kt qu ly tch phn ta c: = 1 = T1/2 ln2 = T1/2 0,693 (8.5)

Nh vy, thi gian sng trung bnh ( ca mt ht nhn phng x, bng nghch o ca hng s phn r. so snh kh nng phng x mnh hay yu ca nhiu cht phng x khc nhau, ta phi da vo s ht nhn phn r trong cng mt n v thi gian. i lng ny c gi l hot phng x A v c nh ngha bng: A = dN dt

(Du ( cho bit s ht nhn phn r dN gim theo thi gian). Da vo nh lut phn r phng x (8.2) ta c th vit: (8.6) A = N0 e t Nu t A0 = (N0 c ngha l hot phng x ti thi im ban u th (8.6) tr thnh: A = A0 e t (8.7) Hot phng x ca mt cht cng gim theo thi gian vi cng dng nh lut phn r phng x (8.2). T (8.6) ta c:

A = .N

(8.8)

C ngha l hot phng x ti mt thi im th t l vi s ht nhn cha b phn r ti thi im . Hot phng x xc nh s phn r phng x trong mt n v thi gian. Hot phng x A l mt i lng c th o trc tip bng thc nghim. Trong h SI, n v hot phng x l phn r trn giy ( pr/s). Trong thc t ngi ta thng dng n v l Curi (Ci). Mt Curi bng s ht nhn phn r ca mt gram Rai trong mt giy.

1Ci = 3,7.1010

pr

/s 162

161

n v hot phng x ny rt ln, nn ngi ta thng dng cc n v nh hn cho cc ngun phng x thng thng: 1mCi = 10 3 Ci 1Ci = 10 6 Ci Trong tham d a cht ngi ta cn dng n v Piccuri: 1pCi = 10 12 Ci so snh hot phng x rt nh ca t t nhin.
3. QUY TC DCH CHUYN. H PHNG X T NHIN.

1. Quy tc dch chuyn. Ging nh mi hin tng vt l khc, qu trnh phn r phng x ht nhn cng phi tun theo cc nh lut chung nht ca vt l. l cc nh lut bo ton nng lng, xung lng, in tch, v c nhng nh lut bo ton khc u c khm ph ng dng cho nhng bin i ht nhn, nh nh lut bo ton s nucln, bo ton spin, tnh chn l, v.v Ni chung, trong hin tng phng x t nhin, mt ht nhn m t phn r thnh ht nhn con km theo pht ra cc tia phng x. Da vo cc nh lut bo ton ni trn, ta hy xt cc qu trnh bin i ca ht nhn m thnh ht nhn con trong tng loi phn r (, ( v (. Nhng qu trnh c din t bi cc quy tc dch chuyn.

1.1. Phn r (.
Ht ( l ht nhn Hli c k hiu l: nhn con Y theo quy tc:
A ZX 4 2 He

. Ht nhn m k hiu

s phn r ( thnh ht

A4 Y Z2

(8.9)

Ht nhn con c sinh ra c s in tch gim 2 n v v s khi gim 4 n v. N thuc nguyn t ng trc nguyn t ca ht nhn m hai trong bng tun hon Menlep. V d:
238 92 U

234 90 Th

4 2 He

1.2. Phn r (: Phn r ( ( r ( ( l: Ht ( ( l lectrn v ta k hiu lectrn hay ( ( l e ( . Quy tc dch chuyn ca phn
A ZX

A Z+1 Y

+ e

(8.10)

Trong phn r ( ( , ht nhn con li sau ht nhn m mt trong bng tun hon Menlep v l ht nhn ng khi (cng s khi) vi ht nhn m:

163

164

V d:
231 90 Th

231 91 Po

+ e

Phn r ( + Ngoi phn r ( ( , ngi ta cn tm thy mt loi phn r khc, trong pht ra ht ging ht lectrn, ch khc l mang in tch + e (tri du vi in tch ca lectrn). Ht ny gi l Pditn v k hiu l (+. Quy tc dch chuyn ca phn r ( + nh sau (ta k hiu ( + hay Pditn l e+ ): A A Y ZX Z1 + e+ (8.11)

Ta thy trong phn r ( + ht nhn m bin thnh ht nhn con dch chuyn v pha trc mt trong bng tun hon Menlep. Ht nhn con cng l ht nhn ng khi vi ht nhn m. V d:
12 7 N

12 6 C

+ e+

1.3. Phng x (:
Tia ( l bc x in t c bc sng cc ngn ng vi phtn c nng lng vo bc MeV. Khi ht nhn trng thi kch thch chuyn v trng thi c nng lng thp hn, n s pht ra tia (. V phtn l ht khng c khi lng tnh v khng mang in, nn quy tc dch chuyn l: A X* A X Z Z

(8.12)

Du * k hiu ht nhn trng thi kch thch: y khng c khi nim ht nhn m v ht nhn con v khng c hin tng phn r v qu trnh c gi l phng x ( ch khng phi l phn r (. Cc cht phng x ni chung khng pht ra ba loi tia (, (, (. C hai loi phng x ( v ( ( u km theo phng x ( v sau khi phn r ( hay ( ( , ht nhn phng x m bin thnh ht nhn con hoc trng thi c bn, hoc trng thi kch thch. Khi t trng thi kch thch chuyn sang trng thi c bn (trng thi c nng lng thp nht), ht nhn cn c th pht ra mt hay vi phtn. Hnh 8.2 l s phn r ca cc ht nhn v lng c tnh ra MeV. , v , trong cc mc nng

Erro

27 12 Mg

22 11 Na

+
0,8
0

1,015 0,834

0
206 82 Pb
27 13 Al

165 Hnh 8.2

166

2. H phng x. Ngi ta thng thy hin tng mt ht nhn khng bn phn r thnh mt ht nhn khc; ht nhn ny cng li khng bn v phn r tip. Qu trnh nh vy c th tip din v xut hin mt s ht nhn trung gian trc khi kt thc bng mt ht nhn bn. Tp hp tt c nhng ht nhn trong mt chui phn r lin tip, xut pht t mt ht nhn khng bn u tin cho ti ht nhn cui cng nh th, c gi l mt h phng x. C bn h phng x t nhin: H Urani bt u bng ht nhn , phng x ( vi chu k bn r T1/2 = 4,51.109 nm bin thnh . ng v ny li phng x ( ( bin thnh H Urani tn cng bng ng v bn ch . S khi ca cc ng v tham gia trong chui phng x c th c biu th A = 4n + 2 H Actinium: Bt u bng ht nhn , phng x ( vi chu k bn r T1/2 = 7,07.108 nm, bin thnh , cui cng kt thc ng v bn ca ch . Cc ng v ca h ny c A = 4n + 3 H Thori: Bt u bng ht nhn Thri , phn r ( vi chu k bn r T1/2 = 1,41.1010 nm, bin i thnh , v kt thc bng ng v bn ca ch . Cc ng v tham gia trong h ny c A = 4n. S h Thori nh sau:
232

Th

228

Ra

228

Ac

228 224 220 Th Ra Rn

216

Po

212

Pb

212

Bi

212 Po

208 Pb 208 Te

Mt s ht nhn c th phn r theo hai cch, ni mt cch khc l c hai xc sut phn r khc nhau. V d: c xc sut 66,3% phn r ( ( v cho ht nhn con 212P0 v c xc sut 33,7% phn r ( v cho ht nhn con . H Neptuni: Bt u bng ht nhn vi T1/2 = 2,14.106 nm, tn cng bng ng v bn ca Bizmut . Cc ng v tham gia trong h ny c A = 4n + 1.
4. PHN R (.

Mt s ht nhn phng x, c bit l cc ht nhn nng c Z > 82, phn r t pht thnh mt ht nhn con v mt ht nhn nh l ht nhn Hli (hay ht () theo quy tc dch chuyn (8.9)
A ZX A-4 Z-2 Y

4 2He

Trong X l ht nhn m v Y l ht nhn con. Nu ht nhn m trc lc phn r ng yn, th cc nh lut bo ton nng lng v xung lng c vit di dng: MXc2 = (MY + M ) c2 + DY + D (8.13) MY vY = M v (8.14)

167

168

Trong MX, MY , M( l khi lng ngh ca ht nhn m, ht nhn con v ht (, DY v D( l ng nng ca ht nhn con v ht (. Do cc ng nng khng th m nn phn r ( ch xy ra nu:

MX MY + M

(8.15)

Nng lng gii phng trong phn r ( l: Q = DY + D = (MX MY M) c2 (8 .16) Bnh phng 2 v ca (8.14) v nhn vi ta c: 1 1 2 2 MY(2 MYvY) = M (2 Mv) hay MY DY = M D (8.17) Cc khi lng ca ht nhn con v ca ht ( c th ly gn ng, bng A ( 4 v 4 vklnt. Nn ta c th vit li (8.17): (A 4) DY = 4.D Mt khc: 4 ) Q = D + DY = D (1 + A4 V vy: A 4 D = (8.18) A Q V nng lng phn ra Q c xc nh chnh xc bi biu thc (8.16) nn ht ( bay ra s c ng nng c xc nh chnh xc bi (8.18). Nng lng ca ht ( l n nng. Thng nhng cht phng x t nhin phn r ( u l cc nguyn t nng vi s khi A rt ln so vi 4 vklnt, do t (8.18) c th xem D((Q, ni cch khc gn nh ton b nng lng pht ra trong phn r chuyn thnh ng nng ca ht (, cn ng nng git li ca ht nhn con l khng ng k. iu ny gii sthch hin tng phn ln cc cht phng x ( cho mt s nhm ht c nng lng gin on khc nhau. ng nng ca mi nhm ht ( gn ng bng hiu mc nng lng gia trng thi ca ht nhn m v trng thi c bn cng mt s trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn con. Cc ht ( c ng nng ln nht ng vi phn r t trng thi ca ht nhn m v trng thi c bn ca ht nhn con. Nhm ht ( c ng nng nh nht ng vi phn r t trng thi ca ht nhn m v trng thi kch thch cao nht ca ht nhn con, sau s phng x ( tr v trng thi c bn ca ht nhn con. V thi gian tn ti trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn rt ngn, nn nhng tia ( xut hin gn nh ng thi vi phn r (. Nng lng ca cc tia ( tm thy hon ton ph hp vi hiu nng lng ca cc nhm ( c pht ra. Ta c th thy s phn r ca ht nhn hnh (8.3)

Hnh 8.3

Ngi ta bit khong 160 ht nhn phng x (. Cc ht ( c pht ra t cc ht nhn ny c nng lng gin on nm trong khong 4 ( 10 MeV, trong khi chu k bn r ca cc ht nhn ny c s khc bit ln t 10 ( 6 s n 1010 nm Ta xt qu trnh phn r phng x ( theo quan im lng t:

169

170

Gi s xt qu trnh phn r phng x ( ca ht nhn m thnh ht nhn con . Khi ht ( ngoi ht nhn con, cch tm ht nhn con khong cch ln hn R(( 10 ( 14 m) th lc gia chng xc nh bi tng tc tnh in; nu khong cch nh hn R, ht ( chu tc dng ca lc ht nhn ht mnh gia n vi ht nhn Thri. H lin kt ny gm ht ( vi ht nhn chnh l ht nhn m. Ht ( l ht nhn bn cu to t 4 nucln gm 2 prtn v 2 n trn, hon ton c th tn ti lu trong ht nhn m. T thc nghim, ngi ta bit rng pht x cc ht ( vi ng nng 4,19 MeV, nng lng ny cng chnh l nng lng ton phn ca ht (, v khi ra xa ht nhn con th th nng ca n l bng khng. Bn trong ht nhn m, nng lng ton phn ca ( vn l 4,19 MeV, l tng i s ca th nng (m) v ng nng (dng). Ht ( b nht trong h th nng c chiu cao ln hn nng lng ton phn ca n rt nhiu (( 30 MeV). Theo l thuyt c in th ht ( khng th thot ra ngoi ht nhn. Trong thc t hin tng phng x ( vn xy ra v ch c th gii thch c bng l thuyt ca c hc lng t. Ta bit, theo c hc lng t, khng th xc nh tuyt i chnh xc v tr ca ht, m ch c th ni n xc sut tm thy ht lin h vi hm sng m t trng thi ca ht. th th nng (hnh 8.4) cho thy h th nng c b dy thay i m ta gi l hng ro th.
U(r) D

Hnh 8.4

Theo c hoc lng t, xc sut ht ( xuyn qua hng ro th c dng: P

r2 2 = exp r1

2m (U E) dr

(8.19)

trong U l hm ca r, r1 v r2 l cc v tr m th nng U bng nng lng ton phn E ca ht: U(r1) = U(r2) = E c th xem khong cc t r1 n r2 nh l b dy ca hng ro th tng ng vi mt nng lng ton phn xc nh ca ht. Nh vy, theo c hc lng t ht ( c kh nng i qua hng ro th c chiu cao ln hn nng lng ca ht. Hin tng ny c gi l hin tng ng ngm. Xc sut ht chui qua hng ro (8.19) ph thuc mnh vo nng lng ton phn E ca ht v b dy ca hng ro th. Tht vy, khi E tng dn n gim b dy hng ro v lm tng xc sut ht chui qua hng ro. Ngc li, nu E gim th b dy hng ro tng v dn n s gim nhanh xc sut. Mi quan h gia chu k bn r v nng lng ca ht ( c m t bi nh lut Gyg Nuttan (1911): Ln = C B D

(8.20) 171 172

Trong C v B l cc hng s khc nhau vi cc cht phng x ( khc nhau. V d: nguyn t phng x ( c Z = 90 th C = 51,44 v B = 139,4. Tnh ton theo (8.20) ph hp vi cc s liu thc nghim.
5. PHN R (.

Phn r ( l qu trnh phn r, trong in tch ca mt ht nhn thay i mt n v in tch nguyn t, trong khi s nucln khng thay i. Phn r ( ( Quy tc dch chuyn ca phn r phng x ( ( ta bit theo (8.10)
A Z

A Z+1Y

+ e

V d:
12 5

12 6C

+ e

nh lut bo ton nng lng i hi khi lng tnh ca ht nhn m MX ( Zme phi ln hn tng khi lng tnh ca ht nhn con: MY ( (Z + 1) me v khi lng tnh ca lectrn. Trong MX v MY l khi lng nguyn t trung ha tng ng ca ht nhn m v ht nhn con. Nng lng gii phng Q trong phn r phi ng vi mt di v khi lng . T ta c: Q MX Zme = [MY (Z + 1)me] + me + c2 Q (8.21) hay MX = MY + c2 Biu thc (8.21) chng t phn r xy ra nu MX > MY, tc l khi khi lng nguyn t m ln hn khi lng nguyn t con. Nng lng Q gii phng t qu trnh phn r xut hin di dng ng nng ca cc ht sinh ra trong phn r: Q = DY + De V khi lng lectrn nh hn khi lng ht nhn con ti hng nghn ln, nn ng nng git li ca ht nhn con c th b qua v c th xem Q ( De. Ta tnh nng lng gii phng Q trong phn r ( ( ca ht nhn trc tip t cc khi lng nguyn t theo (8.21): MB ( MC = 12,01435 ( 12 = 0,01435 vklnt nn Q = 0,01435 ( 931 = 13,37 MeV
So hat

0
Hnh 8.5

Demax = Q

De

Ging nh trong phn r (, ta ch i rng mi lectrn u pht ra vi ng nng xc nh De = Q = 13,37 MeV, tc l nhng lectrn n nng v ph nng lng thu c s l ph gin on. Nhng cc th nghim xc nh s phn b nng lng ca cc lectrn trong phn r ( ( ca ht nhn bng phng php ph k t cho thy rng cc

173

174

lectrn pht x khng phi l n nng, m chng c mi gi tr nng lng t 0 cho n gi tr cc i l Dmax = 13,37 MeV (hnh 8.5). Nh vy nh lut bo ton nng lng b vi phm. Ngoi ra cc php o cng cho thy hng git li ca ht nhn con khng nht thit ngc vi hng bay ca lectrn pht x. iu ny chng t c s vi phm nh lut bo ton xung lng. Mt khc, mmen spin ca ht nhn m (l spin nguyn v A chn) khng th bng tng ca mmen spin ca ht nhn con (nguyn) v momen spin ca lectrn (bn nguyn). Nh vy c nh lut bo ton spin cng b vi phm. cho cc nh lut bo ton khng b vi phm, nm 1930 Paoli a ra mt gi thit v s tn ti ca mt ht mi trong qu trnh phn r v mi ti nm 1956, gi thit ny mi c xc nhn bng thc nghim. Ht c tn gi l ntrin. Ntrin c cc tnh cht sau y: in tch bng khng, khi lng ngh bng khng, spin bng , vn tc bng c (vn tc nh sng) ging nh vn tc ca tt c cc ht khng c khi lng ngh khc. Vi cc c tnh trn, s tham gia ca ntrin (ta k hiu l () vo qu trnh phn r (8.10) khng lm thay i nh lut bo ton in tch v s nucln, nhng li dn ti s tha mn ca cc nh lut bo ton nng lng v xung lng. Thc ra ht c pht ra trong (8.10) l phn ntron (ta k hiu l ) ch khng phi l ntrin. Qu trnh phn r (( c biu din di dng:
A Z

A Z+1Y

+ e +

(8 .22)

Trong qu trnh phn r ( ( th mt ntrn c bin thnh mt prtn bn trong ht nhn theo s : n p + e + V d:
12 5

12 6C

+ e +

nh lut bo ton nng lng i hi: Q = DY + De + D De + D (8.23) Ni chung nng lng phn r Q c phn phi cho ng nng ca c hai ht lectrn v phn ntrin; v th, nng lng ca lectrn pht x khng th l n nng m c mi gi tr nng lng lin tc v ch khi nng lng (v xung lng) ca phn ntrin bng khng th mi quan st c: Q = De = Dmax, ng vi mt s rt t lectrn c nng lng ln nht. i vi nh lut bo ton xung lng, i hi tng ba vc t xung lng ca ba ht phi bng khng (hnh 8.6); v th lectrn pht x v ht nhn con thng khng chuyn ng ngc chiu nhau. y l mt bng chng khng th ph nhn v s tn ti ca mt ht th ba sinh ra trong qu trnh phn r (, nhng v ntrin gn nh khng tng tc hoc tng tc rt yu vi vt cht nn vic pht hin ra ntrin l v cng kh khn v trong rt nhiu nm ngi ta khng nhn thy s tn ti ca n, vi ngay c vn khi lng ca ntrin c thc s bng khng hay khng vn cn l i tng ang c nghin cu hin nay.

175

176

Hnh 8.6

pe

S c mt ca ntrin (hay phn ntrin) cng lm cho nh lut bn ton spin c nghim ng. Nu ht nhn m c spin nguyn th mmen spin ton phn ca ba ht sau phn r, gm ht nhn con (spin nguyn), lectrn v (u c spin bn nguyn) cng s c gi tr nguyn v spin ton phn c bo ton.

Phn r (+ Qu trnh phn r phng x (+ (8.11) vi s tham gia ca ntrin tr thnh:

A Z +

A Z-1Y

+ e+ +

Trong qu trnh phn r (+ th mt ntrn c bin thnh mt prtn trong ht nhn theo s sau: p n + e+ + (8.24) V d:
12 7

12 6C

+ e+ +

V mt nng lng, phn r xy ra khi khi lng tnh ca ht nhn m ln hn tng khi lng ca ht nhn con v ca pzitrn (khi lng tnh ca ( khng tham gia v bng khng). V vy nh lut bo ton nng lng i hi: Q MX Zme = [MY (Z 1)me ] + me + c2 Q (8.25) Hay MX = MY + 2me + c2 trong MX v MY l khi lng ca nguyn t tng ng ca ht nhn m v ht nhn con, me l khi lng ca pzitrn, cn Q l nng lng gii phng trong phn r di dng ng nng ca ba ht pzitrn, ntrin v ht nhn con. Vy iu kin phn r (+ l:

MX MY + 2me
Ging nh trong phn r (( , ph nng lng ca phn r (+ cng c mt gi tr cc i Dmax. Trong trng hp phn r ca ht nhn thnh ht nhn nng lng phn r Q c tnh: Q = (MX MY 2me) 931 = (12,01864 12 0,0011) 931 = 16,43 MeV

Thc nghim xc nhn th phn b nng lng ca cc ht (+ pht x c dng tng t hnh (8.5) vi gi tr ng nng cc i Dmax l 16,43 MeV. Trong thc t, d dng nhn bit c phn r (+, v pzitrn (c coi l phn ht ca lectrn) sinh ra s khng bn v b hy bi mt lectrn to thnh hai phtn bay ngc chiu nhau, mi phtn c nng lng 0,51 MeV (bng nng lng tnh ca mt lectrn hoc pzitrn). Nh vy phn r (+ lun lun c c trng bi s xut hin hin tng hy cp.

S bt K

Ngoi hai loi phn r ( ni trn, cn mt kiu phn r ( khc na l s bt lectrn. Trong phn r ny, mt lectrn qu o ca nguyn t b ht nhn bt v kt hp vi

177

178

mt prtn ca ht nhn bin n thnh ntrn. S nucln ca ht nhn mi sinh vn khng i, nhng mt prtn bin thnh mt ntrn ging nh trong phn r (+ . Mt trong nhng lectrn thuc lp v trong cng (lp K) ca nguyn t c xc sut ln nht b bt vo trong ht nhn. S phn r ( do kt qu ht nhn bt mt lectrn ca lp K, thng c gi l s bt K. Qu trnh bt K v phn r (+ ging nhau ch mt prtn bin i thnh mt ntrn, nhng li khc nhau mt im c bn: Trong s bt K, mt lectrn c hp th, cn trong phn r (+, mt phn ht ca lectrn (tc l pzitrn) c pht x. T c th rt ra mt kt lun c tnh tng qut. S hp th v hy ca mt ht th tng ng vi s sinh ra v pht x mt phn ht (ht v phn ht y c th hiu theo ngha tng i: v d coi pzitrn l phn ht ca lectrn hay lectrn l phn ht ca pzitrn u nh nhau) Qu trnh bt lectrn c biu din nh sau: e +
A Z

A Z1Y

(8.26)

Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng ta c th vit: Q me + (MX Zme) = [MY (Z 1)me ] + c2 Q Hay MX = MY + c2 (8.27) trong MX v MY l khi lng nguyn t trung ha ca ht nhn m v ht nhn con. Phng trnh (8.27) chng t s bt lectrn xy ra nu MX > MY . V d: Phn r ht nhn e +
7 4

thnh ht nhn
7 3Li

do bt lectrn:

Be

Nng lng Q gii phng trong qu trnh phn r: Q = (MBe MLi) 931 = (7,01693 7,01600) 931 = 0,86 MeV Ch rng, khc vi phn r (+ v ( (, s bt lectrn ch sinh ra hai ht ch khng phi ba. Do hai ht ny phi chuyn ng ngc nhau vi xung lng bng nhau, cn nng lng mi ht th c xc nh chnh xc: l n nng. V ntrin c khi lng tnh bng khng, do hu ht nng lng phn r Q do ntrin mang theo, cn ng nng git li ca ht nhn con rt nh, vo khong vi eV. Nh vy cc h thc c bn lin h vi phn r ( nh sau:
+

n p + e + p n + e + e( + p ( n + (
+

(8.28) (8.29) (8.30)

: Bt e :

C th phn bit cc h thc trn nh sau: Qu trnh (8.28) c th thc hin vi ntrn t do, m khng cn phi ntrn lin kt trong ht nhn v tha mn v mt nng lng (mn > mp + me). Th nghim xc nh chu k bn r ca ntrn t do l 12 pht. Tuy nhin, thc t qu trnh ny kh xy ra v ntrn t do d dng b hp th khi i qua vt cht. Qu trnh (8.29) khng xy ra vi prtn t do, v b cm v mt nng lng (mp < mn). Do s phn r (+ ch xy ra khi prtn lin kt trong ht nhn.

179

180

6. PHNG X (. Mt ht nhn trng thi kch thch c nng lng cao khi chuyn v trng thi c nng lng thp hn s phng x (. Bn cht ca tia ( chnh l bc x in t, l cc phtn c nng lng rt ln vo c MeV, tng ng vi s khc nhau gia cc mc nng lng ca ht nhn. Thng thng trong qu trnh phn r (( hoc (), ht nhn con c sinh ra c th tn ti trong nhiu mc nng lng kch thch khc nhau, do km theo qu trnh phn r ( v ( cn c cc phng x ( vi cc phtn c nng lng khc nhau pht ra. Chnh nhng phtn ny l thng tin gip ta hiu bit v cc nng lng ca ht nhn v vic nghin cu, phn tch ph nng lng tia ( c mt ngha rt quan trng. Nh ta bit trong quy tc dch chuyn ca phng x ( cc nh lutbo ton in tch v s nucln c tha mn:

(A Z X)

A ZX

+ (8.31)

nh lut bo ton nng lng i hi: EC Eth = h + D

Trong EC v Eth l mc nng lng cao v thp ca ht nhn phng x, h( l nng lng ca phtn phng x cn D l ng nng git li ca ht nhn phng x. Ta hy xc nh ng nng ny da vo nh lut bo ton xung lng: phtn pht x v ht nhn git li c xung lng bng nhau v ngc chiu: p = Mv = hc p2 (h)2 = 2M = 2Mc2

T c th tnh c ng nng git li ca ht nhn: D = Mv2 2

Khi (8.31) tr thnh: (h)2 EC Eth = h + 2Mc2 h = h (1 + 2Mc2)

(8.32)

Xt c th ht nhn trng thi kch thch vi thi gian sng trung bnh 6,9.10 ( 8 s pht x tia ( c nng lng 14,4 KeV. Nu ht nhn kch thch ban u trng thi ngh th ta c th nh gi c ng nng git li ca ht nhn (tnh theo n v MeV): (h)2 D = 2Mc2 = (14,4.10 3)2 2.57.931 = 2.10 9 MeV = 2.10 3 eV

Gi tr ny l v cng nh so vi nng lng ca phtn pht ra, do mc chnh xc c th chp nhn c, ngi ta b qua v ta c:

EC Eth

= h

(8.33)

Ni chung ht nhn phng x ( c thi gian sng trung bnh vo c 10 ( 14 s. Tuy nhin, c mt s trng hp c thi gian sng trung bnh ln hn, tc l xc sut chuyn v trng thi c bn ca ht nhn kh nh, gn nh l b cm. Mt v d in hnh l ht nhn Nibi c th tn ti trng thi kch thch ti 60 ngy. Nhng ht nhn nh th gi l izme (na bn). Tm li, tnh phng x ( ca mt ht nhn kch thch, c xem nh du hiu trc tip nhn bit tnh khng bn ca mt ht nhn. Vic phn tch cc nng lng tia ( cho

181

182

php thit lp c cc s mc nng lng ca ht nhn, l mt vn quan trng trong l thuyt ht nhn.
7. TC NG CA TIA PHNG X I VI MI TRNG VT CHT.

Tt c cc tia phng x (tia (, tia (, ( hoc ntrn ) u nguy him i vi cc t chc sng, chng c th hy hoi cc t bo bng ion ha v c th gy ra nhng bin i di truyn quan trng. Mt c im ca s tc ng ca tia phng x l tnh tch t. Theo ngha ny, vic chu tc dng ca tia phng x cng yu trong mt thi gian di th cng tng ng nh chu tc dng ca tia phng x cng mnh trong thi gian ngn. o hiu qu tc ng ca tia phng x ln mi trng vt cht ni chung, ngi ta dng nhiu n v khc nhau.

n v Rnghen:

Mt Rnghen (R) l liu lng phng x ca tia ( c th lm ion ha v to mt n v tnh in in tch (3,3.10 ( 10 C) trong 1cm3 khng kh iu kin tiu chun. Kt qu ny tng ng vi vic to ra trong 1cm3 khng kh 2.109 cp ion.

n v Rad

Mt rad (ghp bi 3 t radiation abcorbed dose ngha l liu lng hp th bc x) l liu lng phng x b hp th nng lng 0,01J khi i qua 1 kg vt cht. n v rad ch biu th s nng lng hp th m khng ty thuc vo loi bc x hay vo loi vt cht hp th. n v rem (ghp bi 3 t roentgen equivalent man) l n v liu lng phng x tng ng cho ngi Mt rem l liu lng phng x gy ra trn 1g m c th sinh vt, cng nhng hiu ng sinh hc nh khi hp th 1R ca tia (. n v ny c s dng ph bin trong vic o lng tc ng ca tia phng x ln c th con ngi. Cng do c im tch t ca tia phng x, m ngi ta cn t thm n v sut liu phng x l n v cho bit liu lng phng x tc ng trong mt n v thi gian. V rem l mt n v ng vi mc phng x kh cao, nn n v sut liu lng thng dng l milirem trong 1 gi ( mr/h). V d: mt ngun Cban 60Co vi hot phng x 1Ci gy ra khong cch 1m mt mc phng x 1300 mr/h. Ngoi tc dng c hi, cc tia phng x cn c s dng vo cc mc ch c li cho con ngi: Dng tia X chp phim (trong y hc v trong cng nghip) Dng tia ( (ngun Co) chiu x hy dit t bo ung th hoc ung it phng x cha bnh tuyn gip. Chiu x cc ht ging to t bin duy truyn. Chiu x thc phm, ng cc, dit vi khun nhm mc ch bo qun di ngy. S dng cc ng v phng x nh du theo di qu trnh hp th cc nguyn t trong phn bn ca cc cy trng.

183

184

Chng IX

CC PHN NG HT NHN

1. KHI NIM V PHN NG HT NHN.

Phn ln cc d liu ht nhn u nhn c do phn tch cc kt qu thc nghim ca cc phn ng ht nhn. nghin cu tng tc ht nhn ngi ta dng mt ht n bit bn ph ht nhn bia v nghin cu cc sn phm sinh ra. Tng tc ht nhn c chia lm ba loi: Tn x n hi, tn x khng n hi v phn ng ht nhn. Tn x n hi: Trng thi ni ti ca cc ht tng tc khng thay i nhng ng lng v ng nng cc ht li thay i. a+X X+a Tn x khng n hi: C s thay i trng thi ni ti ca cc ht tng tc a + X X * + a Trong : X * ch ht nhn trng thi nng lng kch thch a( ch ht a trng thi khc Phn ng ht nhn: L tng tc ca hai ht dn n xut hin cc ht mi:

a+XY+b (9.1) Trong k hiu a l ht n, X l ht nhn bia, Y l ht nhn sn phm v b l ht nh bay ra sau phn ng. Phn ng trn c th vit di dng k hiu: X (a,b) Y (9.2) C ngha l ht a bn vo ht nhn X s pht ra ht b v sinh ra ht nhn Y. Ln u tin phn ng ht nhn c Rodepho thc hin vo nm 1919. ng s dng chm ht (, c ng nng 7,68 MeV pht t ngun phng x t nhin , lm ht n bn ph cc ht nhn . Phn ng ht nhn ny c vit nh sau:
4 2

He +

14 7

17 8

O +

1 1

( 9.3)

Cho ti nm 1932, mi phn ng ht nhn u c thc hin vi cc ht ( hoc tia ( t cc ngun phng x t nhin. Sau Ccrp v Oantn dng my gia tc thng 500 keV, quan st c phn ng ht nhn u tin, bng cc ht c gia tc nhn to dng lm ht n. Trong trng hp ny dng chm p gia tc ti nng lng 500 keV bn ph ht nhn bia Li xy ra phn ng:
1 1

H +

7 3

Li

4 2

He +

4 2

He

(9.4)

Trong hai phn ng trn, ht nhn sn phm l ht nhn bn, phn ng ht nhn u tin trong ht nhn sn phm c tnh phng x do Giolio v Iren Quiri thc hin nm 1934. Trong phn ng ny ht nhn bia c bn ph bi cc ht (:
4 2

He +

27 13

Al

30 15

P +

1 0

(9.5) vi chu k bn phn r 2,6

Ht nhn pht:
30 15

khng bn v phn r thnh ng v bn

30 15

Si + e+ +

(9.6)

185

186

Ht nhn mi sinh ra sau phn ng khng bn v phn r t pht theo nh lut phng x l mt c im ca nhiu phn ng ht nhn. Hin tng c gi l phng x nhn to. Nh vy phn ng ht nhn l phng php ch yu thu c cc ng v phng x nhn to. T cch k hiu phn ng ht nhn (9.2) dn ti cch k hiu phn loi phn ng ht nhn ngn gn (a,b) th hin ch quan tm n ht n ti v ht nh bay ra sau phn ng. Cho n nay ngi ta thc hin hng lot phn ng khc nhau theo phn loi nh ((,p) , (,n) , (,d), (p,), (n,p), (n,), (n,d), (n,), Tit din hiu dng ht nhn

Khi ta dng mt chm ht n bn ph ht nhn bia nhm thc hin mt phn ng ht nhn th khng phi c c mt ht n ti ht nhn bia l c mt phn ng xy ra. Khi ta ch c th ni xc sut ca phn ng l bao nhiu. Gi s c chm ht n a bay n p vo bia cha cc ht nhn X. Ta hy tng tng mi ht nhn c gn vi mt tit din ?, gi l tit din hiu dng theo hng vung gc vi phng ti ca cc ht n a. Bia c xem l mng sao cho khng c mt ht nhn no b che lp i vi cc ht ti bi bt k mt ht nhn khc. Din tch ca tit din ? c chn sao cho nu mt ht n ti no lt vo tit din ny th phn ng ht nhn xy ra. Ngc li, nu ht n khng i qua bt k mt tit din hin dng ? no th th phn ng ht nhn khng xy ra. Gi s c nt ht n ti p vo bia, trong ch c n? ht i qua cc tit din hin dng, tc l to ra c n? phn ng ht nhn. Khi xc sut p mt phn ng ht nhn xy ra l: n p = n (9.7) t Xc sut ny cng bng t s ca tit din hiu dng ton phn, i vi tt c cc ht nhn ca bia v tit din ton b ca bia. Nu din tch ca bia l S, b dy ca bia l d v s ht nhn bia trong mt n v th tch l N th tit din hiu dng ton phn l ?.NS.d th xc sut p ca phn ng: n NSd p = n = = Nd (9.8) S t Nh vy xc sut ca phn ng ht nhn t l vi tit din hiu dng. Tit din hiu dng ? c gi tr cng bc vi tit din ca ht nhn (10(24 cm2), nn ngi ta ly 10(24 cm2 lm n v o tit din hiu dng ca phn ng ht nhn v c gi l ?arn. 1arn = 1024 cm2 = 1028 m2 Ni chung tit din hiu dng ? ph thuc vo cc c trng vt l ca cc ht n bn vo (nng lng, momen ng lng, v.v) v nhng c im ca cu trc ht nhn. Php o tit din hiu dng bng thc nghim c mt ngh rt quan trng, v t gi tr ? ta s tnh c xc sut sy ra phn ng ht nhn.
2 CC NH LUT BO TON TRONG PHN NG HT NHN.

Nhng nh lut bo ton ch yu nht m phn ng ht nhn phi tha mn l: 1) nh lut bo ton s nucln. Trong phn ng ht nhn prtn c th bin thnh ntron v ngc li, nhng s nucln khng thay i trc v sau phn ng 2) nh lut bo ton in tch: Tng in tch khng thay i trc v sau phn ng. H qu ca nh lut ny l tng s prtn trong phn ng khng thay i.

187

188

3) nh lut bo ton ng lng: Vc t ng lng ton phn khng i trong phn ng ht nhn. Cn ch n ng lng ca phtn (tia () khi ht ny xut hin trong phn ng ht nhn. 4) nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng bao gm c bo ton mmen spin ca ht nhn. 5) nh lut bo ton nng lng: Nng lng ton phn khng thay i trc v sau phn ng. Ta xt chi tit hn nh lut bo ton quan trng ny. Xt phn ng X (a,b) Y, trong ht nhn bia X, gi thit ban u nm yn (DX = 0) cn cc ng nng tng ng ca cc ht cn li l Da , Db v DY. Nng lng phn ng ht nhn Q bng tng ng nng sau phn ng tr cho tng ng nng trc phn ng: Q = (Db + Dy) Da (9.9) nh lut bo ton nng lng c vit l: (mac2 + Da) + MXc2 = (mbc2 + Db) + (MYc2 + DY) (9.10) trong ma , mb , MX v MY l cc khi lng tnh tng ng ca cc ht. Kt hp (9.9) v (9.10) ta c: Q (9.11) c2 = (ma + Mx) (mb + MY) H thc ny chng t rng , vi ngha l khi lng tng ng ca nng lng gii phng trong phn ng, bng tng cc khi lng tnh ca cc ht trc phn ng tr i tng khi lng tnh ca cc ht to thnh sau phn ng. Nh vy, nng lng to ra trong phn ng ht nhn c th tnh trc tip t cc khi lng ca cc ht tham gia phn ng. Nu mt trong cc khi lng cha bit chnh xc (thng l khi lng ca ht nhn Y mi sinh) th c th tnh c khi lng ny nu bit Q t cc gi tr ng nng o trc tip. Nu Q > 0: Phn ng c gi l ta nng lng. Trong khi lng d chuyn thnh ng nng ca cc ht bay ra. Nu Q < 0: Phn ng c gi l thu nng lng, trong mt phn ng nng ca ht n chuyn thnh khi lng. Nu Q = 0: Tng ng nng cng nh tng khi lng ca cc ht trc v sau phn ng khng thay i. Phn ng c xem nh mt va chm n hi. Ta tnh nng lng Q ca mt vi phn ng ht nhn: V d: Phn ng ht nhn:
4 2

He +

14 7

17 8

O +

1 1

(9.12)

Trong php tnh ta c th thay khi lng ht nhn bi khi lng nguyn t tng ng v s electron thm vo hai v ca (9.12) bng nhau, nn khi lng ca chng kh nhau. = (4,00386 + 14,00753) (1,000813 + 17,00450) = ( 0,00124 vklnt nn Q= ( 0,00124.931 = ( 1,16 MeV Phn ng ny thu nng lng 1,16 MeV.

= m + mN

(mH + mO)

189

190

Tng t nh vy, ta tnh c nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn: ng ny ta nng lng Q =7,35 MeV. C ch phn ng ht nhn

(p,()

. Phn

Trong s cc mu cu trc ht nhn, th mu git, do Niels Bohr xng, cc nuln c xem l tng tc mnh vi nhau ging nh cc phn t trong mt git cht lng, rt thun li cho vic gii thch v phn ng ht nhn. Phn ng ht nhn c m t theo c ch hp phn nh sau: a + X C * b +Y trong C * l ht nhn hp phn trng thi kch thch. Chng ta hy hnh dung khi ht n a i vo ht nhn bia X, to thnh ht nhn hp phn C * trng thi kch thch. Ht n (c th l mt ntrn) c cun vo nhng chuyn ng hn lon nh cc nucln ca ht nhn, khi nng lng kch thch m ht n n a vo nhanh chng c chia s cho cc nucln khc. Trng thi gi bn C * tn ti trong thi gian c 10(16 s v phn r thnh hai ht n b v Y. C th c nhiu cch kh d to thnh cng mt ht nhn hp phn C * v c th phn r thnh nhiu cch kh d. Chng hn c 3 cch kh d to thnh ht nhn hp phn v 3 cch kh d m n c th phn r:
16 19 20

O + F + p
20

18

F + d Ne + n
3

Ne*

19 17

Ne + O + Ba kiu to thnh ht nhn hp phn

He Ba kiu phn r

Mt kiu bt k trong ba kiu to thnh ht nhn hp phn, u c th dn ti mt kiu phn r bt k trong ba kiu ni trn
3. CC MY GIA TC HT.

thc hin c cc phn ng ht nhn, cn phi bn vo ht nhn nhng ht n c nng lng ln (vn tc ln). Mun truyn cho ht n nhng vn tc ln th cn phi gia tc ht. Cc ht n c gia tc thuc nhiu loi, c th l lectrn, prtn, tn hoc cc ion dng khc nhau. Cc my gia tc cng c phn loi theo nhiu kiu: 1. Theo ng knh ca ht c gia tc: My gia tc cho ht in tch dng hoc ion dng v my gia tc ring cho lectrn. 2. Theo nguyn l hot ng ca my, ngi ta phn bit hai loi chnh: My gia tc thng v my gia tc vng trn. My gia tc thng hot ng theo nguyn tc gia tc tnh in, trong in th tng tc ch s dng mt ln. Cn trong my gia tc vng trn, do s c mt ca mt t trng cc mnh, cc ht mang in chuyn ng theo qu o trn v c mi ln i qua khe t in th tng tc th li nhn thm nng lng, hay ni cch khc, ht quay c bao nhiu vng th in th tng tc c s dng li by nhiu ln. Cc my Xicltrn, Xincrtrn, Xincrphaztrn, l nhng my gia tc trn hot ng theo nguyn tc ny. Hin nay do yu cu nghin cu v thc nghim ngy cng phc tp, nht l trong lnh vc ht c bn, ngi ta c xu hng nghin cu ch to nhng my gia tc khng l v i hi chi ph cng rt ln. Trn th gii cc my ny ch tp trung M v Lin X c ( Vin lin hp nghin cu ht nhn upna), trong c my gia tc vi nng lng 76 GeV, cn my gia tc ln nht th gii hin nay t c 300 GeV.

191

192

Chng X

NNG LNG HT NHN

1. PHN NG PHN HCH.

1. Ntrn. Nm 1932, nh vt l ngi Anh James Chadwick pht hin ra ntrn v gii thch phn ng ht nhn khi dng chm ht ( bn ph cc ht nhn bia , din ra nh sau:
4 2

He +

9 4

Be

12 6

C +

1 0

S pht hin ra ntrn lm hon ho l thuyt v thnh phn cu to ca ht nhn: Vai tr ca ntrn cng tng ng nh prtn bn trong ht nhn vi ngha l mt thnh phn ca ht nhn. Cho ti nay c kh nhiu phng php thu c ntrn. Phng php n gin nht l dng ngun Ra Be, di dng hn hp. Cc ht ( phng x t Radi va chm vi Be ca hn hp to thnh phn ng ((,n) v cc ntrn vi mt di nng lng rng s c pht ra. Ngoi phn ng ((,n) cn c nhiu phn ng khc cng sinh ra ntrn. Tuy nhin, phn ng ((,n) tin li v c tit din hiu dng ln, nn c ng dng to ra cc ngun n trn nh t nhng ngun phng x (. Ngi ta c th to ra nhng ngun ntrn c phng x 107 ntrn/s, dng trong phng th nghim hoc thm d v phn tch a cht. Phn ng quang ht nhn cng c th cho ta ntrn: chng hn phn ng ((,n) . phn ng c th xy ra, nng lng ca phtn phi ln hn 1,76 MeV. C th s dng cc tia ( pht x t cc cht phng x t nhin hoc nhn to thc hin phn ng ny. Ntrn cng c th to c to ra t cc phn ng bn ph cc ht nhn bia khc nhau bng cc ht n mang in nh p, d, c tng tc nh cc my gia tc mnh. Cc phn ng nh vy c bit c li khi dng lm ngun ntrn, v ntrn c to thnh trong trng hp ny l n nng. Mt phn ng in hnh l dng ht tn tng tc bn vo bia triti:
2 1

H +

3 1

1 0

n +

4 2

He

y l phn ng c dng trong cc my pht ntrn hin i. Phn ng ny thuc loi ta nng lng vi Q = 17,6 MeV. Mt cch thu ntrn c nng lng rt cao cn n gin hn bng cch thc hin va chm trc din gia mt prtn c nng lng cc ln v mt ntrn n c trong mt ht nhn bia. Chng hn, ngi ta cho prtn nng lng 2 GeV p vo mt bia, cc ntrn c cng nng lng c bt ra theo hng pha trc, do prtn truyn nng lng v xung lng ca n cho ntrn. Mt ngun tt nht cung cp dng ntrn c mt rt ln (c th t ti 1016 ht / cm2.s) l l phn ng ht nhn, hot ng theo nguyn l ca hin tng phn hch.

Vai tr ca ntrn.

Trc khi tm thy ntrn, ngi ta ch bit s dng cc ht mang in (nh (, p, d) trong vic thc hin cc phn ng ht nhn. Cc ht ny mang in nn chng chu lc

193

194

cn Culng khi i ti gn ht nhn, do hn ch kh nng xuyn su vo bn trong ht nhn, dn ti lm gim tit din hiu dng ca phn ng. Vi ntrn, nhc im ny c khc phc: V ntrn khng mang in nn n c th i su vo bn trong ht nhn mt cch d dng. S bt ntrn c th xy ra khi ntrn c nng lng hu nh bt k, va chm vi mt ht nhn cng hu nh bt k. Chnh v th, sau khi pht hin ra ntrn, hng lot phn ng ht nhn mi c thc hin, lm xut hin v s ng v phng x mi v m ra nhng hng nghin cu thc nghim, gii quyt nhiu vn l thuyt v cu trc ht nhn. Ngy nay, vt l ntrn tr thnh mt chuyn ngnh ring ca vt l ht nhn, iu khng nh vai tr quan trng ca ntrn nh th no. Cc phn ng ht nhn do ntrn gy ra rt a dng, y ta quan tm n hai loi phn ng kh in hnh v c tm quan trng c bit: Phn ng bt bc x: Ntrn bn vo ht nhn bia v b bt, ht nhn to thnh trng thi kch thch v phng x (. V d:
1 0

n +
28 13

27 13

Ae (13 Al)*
28 14

28

28 13

Ae +

Thng thng ht nhn sn phm khng bn v phn r ((

Ae Si
0 1

e +

Ntrn c th gy rt nhiu phn ng nh trn; ht nhn ng v nng hn c sinh ra thng l ng v phng x, do s hp th (bt) ntrn tr thnh phng php ch yu thu c cc ng v phng x mi. Ht nhn sn phm cn phng x ( v vic nghin cu phn tch ph nng lng ( c trng, gip ta phn on c s c mt ca nguyn t cn tm. chnh l c s ca phng php phn tch kch hot ntrn (kch thch ht nhn bng ntrn, lm cho n tr thnh ht nhn c tnh phng x): mt phng php thc nghim vt l ht nhn gip phn tch thnh phn v t l cc nguyn t trong mu cha bit vi mt nhy v mc chnh xc rt cao, vt xa cc phng php phn tch quen thuc khc. Phn ng phn hch: L mt loi phn ng ht sc c bit, dng ntrn bn vo ht nhn , ta li thu c ntrn vi s lng nhiu hn ban u (t 2 3). Phn ng ny cung cp cho ta ngun nng lng khng l m con ngi c th s dng vo mc ch c ch. Ta s xt ring phn ng ny trong phn sau. 2. Phn ng phn hch. Trong s cc phn ng ca ntrn vi ht nhn c mt phn ng ht sc c bit m ta cp trn, l phn ng phn hch ca cc ht nhn cc nng. Nm 1939, cc nh vt l c Hahn v Strassman pht hin ra rng, di tc dng ca ntrn chm, ht nhn b v thnh hai mnh c khi lng gn bng nhau. Cc mnh v ny c ng nng kh ln v l nhng ng v phng x kh mnh. Ngoi ra trong phn ng cn pht ra mt vi ntrn na, gi l ntrn th cp (ntrn bn vo ht nhn gi l ntrn s cp). Sau y l mt s c im ch yu ca cc phn ng phn hch: 1) Tit din hiu dng ca phn ng phn hch trn ph thuc nhiu vo nng lng ntrn. i vi ntrn nhit, tit din hiu dng ln gp trm ln so vi ntrn nhanh. Tit din hiu dng ca phn ng phn hch cng rt khc nhau i vi nhng ng v ca cng mt nguyn t. Chng hn i vi c tit din hiu dng phn hch ln hn rt nhiu ln so vi (trong khi li chim mt t l rt cao 99,3% trong thin nhin) 2) Trong qu trnh phn hch, trung bnh c t 2 n 3 ntrn th cp pht ra. Cc ntrn th cp c nng lng t 0 n 10 MeV, nhng phn ln tp trung trong khong 1 ( 2 MeV. Cc mnh v pht ra trong qu trnh phn hch rt khc nhau. S v lm hai mnh bng nhau (A ( 119) c xc sut b. Xc sut tm thy hai mnh v vi v A ( 96 v A ( 136 c gi tr cc i.

195

196

3) Cc mnh v ni chung rt tha ntrn nn chng khng bn vng v phng x (( lin tip. V d: a)
1 0

n +

235 92 U

236 * 92 U

144 56

Ba +

89 36 Kr

+ 30 n
144 60

Hai mnh v phng x (( lin tip:

144 56 89 36

Ba

144 57 La 89 37 Rb 236 * 92 U

144 58 Ce

144 59 Pr

Nd

Kr
235 92 U

89 38 Sr

89 39 Y 94 38 Sr

b)

1 0

n +

140 54

Xe +

+ 20 n

(bn) (bn) 4) Phn ng phn hch ta ra mt nng lng ln v pht ra mt s ntrn th cp, ln hn s ntrn s cp. Nng lng Q gii phng t phn ng phn hch vo khong 200 MeV. Nng lng ny c phn b nh sau: - ng nng ca cc mnh phn hch ( 170 MeV - ng nng ca cc ntrn th cp ( 5 MeV - Nng lng ca tia (( v ( ( 15 MeV - Nng lng ca trong phn r (( ( 10 MeV T mt phn ng phn hch u trn, cc phn ng phn hch khc li c pht trin tip tc, v s ntrn th cp mi sinh ra li b cc ht nhn Urani khc hp th phn hch , cho ti khi ton b nhin liu ht nhn c s dng ht. Ch trong mt thi gian ngn, s phn ng tng ln theo cp s nhn v nng lng ta ra v cng ln. Phn ng tip din v t duy tr nh th c gi l phn ng dy chuyn. Phn ng dy chuyn c th xy ra rt nhanh (nh trong bom ht nhn) hoc c th iu khin c (nh trong l phn ng ht nhn) C ch phn hch: Ngay sau khi pht hin ra hin tng phn hch, Niels Bohr v John Wheeler pht trin thnh mu git ht nhn, da trn s tng t gia ht nhn v mt git cht lng tch in gii thch nhng c im ch yu ca qu trnh phn hch. Hnh (10.1) cho thy qu trnh phn hch c din ra nh th no theo quan im . Khi mt ht nhn nng (gi s l ) hp th mt ntrn chm, nh trn hnh 10.1a, ntrn ny ri vo mt ging th gn lin vi lc ht nhn mnh tc dng bn trong ht nhn v chuyn ha thnh ht nhn trng thi kch thch. Nng lng kch thch m ntrn chm a vo ht nhn ng bng cng cn thit bt mt ntrn ra khi ht nhn , tc l bng nng lng lin kt (n ca ntrn . Hnh 10.1b cho thy rng ht nhn ging nh mt git cht lng tch in dao ng mnh. Sm hay mun g ri cng s pht trin thnh hnh tht c chai ngn v bt u tch xa dn ra thnh hai khi cu tch in. Nu cc iu kin l thch hp th lc y tnh in gia hai khi cu s buc chng tch ra xa nhau v lm t ch tht c chai. Hai mnh vn cn mang mt s nng lng kch thch cn d ri bay ra xa nhau. Nh vy, s phn hch xy ra.

197

198

a) Ntr

b)

c)

Hat nhan hap a) thu mot ntron nhiet

235 92 U

No tao thanh 236 hat nhan 92 U vi nang b) lng kch

Chuyen ong c) the nay co tao thanh

Hai manh tach ra va Lc Coulomb S phan e) hach d) f)Hnh 10.1 l h Hnh 10.1 th hin cc giai on ca mt qu trnh phn hch theo mu git ca Niels Bohr v John Wheeler.
2 L PHN NG HT NHN NH MY IN NGUYN T.

1. L phn ng ht nhn. Phn ng phn hch dy chuyn t duy tr u tin do Fermi thc hin nm 1942 ti Chicago (M) trong mt l phn ng ht nhn dng Urani thin nhin lm nhin liu v Graphit l cht lm chm ntrn. Mc d c nhiu kiu l phn ng ht nhn khc nhau, y ta s quan tm n nhng nguyn tc c bn ca mt l phn ng ht nhn dng Urani thin nhin lm nguyn liu v c cht lm chm ntrn thc hin c s phn hch bng cc ntrn chm. Trc ht, iu kin phn ng dy chuyn c duy tr i hi sau khi mt ht nhn Urani b phn hch, t nht phi c mt ntrn s li lm phn hch mt ht nhn na. Trung bnh mt phn ng phn hch to ra khon 2,5 ntrn th cp. V th khng c php qu 1,5 ntrn b mt, nu khng phn ng dy chuyn s b dp tt. Cc ntrn b mt mt khng gy ra phn hch i vi l: b bt m khng gy ra phn hch, cc tp cht hp th hoc r ra khi l. gim bt t l ntrn b tp cht hp th, ngi ta phi tinh ch nguyn liu gim tp cht n mc ti thiu. Cn chng s tht thot ntrn ra khi l, ngi ta b tr mt lp phn x ntrn bao quanh vng hot ng ca l. Nu vng hot ng ca l b, ntrn d thot ra ngoi, nn kch thc vng hot ng ca l phi ln. Ngi ta thy rng tc sn sinh ra cc ntrn t l vi th tch ca l (=a3 i vi khi lp phng), trong khi s r l hiu ng b mt (= 6a2 i vi khi lp phng). Tit din hiu dng i vi 235U tng khi nng lng n trn gim (t ti 550 barn i vi ntrn nhit); mt khc tit din bt ntrn ca 238U li tng khi nng lng ntrn tng. Trong khi , cc ntrn th cp li l ntrn nhanh, vi ng nng trung bnh ti trn 1MeV. V vy phi lm chm cc ntrn ny; gim nng lng ca chng ti gi tr nng lng nhit. iu ny c thc hin bng cch dng mt cht lm chm thch hp, sao cho hiu qu trong vic lm chm cc ntrn bng nhng va chm n hi v khng lm mt i cc ntrn, bng cch hp th chng m khng gy ra phn hch. Ngi ta thng sp xp xen k cc

199

200

thanh nguyn liu Urani gia cht lm chm . Cc cht lm chm thch hp l nc nng (D2O), Graphit, Be v mt s hp cht hu c. Khi lm gim c mi ngun gc, lm mt mt ntrn thc hin c mt phn ng phn hch v dn ti mt phn ng phn hch khc th l t iu kin ti hn. Nu mt phn ng phn hch to ra t hn mt phn ng phn hch khc, tc l phn ng dy chuyn khng duy tr, th l c gi l di ti hn. Ngc li, nu mt phn ng gy ra hn mt phn ng phn hch khc, th l trng thi qu ti hn: trong trng thi ny, nng lng gii phng qu ln, trong khong khc s dn ti v n, l trng hp qu bom nguyn t. m bo gi c trng thi ti hn n nh ca l, ngi ta s dng nhng thanh iu kin bng Cadmi (Cd) cm xen k gia cc thanh nhin liu Urani. i vi Cd, tit din bt ntrn rt cao, do ty theo v tr ca nhng thanh ny, rt ln cao hoc a xung su, m c th tng hoc gim tc sn sinh cc phn ng: dn n thay i cng sut ca l. H s nhn ntrn k = (pf( l mt thng s trong l phn ng ht nhn. Trong ( l h s ti sn xut, l s trung bnh ntrn th cp sinh ra khi mt ntrn chm b ht nhn 235U hp th. Chng hn i vi 235U: (=2,11; i vi 239Pu: ( = 1,94. Trong qu trnh lm chm th mt s ntrn th cp b mt i v b hp th bi 238U, bi tp cht hoc r thot ra ngoi, ch c mt phn p bin thnh ntrn chm. Nh vy c (.p ntrn chm. Trong s ntrn chm th mt phn b hp th bi 238U, tp cht v c ht nhn ca cht lm chm, ch cn li mt phn f tc l (pf ntrn chm b 235U hp th (f c gi l h s s dng ntrn chm). Nh vy l mt ntrn, sau mt mt ca dy chuyn tr thnh (pf ntrn. Trn y ta ch xt s phn hch bi ntrn chm. Thc ra mt s rt nh ntrn nhanh, trc khi b lm chm, cng gy ra s phn hch ca 235U v 238U, nn phi nhn tch s (pf vi mt h s ( (( l h s s dng ntrn nhanh). Nu k = 1, s hot ng ca l phn ng c gi l ti hn v l iu mong mun sn xut ra nng lng u n v n nh. Cc l phn ng c thit k c th k > 1, khi h s nhn ntrn c iu chnh, c hot ng ti hn (k = 1) bng cc thanh iu khin. C nhiu cch phn loi l phn ng ht nhn: Theo nhin liu: Urani thin nhin, Urani lm giu 235U; 239Pu Theo cht lm chm: nc thng (H20), nc nng (D2O), graphit, berili, Theo cch phn b ca nhin liu trong cht lm chm: ng cht, khng ng cht. Theo nng lng ca ntrn phn hch: chm, trung bnh, nhanh, Theo cht trao i nhit: nc, hi, kim loi lng, Theo cng dng: cho nng lng, cho ngun ntrn, cho sn sut cht ng v phng x, cho ti sn sut nhin liu phn hch, Vic ti sn sut nhin liu phn hch l mt tnh u vit him c ca l phn ng ht nhn. C th nh mt phn ng ht nhn bin nhng ht nhn khng b phn hch vi ntrn chm, tr thnh nhin liu phn hch vi ntrn chm. l cc phn ng:
1 0

n +

238 92 U

239 * 93 U

(23 phut)
*

239 93 Np

239 94 Pu (23 ngay) 233 92 (27 ngay)

1 0

n +

232 90

Th

233 90

Th

(23 phut)

233 91

Pa

U 202

201

Cc ng v 239Pu v 233U l nhng ht nhn phn hch vi ntrn nhit. L phn ng vi cng dng nh vy c gi l l ti sinh. 2. Nh my in nguyn t. Nhit nng ta ra trong phn ng phn hch dy chuyn c iu khin ca l phn ng ht nhn, c th c ti ra ngoi qua mt b phn trao i, t nng hi nc lm quay tuabin pht in. Phn ln cc nh my nguyn t hin nay ang hot ng trn th gii u dng l phn ng ntrn nhit, ngha l l phn ng da trn s phn hch di tc dng ntrn nhit. Urani t nhin cha 0,7% 235U v 99,3% l 238U. Nhin liu ca l phn ng l Urani t nhin c lm giu t 3% n 10% 235U. Cc nh my in nguyn t loi ny, ngoi vic cung cp in nng, cn c th sn xut nhin liu ht nhn 239Pu v 235U, da theo cc phn ng ht nhn trnh by trn.

Thanh Urani

May phat

Tua bin hi B m Bo phan Bo phan

B m Chat lam cham

Hnh 10.2: S nh my in nguyn t

Hin nay trn th gii, c rt nhiu nc pht trin v s dng nng lng in nguyn t. S lng v cng sut ca cc nh my in nguyn t trn th gii hng nm ang khng ngng tng ln. Theo s liu ca c quan nng lng nguyn t quc t (IAEA), nm 1980 cng sut in nguyn t trn th gii l 287 triu KW chim 19% tng cng sut in; nm 1990 l 1610 triu KW v nm 2000 t khong 4400 triu KW chim 83% tng cng sut in. Hin nay nhiu nc gi thnh in ca nh my in nguyn t r hn so vi nh my nhit in v thy in. Cng vi vic pht trin thm nhiu nh my in nguyn t, ngi ta cn a vo sn xut th nghim cc nh my in nguyn t kiu mi m in hnh l nh my in nguyn t s dng l phn ng ntrn nhanh. Hin nay c mt s nc thc hin thnh cng kiu l ny. Trong Lin X (c) c mt l ntrn nhanh kiu 5H 350 hot ng thnh ph Xpsenc gn bin Caxpin vi cng sut150 MW; Php c l Phenix vi cng sut 320 MW Tuy nhin, sau khi xy ra s c nh my in nguyn t Trecnbn (Lin X c) thng 4 1986 buc ngi ta phi xem xt li mt cch nghim tc rt nhiu vn nghim trng ca in nguyn t, nh: kim sot cc qu trnh phn ng phn hch, t ng ha cao v tin cy cao trong qu trnh iu khin, yu cu nghim ngt v vic chp hnh cc quy trnh vn hnh k thut, s phi hp quc t khi xy ra s c, nc ta, l phn ng ht nhn Lt vi cng sut 5000 KW, ch phc v cho cng tc nghin cu v iu ch mt s ng v phng x. L do Lin X (c) gip thit k xy dng v thuc l nc nc (cht lm chm v cht trao i nhit u l nc).

203

204

3. PHN NG NHIT HT NHN. (NHIT HCH)

Ta bit cc phn ng ht nhn u c km theo qu trnh ta ra hay hp th nng lng. Nu nng lng lin kt ht nhn sau phn ng (v tr tuyt i) tng ln th c s ta nng lng. Trong phn ng phn hch, mt ht nhn nng c lin kt ring l 7,5 MeV b phn chia thnh hai ht nhn, c khi lng trung bnh, vi nng lng lin kt ring 8,5 MeV v gii phng mt nng lng rt ln (khong 200 MeV). Ngoi ra cn c cc phn ng m cc nng lng ta ra cn ln hn, l cc phn ng tng hp hai ht nhn nh thnh ht nhn nng hn. Phn ng tng hp ht nhn b cn tr bi lc y Culomb, ngn cn hai ht nhn tin n gn lt vo vng tc dng ca lc ht ht nhn v tng hp vi nhau. to ra c mt nng lng hu ch cho s tng hp ht nhn, cn phi xy ra trong mt khi cht. Hy vng tt nht lm iu l nng nhit ca vt liu cc ht c nng lng (ch do chuyn ng nhit ca chng) xuyn qua c b th. Chng ta gi phn ng ny l phn ng nhit ht nhn hay l nhit hch. Di y l mt s phn ng nhit hch in hnh, vi cc gi tr nng lng c gii phng:
2 1H 2 1H 2 1H

+ + +

3 1H 2 1H 2 1H

4 1 2 He + 0 n (d t) , Q = 3 1 2 He + 0 n (d d) , Q = 3 1 1 H + 1 H (d d) , Q =

17,59 MeV 3,27 MeV 4,03 MeV

Ta thy tuy gi tr ca Q nh hn so vi phn ng phn hch, nhng ht nhn tham gia phn ng nhit hch li l ht nhn cc nh, nn nu ly cng mt n v khi lng nhin liu so snh, th s phn ng nhit hch s ln hn s phn ng phn hch hng trm ln ; v vy tng nng lng gii phng trong phn ng nhit hch vn ln hn nhiu so vi nng lng gii phng t phn ng phn hch. Nng lng bc x bi mt tri v cc ngi sao chnh l bt ngun t phn ng nhit ht nhn. Trong lng mt tri hoc cc sao khng cn nguyn t trung ha, tt c u b ion ha v tr thnh cc phn t mang in. Mt mi trng vt cht nh th c gi l plaxma; nhit t khong 100 triu . V vy cc phn t ca plaxma c nng lng ca ln v d dng xy ra kh nng hai ht nhn va chm, thng c lc cn Coulomb v kt hp di nhau di tc dng ca lc ht ht nhn. Phn ng c tn l nhit ht nhn, v cn c mt nhit rt cao phn ng c th xy ra. Nng lng mt tri v cc ngi sao xut hin do mt chui phn ng nhit ht nhn c tn gi chung l chu trnh prtn ( prtn: H + 1H 1H + 1e + 1 1 2 3 1 H + 1 H 2 He + 3 4 1 3 2 He + 2 He 2 He + 2 1 H Nng lng gii phng bi chu trnh ny vo khong 25 MeV. Cn c mt chu trnh th hai cng xy ra bn trong cc ngi sao, gi l chu trnh Ccbon Nit, v trong c s tham gia ca C v N:
1 1 2 0

1 12 13 1 H + 6 C 7 N + 13 13 0 7 N 6 C + 1 e + 1 13 14 1 H + 6 C 7 N + 1 14 15 1 H + 7 N 8 O + 15 15 0 8 O 7 C + 1 e + 1 15 12 4 1 H + 7 N 6 C + 2 He

205

206

Trong chu trnh ny: bn ht prtn ( ) c tng hp li thnh mt ht nhn Heli ( ) v hai pzitrn, cn cc ht nhn C, N ch ng vai tr trung gian, nh l hai cht xc tc. Php tnh chng t chu trnh trn c th xy ra nhit vi chc triu v ta ra khong 26,8 MeV. - Phn ng nhit ht nhn c kh nng cung cp cho ta mt nng lng cn ln hn c nng lng ca phn ng phn hch, l u im ni bt bit. Ngoi ra phn ng nhit ht nhn cn c nhng u im quan trng khc. - Tr lng Urani rt hn ch v ang cn dn: trong khi nhin liu c th coi l v tn. V t l khong khong 1/6000 trong i dng mnh mng. - Phn ng nhit ht nhn c coi l sch v khng li cc sn phm phng x khi phn ng sy ra. Phn ng nhit hch c thc hin ln u tin trn tri t l o san h Eniwetor ngy 31 thng 10 nm 1952, khi M cho n mt qu bom nhit hch (cn gi l bom khinh kh hay bom H) vi nng lng pht ra tng ng vi 10 triu tn thuc n TNT. Nhit cn thit khi ng phn ng ny c to bng cch s dng mt qu bom phn hch (bom nguyn t hay bom A). to c mt ngun nng lng nhit hch duy tr v iu khin c, tc l mt l phn ng nhit hch l ht sc kh khn. Tuy vy, mc tiu ny c nghin cu mt cch tch cc nhiu nc trn th gii. C ba yu cu mt l phn ng nhit hch hot ng thnh cng, l: mt ht cao, nhit cao (khong 108 ) thi gian gi Plaxma di. Vn ch yu l phi gi c Plaxma lu vi mt v nhit ca n cao, m bo cho nhin liu c tng hp. R rng l khng th c mt bnh cht rn no c th cha c mt nhit cao nh vy, do phi cn ti nhng k thut gi Plaxma c bit. Ngi ta tm c phng php gi Plaxma bng t trng. Cc ht mang in ca cht Plaxma s chuyn ng theo nhng ng cong di tc dng ca t trng. Trong hnh 10.3 vng chm chm l vng c t trng. Ht tch in gp t trng th chuyn ng cong nn qut tr li khng ng vo thnh bnh. Ta c mt v t trng c tc dng cch nhit m khng thu mt nng lng ca cc ht. Tokamak l thit b tng hp nhit hch c pht trin ln u tin Lin X (c). T trng gi Plaxma trong Tokamak l mt v bao cc ng sc. Lc t tc dng ln cc in tch chuyn ng ca Plaxma gi cho Plaxma khng chm vo thnh bnh.

...... ......... .......... .... .... .... .. . . .... ... ... ... ........... .......... ......... ...... ..............

Hnh 10.3

Ngoi phng php dng t trng, cn c phng php tng hp nhit hch bng Laser. Phng php ny c lin quan ti vic nn mt cc nhin liu bng cch bn n t cc pha bng cc chm Laser (hoc cc chm ht); do nn n, va lm tng nhit , va lm tng mt ht; khin cho s tng hp nhit hch c th xy ra. So vi cc thit b gi bng t trng nh cc Tokamak, s gi bng Laser lm vic vi mt ht ln nhiu v trong mt thi gian ngn hn nhiu. Tng hp nhit hch bng Laser c

207

208

nghin cu trong nhiu phng th nghim M cng nh nhiu nc khc. Cho ti nay Lin X (c) v M vn l hai nc u t vo nghin cu nhit hch nhiu nht. Mc d c nhng tin b rt nhanh trong vic nghin cu, nhng vn cn nhiu vn k thut nan gii, do vic xy dng mt nh my in nhit hch dng nh l cha th lm c trong vi chc nm u ca th k XXI. Tuy nhin cc nh vt l vn tin tng rng, th k XXI s l th k ca nng lng nhit hch.

209

210

Chng XI

CC HT C BN
1. M U.

Trong nhng chng trc, chng ta nghin cu cu trc ca nguyn t, ht nhn v nhng quy lut bin i ni ti din ra trong nguyn t v ht nhn vi cc thnh phn c bn l lectrn, prtn v ntrn. Vn c t ra l ngoi cc ht c bn , th gii vt cht cn c th c cu to t nhng ht c bn no khc? Gii quyt vn ny l nhim v ca mt lnh vc vt l: Vt l ht c bn. Ht c bn l nhng ht rt nh cu to nn vt cht. Cho n nay ngi ta tm c ngy cng nhiu cc ht c bn (c bit l cc ht cng hng) v v th kh m nh ngha t c bn theo ng ngha ca t ny trong khun kh mt s ln ht nh th. Tn gi ny mang nhiu tnh cht quy c, v bn thn mi ht c th c cu trc ni ti phc tp. Cc ht c bn u c th phn r thnh cc ht c bn khc, thm ch c th phn r theo nhiu cch. Cc ht c bn khi va chm vo nhau bin ha thnh cc ht khc. ng nng ban u cng ln th cc ht sinh ra cng phong ph, nn vt l cc ht c bn gn lin vi lnh vc vt l nng lng cao. Trc nm 1950, ngi ta ch da vo ngun tia v tr nghin cu v khm ph ra cc ht c bn, v l ngun nng lng cao duy nht c th li dng c. Tia v tr chnh l nhng chm ht c bn (thng l prtn) c nng lng rt ln ti hng t eV, t khong khng gia cc thin th bay ti Tri t. Khi i vo lp kh quyn bao quanh Tri t, chng tng tc (va chm) vi cc ht nhn c trong kh quyn trn cao v gy ra cc phn ng ht nhn, to thnh cc ht c bn mi. Tuy nhin vic nghin cu cc ht c bn bng tia v tr b hn ch, v cng ca chm tia v tr thng rt b, do kh nng gy ra phn ng rt b. Sau nm 1950, vi vic ch to thnh cng cc my gia tc vi nng lng cao v n sc, ngi ta lin tip khm ph ra hng lot cc ht c bn mi. Ngoi cc my gia tc, ngy nay cn c nhng phng tin k thut hin i dng nghin cu cc ht c bn; in hnh l cc bung bt ln cha y hyr lng, cho php chp nh ghi nhn c cc qu trnh tng tc phc tp din ra gia cc ht c bn. C th ni vt l ht c bn chnh l vt l nng lng cao, cho php ta i su vo th gii bn trong ht nhn. Cho n nay ngi ta tm c hng trm ht v thu c kh nhiu kt qu thc nghim v cc qu trnh phn r v tng tc gia chng. Nhng cho n nay vn cha c mt l thuyt hon chnh v cc ht c bn.
2. PHN LOI CC HT C BN V C TRNG CA CHNG.

C th phn chia cc ht c bn thnh bn loi da vo khi lng ca chng: 1. Phtn l lng t ca trng in t c khi lng tnh bng khng. 2. Leptn hay ht nh, gm lectrn, muyn v ntrin. C hai loi ntrin: ntrin thuc v lectrn ((e) v ntrin thuc v muyon (((). 3. Mzn hay ht trung bnh, c khi lng ln hn lectrn nhng b hn khi lng nucln, gm cc ht mzn (() v mzn (K) cn gi l pin v kan. 4. Barin hay ht nng, gm cc nucln (prtn v ntrn) v cc hypern lama, xicma, kxi, mga ( (, (, ( ,().

211

212

Ngoi khi lng, mi ht c bn cn c c trng bi cc i lng vt l khc nh in tch, mmn t, thi gian sng, v nhng s lng t nh spin, spin g v, tch leptn Ta ln lt im qua mt s c trng: in tch ca cc ht c bn bng mt s nguyn ln in tch nguyn t e, c th dng (k hiu (+ , (+ ) hoc c th m ((( , (( ). Ngc li c nhng ht trung ha khng mang in, c k hiu bng s 0 ((0 , (0 ). Thi gian sng ca cc ht c bn c trng cho qu trnh phn r t nhin ca chng. - Nhng ht khng b phn r (mt cch t nhin) gi l nhng ht bn nh e, p, - Ngoi nhng ht bn, cc ht c bn khc thng c thi gian sng rt b. Ngi ta tm thy cc ht c thi gian sng cc ngn, ch vo khong 10( 23 s v gi l cc ht cng hng. Khi cc ht c bn c mt nng lng xc nh no va chm vo nhau, chng c th to thnh mt trng thi lin kt trc khi r thnh cc ht c bn khc. Trng thi lin kt y c gi l mt ht cng hng. Mc d cc ht cng hng l mt h thng gm nhiu ht c bn, chng cng thng c xem l ht c bn. Mun xc nh c s tn ti ca n, ch c th da vo phn b nng lng ca cc sn phm phn r (ph nng lng ny c mt nh nhn, nn mi gi l cng hng). Hin nay s lng cc ht cng hng ti vi trm ht. M rng khi nim in tch, cc ht c bn cn c c trng bng tch Leptn v tch Barin. Tch Leptn bng +1 ng vi cc ht Leptn v 1 ng vi phn ht, cn vi cc ht Barin th tch ny bng 0. Tng t tch Barin bng +1 vi cc ht Barin v 1 vi phn ht Barin, i vi cc ht Leptn tch ny bng 0. nhng ht mzn v phtn th c hai tch ny u bng khng. Spin ca cc ht c gi tr bn nguyn ( ) chim i b phn cc ht c bn (ht c spin bn nguyn gi l fecmin), ch tr cc mzn c spin bng 0 v phtn c spin bng 1 (ht c spin nguyn gi l bzn). Tnh chn l l mt c trng lin quan n tnh i xng ca hm sng din t trng thi ca ht khi phn x (i chiu) ta . Dn ti c hai loi hm sng: Hm chn khng i du khi phn x ta :

( r ) = ( r ) V hm l i du khi phn x ta :

( r ) = ( r ) Mi ht c bn u c bc chn l ni ti. Chng hn, lectrn, prtn v ntrn c coi l chn, cn mzn ( c bc l. Ngi ta cho rng trong mi tng tc, bc chn l ca mt h thng ht phi khng thay i. Nu trc tng tc n l chn, th sau tng tc vn l chn. Tuy nhin thc nghim cho thy trong tng tc yu, hin tng ny b vi phm. Spin ng v l mt c trng quan trng cho s sp xp thnh nhm ca nhng ht c lin quan vi nhau trong tng tc mnh. V d in hnh nht l cp nucln gm prtn v ntrn. Nu khng k n in tch th prtn v ntrn hon ton ging nhau. V vy, ngi ta thng xem chng nh nhng trng thi khc nhau ca cng mt ht. Prtn v ntrn l hai trng thi ca nucln. V phng din ton hc, ngi ta a vo mt cp lng t s l spin ng v I v

213

214

hnh chiu Iz ca n trn trc Oz ca mt khng gian tru tng no (khng gian spin ng v). Mi nhm ht cn gi l b a tuyn vi mt spin ng v I xc nh s gm 2I + 1 trng thi mang in khc nhau, mi trng thi ng vi mt ht ca nhm. Chng hn cc nucln c spin ng v I = hay thnh b i, trong prtn c IZ = + v ntrn c IZ = ( . Cc mzn ( hp thnh b tam tuyn vi I = 1, trong ht (+ c IZ = 1, ht (0 c IZ = 0 v ht (( c IZ = ( 1,

S l l mt c trng dng gii thch mt s tnh cht k d ca cc ht c

bn, chng hn mzn k v cc ht hypern mc d chng c th r theo tng tc mnh, song qu trnh r li l yu (thi gian sng vo bc 10 - 12 s). gii thch Gell Mann v Nishijima a vo mt lng t s mi gi l s l S. i lng ny bo ton i vi tng tc mnh v tng tc in t, nhng c th thay i 1 n v trong tng tc yu. Gell Mann cn a ra cng thc lin h gia s l S v cc c trng khc: B + S 2

Q = IZ +

(11.1)

Chng hn mzn k+ c Q = + 1 v B = 0 phi c S = + 1, c sinh vi cc hypern ( v (. Cng thc (11.1) i hi IZ = tc k+ l thnh phn ca b i v spin ng v, ch khng phi thuc b tam tuyn. Nh vy d on ban u xp ba ht k+ , k0 , k ( thnh b tam tuyn l khng ng; tri li ch c b i k+ v k0 vi cc phn ht k( v k0. Tin on ny nh du mt trong nhng thnh cng u tin v khi nim s l. V d th hai l v ht hypern ?. Ap dng cng thc (11.1) cho thy ?( v ?0 l thnh phn ca b i ch khng phi l b tam tuyn. Kt qu ny ph hp vi thc nghim l khng tm thy ht ?+. S phn loi cc ht c bn vi nhng c trng nu trn c trnh by c th trong bng (11.1). Vic a ra hng lot lng t s trong vt l ht c bn, chng nhng cn thit cho vic phn loi, sp xp cc ht c bn ; m cn c lin quan cht ch n nhng qu trnh tng tc v phn r ca chng. Cc lng t s y gn lin vi nhng nh lut bo ton m ta s xt sau y.

2 trang trng t 2 Bng phn loi cc ht c bn

215

216

3. CC LOI TNG TC C BN- HT V PHN HT.

1. Cc loi tng tc c bn. Ngy nay ngi ta xc nhn trong t nhin ch tn ti bn loi tng tc c bn: Tng tc hp dn: L loi tng tc yu nht nhng li ph bin nht. Lc hp dn bao trm mi lnh vc v c biu din bng nh lut hp dn t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch. Tng tc in t din t bng nh lut Coulomb v Biotsavart, cng l nh lut lc t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch. Cc phng trnh Maxwell cho thy lc in v lc t, thc cht l hai biu hin ca mt hin tng thng nht. Lc in t chi phi tnh cht ca lectrn trong nguyn t v phn t. Cc qu trnh ht nhn, i khi c lin quan n tng tc in t, chng hn phng x ( . C th ni tng tc in t cng c tnh cht ph bin v l tng tc c hiu bit mt cch y nht. Tng tc mnh l tng tc gia cc nucln trong ht nhn. S d gi l mnh v n phi thng c lc y Coulomb, c tc dng lm cho mi ht nhn ng l khng tn ti bn vng c. Tng tc ny c bn knh tac dng rt ngn vo bc fecmi (10- 15 m), do khng c nh hng g i vi cu trc cc lp v lectrn ca nguyn t. V d khc v tng tc mnh l s va chm gia cc mzn v cc Barin. Ngoi c trng quan trng ca tng tc mnh l bn knh tc dng rt ngn, cn c c trng l thi gian sng ca cc ht to thnh do tng tc mnh rt ngn (( 10 24 s). Tng tc mnh khng ch cc qu trnh phn r (, phn hch, nhit hch v tn x nucln trn ht nhn nng lng cao. Cho ti nay, dng ton hc ca lc tng tc ny vn cha c xc nh. Tng tc yu l mt loi lc chi phi trong ht nhn, m in hnh l gy ra s phn r ((. Tng tc yu cng l nguyn nhn gy ra phn r ca cc ht s cp. Tng tc yu cng l dng tng tc c nht ca ntrin vi vt cht. Thi gian sng ca cc ht phn r do tng tc yu khng nh hn 10(11s. S hiu bit v cc lc tng tc k trn rt cn thit cho vic m t cc hin tng ca cc ht c bn. Sau y l bng nh gi tng quan v ln ca bn loi tng tc k trn. Tng tc ln 2. Ht v phn ht. Nm 1928, Dirac tin on rng lectrn cn phi c mt phn ht mang in tch dng. Phn ht ny c gi l Pzitrn, c pht hin thy trong tia v tr vo nm 1932 bi Carl Anderson. Ri dn dn v sau ngy cng thy r rng mi mt ht u c mt phn ht tng ng, c cng khi lng v spin, nhng in tch c du ngc li (nu ht c in tch) v khc nhau v du i vi cc lng t s khc. Chng ta thng k hiu phn ht bng du ( trn u k hiu ca ht. V d p l k hiu ca prtn ~ th p la ky hieu cua phan proton. Khi mt ht gp mt phn ht ca n, chng c th hy nhau. Tc l khi c ht v phn ht u bin mt, cn nng lng ngh t hp ca chng s tr thnh mt dng nng lng khc. i vi mt lectrn hy vi phn ht ca n, th nng lng ny xut hin nh hai phtn gamma. e + e+ + (Q = 1,02 MeV) Mnh 1 in t 10 2 Yu 1012 Hp dn 10 40

217

218

V nguyn tc, mt phtn c th nhng nng lng ca n to thnh cp lectrn pzitrn. D nhin t nht phtn phi c nng lng bng 2m0c2. Tuy nhin mt phtn d c nng lng ln bao nhiu i na th cng khng th to cp trong mt chn khng hon ton nu nh khng c trng ngoi. Sau ny, khi ngi ta tm thy ln lt cc ht c bn khc, th ng thi cng thy c cc phn ht ca chng; ngoi tr mt vi trng hp c bit phn ht li trng vi chnh ht, nh phtn, mzn (0. Ni chung gia ht v phn ht u c th xy ra hin tng hy cp v sinh cp.
4. CC NH LUT BO TON.

Tng tc gia cc ht c bn, cng nh qu trnh phn r ca chng rt phc tp. Tuy nhin cc qu trnh y tun theo nhng quy lut bo ton nht nh. Ngoi cc quy lut bo ton quen thuc, nh bo ton nng lng, in tch, mnem ng lng , trong vt l cc ht c bn cn c hng lot cc quy lut bo ton khc nh bo ton tch Leptn, tch Barin, bo ton chn l, bo ton s l, bt bin spin ng v, C nhng quy lut bo ton tuyt i ng i vi mt lot tng tc nh bo ton nng lng, in tch, tch barin ; c nhng quy lut bo ton ng vi mt s qu trnh ny nhng li khng ng vi mt s qu trnh khc. V d: tnh chn l khng bo ton trong tng tc yu, spin ng v ch c bo ton trong tng tc mnh , Ta h thng tt c cc nh lut bo ton nu trong bng (11.2)

i lng c trng 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Nng lng Xung lng Mmen xung lng in tch Q S barion B Bc chn l P Spin ng v I Hnh chiu Iz S l S

Mnh C C C C C C C C C

Loi tng tc in t C C C C C C Khng Khng C

Yu C C C C C Khng Khng Khng Khng

Bng 11.2: Cc nh lut bo ton

5. VI NT V VN H THNG HA CC HT C BN.

Mt vn tn ti t lu, thu ht s quan tm ca cc nh nghin cu vt l c bn l lm sao tm c mt l thuyt h thng ha tt c cc ht c bn bit v nh m d on c c nhng ht cha bit (c ngha ging nh tm ra h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ca Menelep). Trong vic h thng ha cc ht c bn, vai tr ca cc quy lut bo ton gn lin vi tnh i xng ca cc khng gian vt l rt l quan trng. Ngi ta thy rng, cc ht hp thnh nhng b a tuyn xc nh bi spin ng v I. Trong tt c cc barin trong bn b a tuyn: nucln (b i), ( (b n), ( (b tam tuyn) v ? (b i) c khi lng khng khc nhau nhiu lm; trong thc t cc khi lng y khc nhau chng mt vi phn trm. Ta li thy bn b i trn tuy khc nhau v s l, song li c spin ging nhau (u bng ). Do c th ghp c tm ht trn vo cng mt siu a tuyn c spin sc nh. Khi phi hp

219

220

tnh bt bin spin ng v v bo ton s l, ta s thu c mt tnh i xng rng hn i xng spin ng v, gi l i xng Unita. L thuyt ny c tip tc m rng dn n l thuyt i xng SU3; nh ghp c nhng siu a tuyn mi. ng ch l trong siu a tuyn gm 10 ht Barin. Cho ti nm 1962, ngi ta ch mi bit chn ht, nh l thuyt tin on phi c ht th mi, m nm 1964, cc nh thc nghim tm ng c ht : n l ht omga tr (( - ) thuc b n vi spin ng v I = 0 v c khi lng tng ng 1685 MeV, ng nh d on. Sau ny tin xa hn, ngi ta nhn thy rng s ht c bn thng k trong bng (12 1) l qu nhiu v chng chuyn ha ln nhau mt cch kh phc tp. V th ny ra ngh, phi tm c nhng ht thc s c bn, m t nhng ht ny c th to ra tt c cc ht c bn bit. Gell - Mann a ra mt gi thit l c th tn ti mt s t ht nh hn, c gi l ht quark; nhng ht ny mi thc s l ht c bn ca tng tc mnh. Vic tn ti nhng ht ny hon ton ph hp vi l thuyt i xng SU3. Cc ht quark phi l nhng trng thi lin kt v ta khng th gp chng ring r v chng kt thnh b tam tuyn, gm ba mu sc khc nhau m nhn gp li th khng thy, ta nh by mu ca quang ph nh sng, khi nhn gp li th ch thy mu trng C 3 ht quark c bn k hiu l u, d, s vi cc c trng sau y:
H t u d s Q 2 + 3 1 3 1 3 B 1 +3 1 + 3 1 + 3 S 0 0 1

Vi ba ht quark c bn trn, c th nu ln gi thuyt: Cc barin s c cu thnh t ba ht quark, cn cc mzn t mt quark vi mt phn quark theo bng h thng (11.3)
Ht Pin M- zn Kan K hiu + 0 K+ K0 K K0 n p 0 + 0 o Q +1 0 1 +1 0 1 0 0 +1 0 +1 1 0 1 0 1 B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 S 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 Cc quc p n hoc np p n p ( nnp npp np pp nn np n p
~
~
~

Ntrn Prtn L m a BaRi On Xicma Kxi Omega

221

222

Bng 11.3:

Hin nay cc ht quark vn cha quan st c mt cch tin cy trong phng th nghim nh cc ht t do v cc nh vt l l thuyt a ra nhng nguyn nhn c th chp nhn c, gii thch ti sao li nh th. Tuy nhin ngi ta vn hy vng rng trong tng lai gn, gi thuyt v ht quark s thnh s tht v s tm c cc ht k diu ny. Mt hng nghin cu ang l trung tm ca mi suy ngh ca cc nh l thuyt ht c bn, l hy vng xy dng c mt l thuyt thng nht tt c cc loi tng tc bit, c gi l l thuyt thng nht. C vic thng nht tt c cc lc trong t nhin l mt n lc thu ht ht tm tr ca Einstein trong giai on cui ca cuc i ng. Ngi ta thy rng tng tc yu c t hp thnh cng vi lc in t sao cho chng c th c xem nh cc th hin khc nhau ca mt loi in t yu duy nht. Cc l thuyt c nh thm tng tc mnh vo t hp ny, c gi l cc l thuyt thng nht ln, ang c xc tin mt cch mnh m v c nhng thnh cng ng k. Cc l thuyt tm cch hon tt cng vic ny bng cch gp c tng tc hp dn vo (i khi c gi l l thuyt thng nht v tt c) hin ang giai on ng khch l.

223

224

TI LIU THAM KHO

1. PHM DUY HIN Vt l nguyn t v ht nhn. NXBGD. 1983 2. L CHN HNG V THANH KIT. Vt l nguyn t v ht nhn. NXBGD 1989. 3. DAVID HALLIDAY, ROBERT RESNICK. JEARL WALKER. C s Vt l Tp VI: Quang hc v Vt l lng t (bn dch ting Vit). NXBGD 1998. 4. HONG HU TH. Bi ging v cu trc ht nhn. NXBGD v THCN 1972. 5. RONALD GAUTREAU, WILLIAM SAVIN. Vt l hin i (l thuyt v bi tp) bn dch ting Vit. NXBGD. 1997.

225

226

VT L NGUYN T & HT NHN do Trng i hc S phm TP. H Ch Minh, pht hnh nm 2001, Ban n Bn Pht hnh Ni b HSP ch bn v sao chp 500 cun, xong ngy 02 thng 05 nm 2001.

227

228