Ch10 Notes

Chapter 10.
Stepping Motors and Their

Power Electronic Drives
Topics to cover:
1) Types and Principles
2) Drive Circuits
3) Characteristics
4) Low Speed Operation
5) High Speed Operation
Introduction
Stepping motors have been developed in response to the demand for a device capable of
producing a definite angular displacement in a driven shaft and holding its position
against a torque applied to the driven shaft. For example, in machine tool applications,
such motors could, through gearing, position both the cutting tool and the workpiece
very accurately, and hold them in those positions during the subsequent cutting
operation. Fig.1 illustrates the principle of a numerically controlled milling machine
using three stepping motors to control the three axis movement of the workpiece, where
the motor governing the Z axis is installed below the table. Typical applications are
computer peripherals, such as printers (Fig.2), plotters (Fig.3), and disk drives (Fig.4),
watches, and other devices which require accurate position control.
Moreover, since the stepping motor is
operated by current pulses, it may be
controlled by command signals stored
digitally. It is therefore suitable for
computer controlled operations.
Types and Principles of Stepping Motors
While there are many configurations of
stepping motors, they may be grouped into
three basic types: variable reluctance,
permanent magnet, and hybrid stepping
motors.
Variable Reluctance Stepping Motors
(1) Single Stack VR Motors
Fig.5 shows the cross section and winding arrangement of a three phase single stack
variable reluctance (VR) stepping motor. Current to each phase is controlled in the
ON/OFF mode by their respective switches. If a current is applied to the coils of Ph.1, or
in other words if Ph.1 is excited, the magnetic flux will occur as shown in Fig.6. The
rotor will then be positioned so that the stator teeth I and I' and any two of the rotor teeth
Fig.1 Principle of numerically controlled milling
machine using three stepping motors [1]
Page 10-2
are aligned. Thus when the rotor teeth and stator teeth are in alignment, the magnetic
reluctance is minimized, and this state provides a rest or equilibrium position.
Fig.2 External view, internal mechanism, and fundamental construction of
character-impact type serial printer [1]
48541 EMS Chapter 10. Stepping Motors and Drives
Page 10-3
Fig.3 A recent XY-plotter and the pen drive system [1]
(a)
(b)
Fig.4 Floppy disc drive (a) Floppy disc structure and mounting mechanism;
(b) driving mechanism of the head [1].
Page 10-4
Fig.7 illustrates how a step motion proceeds when excitation is switched from Ph.1 to
Ph.2. The motor reluctance seen from the DC power supply will be suddenly increased
just after the switching takes place. The rotor will, then, move through a step angle of
30
o
counter-clockwise so as to minimize the reluctance. This motion through a step
angle at each switching of excitation is called a step. After completing a rotor-tooth-
pitch rotation in three steps, the rotor will apparently return to its original position. This
is illustrated in Fig.8.

Fig.5 Cross sectional model of a three phase VR stepping Fig.6 Equilibrium position
motor and winding arrangement [1] with phase 1 excited [1]
Fig.7 How a step motion proceeds when excitation is switched from Ph1 to Ph2 [1]
Fig.8 Step motions as switching sequence proceeds in a three phase VR motor [1]
The relationship between step angle
s
, number of phases m, rotor teeth N
r
, and step
number S is given by
S =360/
s
=mN
r
(1)
Fig.9 is the picture of a four-phase 7.5
o
motor which has 16 stator teeth and 12 rotor
teeth. In order to reduce the step angle, the number of rotor teeth must be increased. An
example of a typical stepping motor is shown in cross section in Fig.10. This machine
has four winding phases and 50 rotor teeth, and the step angle is 1.8
o
.
The step angle can be further reduced by the so called 'half-step excitation mode', which
is a combination of the single phase and two phase excitation. The switching sequence
for the motor in Fig.5 is illustrated in Table 1.
Page 10-5
Fig.9 Stator and rotor of a four phase VR motor of 7.5
o
step angle [1]
Fig.10 Cross sectional view of a four phase VR stepping motor; number
of rotor teeth being 50, step number 200, and step angle 1.8
o
[1]
Table 1 Switch sequence of half step excitation mode
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6
S1 1 1 0 0 0 1
S2 0 1 1 1 0 0
S3 0 0 0 1 1 1
Switch state: 1 stands for ON, and 0 for OFF.
Obviously, the step angle is halved, and the step angle
s
and step number S can be
calculated by
S = 360/
s
= 2mN
r
(2)
(2) Multi-Stack VR Motors
Fig.11 is the cut away view of a three stack variable reluctance stepping motor. In each
stack, as illustrated in Fig.12, the rotor and stator have equal numbers of teeth. Adjacent
stator teeth have equal and opposite magnetomotive forces produced by windings
carrying the phase current. On the same shaft, normally, there are m similar stacks. Each
of these has either its rotor or its stator displaced sequentially from its neighbour by a
Page 10-6
tooth pitch divided by m, and each is excited by a phase current. The step angle can still
be calculated by (1).
Fig.11 Cutaway view of a three stack VR stepping Fig.12 One phase of a multistack VR
motor (After Ref.[2]) stepping motor (After Ref.[3])
Permanent Magnet Stepping Motors
An example of a basic two phase permanent
magnet (PM) stepping motor is shown in
Fig.13. A change in excitation between the two
windings produces a step of 90
o
. The current
polarity is important in the permanent magnet
motor; the rotor position illustrated is for
positive current in winding A, a switch to
positive current in winding B would produce a
clockwise step, whereas negative excitation of
B would give anticlockwise rotation. An
advantage of this type of machine is that the
rotor tends to remain in its last position when
phase current is removed. It is difficult to
manufacture a small permanent magnet motor
with a great number of poles and consequently
stepping motors of this type are restricted to
step lengths in the range 30
o
-90
o
.
Hybrid Stepping Motors
Another type of stepping motor having a permanent magnet in its rotor is the hybrid
motor. The term 'hybrid' derives from the fact that the motor is operated under the
combined principles of the permanent magnet and variable reluctance motors. The
cutaway view and the cross sectional/axial diagram of the hybrid motor in wide use
today are shown in Fig.14. The stator core structure is the same as, or very close to, that
of the VR motor shown in Fig.10, but the windings and coil connections are different
from those in the VR motor. In the VR motor only one of the two coils of one phase is
Fig.13 Permanent magnet stepping motor
(After Ref.[2])
Page 10-7
wound on one pole, while in the four phase hybrid motor, coils of two different phases
are not wound on the same pole as shown in Fig.14(b). Therefore one pole does not
belong to only one phase. The two coils at a pole are wound in the so called bifilar
scheme that will be discussed later; they produce different magnetic polarities on
excitation.
Another important feature of the hybrid motor is its rotor structure. A cylindrical shaped
magnet lies in the core of the rotor as shown in Fig.15, and it is magnetized lengthwise
to produce a unipolar field as shown in Fig.16(a). Each pole of the magnet is covered
with uniformly toothed soft steel. The teeth on the two sections are misaligned with
respect to each other by half tooth pitch. In some motors, the rotor teeth are aligned with
each other, but the stator core has a misalignment as shown in Fig.17. The toothed
sections are normally made of laminated silicon steel, but sintered steel or solid silicon
steel is employed in some cases.
The magnetic field generated by the stator coils is heteropolar field as shown in
Fig.16(b).
(a)
(b)
Fig.14 A typical hybrid motor; (a) cutaway view; (b) construction (After Ref.[1]).
Page 10-8
Fig.15 Rotor structure of a hybrid motor (After Ref.[1])
Fig.16 Magnetic paths in a hybrid motor;
(a) the flux due to the rotor's magnet producing a unipolar field, while
(b) shows the heteropolar distributed flux due to the stator currents
(After Ref.[1]).
Fig.17 Misalignment in stator teeth (After Ref.[1])
Fig.18 Split and unrolled model of a four phase hybrid motor;
the upper being for the south pole cross section,
and the lower the north pole cross section (After Ref.[1]).
Page 10-9
In this type of motor, torque is created by the interaction of these two types of magnetic
fields in the toothed structure in the airgaps. For an explanation let us have a look at the
split and unrolled model of Fig.18. In this schematic diagram, the stator tooth pitch is
the same as the rotor tooth pitch. In some motors, however, the stator tooth pitch is a
little larger than the rotor's to reduce detent torque and increase positioning accuracy.
The upper half of this figure is the cross sectional view of the south pole side of the
magnet while the lower half represents the north pole side. We are concerned with the
magnetic fields under the teeth of pole I and III in this model. Pole I is now excited to
produce the north pole, and pole III the south pole and they build field distributions as
drawn by the solid curves. The dotted curves represent the flux due to the magnet.
Firstly it should be noted that no effective torque is generated by the magnetic field due
to the coil alone as in the VR motor, because the rotor teeth in the north pole side and
those in the south pole side are misaligned with respect to each other by half a tooth
pitch. The permanent magnet produces some detent torque, but this is not a very
important factor in the hybrid motor. Let us see what happens when the magnetic fields
due to the coils and the permanent magnet are superimposed. The results are suggested
in the same figure. A driving factor toward the left will appear in the upper half section
because both fields reinforce each other in the toothed structure under pole I so
increasing the left oriented force, while both components neutralize each other and so
weaken the right oriented force under pole III. The same force is produced as well in the
lower half section, as the stator field and rotor field are in the same direction under pole
III, while they are in opposing direction under pole I. Hence, the resultant force will be
toward the left. After the rotor has moved a quarter tooth pitch in this direction, the
driving force is reduced to zero, and an equilibrium position is reached.
If the old excitation is turned off, and new poles are excited to produce a south pole and
a north pole, respectively, the rotor will make another step. As seen above, the
permanent magnet plays an important role in creating the driving force. But it should be
noted that the toothed structures in both stator and rotor are designed to realize a small
step angle in the hybrid stepping motor.
The most popular hybrid motor is the four phase 200 step motor, the step angle being
1.8
o
. In order to raise the torque, multi-stack hybrid motors such as shown in Fig.19 are
employed.
Fig.19 Three-stack hybrid motor designed to increase torque (After Ref.[1])
Page 10-10
Drive Circuits
Unipolar Drive Circuit
A simple unipolar drive circuit suitable for use with a three phase variable reluctance
stepping motor is shown in Fig.20. Each phase winding is excited by a separate drive
circuit, which is controlled by a low power 'phase control signal'. This control signal
may require several stages of switched amplification before is attains the power level
required at the base of the phase transistor.
Fig.20 Three phase unipolar drive circuit (After Ref.[2])
In general the phase winding has a considerable inductance, so its natural electrical time
constant (inductance/resistance) is long. The build-up of phase current to its rated value
would be too slow for satisfactory operation of the motor at high speeds. By adding the
forcing resistance, with a proportional increase in supply voltage, the phase electrical
time constant can be reduced, enabling operation over a wider speed range.
Another consequence of the finite phase winding inductance is that the phase current
cannot be switched instantaneously. If the base drive of the switching transistor was
suddenly removed a large induced voltage would appear between the transistor collector
and emitter, causing permanent damage to the drive circuit. This possibility is avoided
by providing an alternative current path - known as the freewheeling circuit - for the
phase current. When the switching transistor is turned off the phase current can continue
to flow through the path provided by the freewheeling diode and freewheeling resistor.
Bipolar Drive Circuit
One phase of a transistor bridge bipolar drive circuit, suitable for use with a hybrid or
permanent magnet stepping motor, is shown in Fig.21. The transistors are switched in
pairs according to the current polarity required. For positive excitation of the phase
winding transistors T1 and T4 are turned on, so that the current path is from the supply,
through transistor T1 to the phase winding and forcing resistance, then through
transistor T4 back to the supply. In the opposite case the transistors T2 and T3 are
turned on so that the current direction in the phase winding is reversed.
Page 10-11
Fig.21 One phase of a transistor bridge bipolar drive circuit (After Ref.[2])
The four switching transistors in the bridge require separate base drive to amplify the
two (positive and negative) phase control signals. In the case of the 'upper' transistors
(T1 and T2) the base drive must be referred to the positive supply rail, which may be at
a variable potential. For this reason the phase control signals to these upper base drives
are often transmitted via a stage of optical isolation.
A bridge of four diodes, connected in reverse parallel with the switching transistors,
provides the path for freewheeling currents. In the illustration of Fig.21 the freewheeling
current path, via diodes D2 and D3, corresponding to the situation immediately after
turn-off of transistors T1 and T4. The freewheeling path includes the d.c. supply and
therefore some of the energy stored in the phase winding inductance at turn-off is
returned to the supply. The consequent improvement in overall system efficiency
represents a significant advantage of the bipolar bridge drive over the unipolar drive and
for this reason most large stepping motors, including variable reluctance types, are
operated from bipolar drives.
Freewheeling currents in the bipolar drive decay more rapidly than in the unipolar drive,
because they are opposed by the d.c. supply voltage. Therefore it is not necessary to
include additional freewheeling resistance in the bipolar bridge drive.
Bifilar Windings
The transistor bridge bipolar drive circuit requires four transistor/diode pairs per phase,
whereas the simple unipolar drive requires only one pair per phase, so drive costs for a
hybrid stepping motor are potentially higher than for the variable reluctance type; a two-
phase hybrid motor drive has eight transistors and diodes, but a three-phase variable
reluctance motor drive has only three transistors and diodes. The bridge configuration
has the additional complication of base drive isolation for the pair of switching
transistors connected to the positive supply rail. From the view point of drive costs the
conventional hybrid motor has a severe disadvantage and therefore many manufacturers
have introduced 'bifilar-wound' hybrid motors, which can be operated with a unipolar
drive.
A bidirectional current flowing in the hybrid motor windings produces a bidirectional
field in the stator poles. With a bifilar winding the same results is achieved by two pole
windings in opposite senses, as illustrated for one pole in Fig.22. Depending on the field
direction, one of the windings is excited by a unidirectional current; in Fig.22 the field
Page 10-12
produced by a positive current in the conventional arrangement is available by exciting
the bifilar +winding with positive current. The effect of negative current in the
conventional winding is then achieved by positive excitation of the bifilar -winding.
Each of the bifilar pole windings must have as many turns as the original winding and
the same rated current, so a bifilar winding has twice the volume of a conventional
winding. This additional volume does, of course, increase the manufacturing costs but
for small size of hybrid motor this is outweighed by resultant reduction in drive costs.
Fig.22 Comparison of conventional and bifilar windings (After Ref.[2])
The two bifilar windings of one phase may be excited by separate unipolar drive circuits
of the type discussed in Section 3.1, but one alternative is to 'share' the forcing resistance
between the two bifilar windings, as shown in Fig.23. There are now only two
transistor/diode pairs per phase, so the two-phase hybrid motor with bifilar windings
requires four transistors and diodes in its complete drive circuit and has comparable
drive costs to a three-phase variable-reluctance motor. The freewheeling path of the
bifilar drive does not return energy to stored to in the inductance at turn-off to the d.c.
supply, so the drive has a lower efficiency than the bipolar bridge drive. This reduction
in efficiency, coupled with the extra winding costs, is very significant for larger sizes of
stepping motor, which are therefore rarely bifilar-wound.
Fig.23 Unipolar drive circuit for one phase of a bifilar-wound motor (After Ref.[2])
Page 10-13
Bilevel Drive Circuit
In the bilevel drive there are two supply voltages. A high voltage is used when the phase
current is to be turned on or off, while a lower voltage maintains the current at its rated
value during continuous excitation.
The circuit diagram for one phase of a unipolar bilevel drive is shown in Fig.24. When
the winding is to be excited both transistors (T1 and T2) are switched on, so the voltage
applied to the phase winding is equal to the sum of the two supply voltage (V
L
+V
H
), the
diode D2 being reverse-biased by V
H
. There is no series resistance to limit the current,
which therefore starts to rise towards a value which is many times the rated winding
current. After a short time, however, transistor T2 is switched off and the winding
current flows from the supply voltage V
L
via diode D2 and transistor T1. The rated
winding current is maintained by the voltage V
L
, which is chosen so that V
L
/R=rated
current. At the end of the phase excitation interval transistor T1 is also switched off and
the winding current is left to flow around the path through diodes D1 and D2. Rapid
decay of the current is assured, because the high supply voltage V
H
is included in this
freewheeling path.
A typical current waveform for one excitation interval is illustrated in Fig.25.
Chopper Drive Circuit
This drive circuit - illustrated in its unipolar form in Fig.26 - has a high supply voltage
which is applied to the phase winding whenever the current falls below its rated value. If
the phase excitation signal is present, the base drive for transistor T2 is controlled by the
voltage V
c
dropped across the small resistance R
c
by the winding current. At the
beginning of the excitation interval the transistor T1 is switched on and the base drive to
T2 is enabled. As the phase current is initially zero there is no voltage across V
c
and the
transistor T2 is switched on. The full supply voltage is therefore applied to the phase
winding, as shown in the timing diagram, Fig.27.
Fig.24 The bilevel drive and the effective circuits during the excitation interval
(a) at turn-on; (b) continuous excitation; and (c) at turn-off. (After Ref.[2])
Page 10-14
Fig.25 Phase current waveform for a bilevel drive (After Ref.[2])
Fig.26 Chopper drive current waveform and transistor switching times (After Ref.[2])
Fig.27 Copper drive current waveform and transistor switching times (After Ref.[2])
Page 10-15
The phase current rises rapidly until it slightly exceeds its rated value (I). Consequently
the control voltage is R
c
I+e and this is sufficient to switch off transistor T2. There is
now no voltage applied to the phase winding and the current decays around a path which
includes T1, R
c
and diode D1. This current path has a small resistance and no opposing
voltage, so the decay of current is relatively slow. As the resistance Rc is still included
in the circuit the winding current can be monitored and when the control voltage has
fallen to R
c
I-e the transistor T2 is switched on again. The full supply voltage is applied
to the winding and the current is rapidly boosted to slightly above rated. This cycle is
repeated throughout the excitation time, with the winding current maintained near its
rated value by an 'on-off' closed-loop control.
At the end of the excitation interval both transistors are switched off and the winding
current freewheels via diodes D1 and D2. The current is now opposed by the supply
voltage and is rapidly forced to zero. A high proportion of the energy stored in the
winding inductance at turn-off is returned to the supply and therefore the system has a
high efficiency.
The chopper drive incorporates more sophisticated control circuitry, e.g. the T2 base
drive requires a Schmitt triggering of the control voltage V
c
to produce the transition
levels. If these levels are not well-separated the transistor T2 switches on and off at a
very high frequency, causing interference with adjacent equipment and additional iron
losses in the motor. However the chopper drive does have the advantage that the
available supply voltage is fully utilised, enabling operation over the widest possible
speed range, and the power losses in forcing resistors are eliminated, giving a good
system efficiency.
Specification of Stepping Motor Characteristics
In this section, technical terms used for specifying the characteristics of a stepping
motor are studied.
Static Characteristics
The characteristics relating to stationary motors are called static characteristics.
(1) T/ characteristics
The stepping motor is first kept stationary at a rest (equilibrium) position by supplying a
current in a specified mode of excitation, say, single-phase or two phase excitation. If an
external torque is applied to the shaft, an angular displacement will occur. The relation
between the external torque and the displacement may be plotted as in Fig.28. This
curve is conventionally called the T/ characteristic curve, and the maximum of static
torque is termed the 'holding torque', which occurs at =
M
in Fig.28. At displacements
larger than
M
, the static torque does not act in a direction towards the original
equilibrium position, but in the opposing direction towards the next equilibrium
position. The holding torque is rigorously defined as 'the maximum static torque that can
be applied to the shaft of an excited motor without causing continuous motion'. The
Page 10-16
angle at which the holding torque is produced is not always separated from the
equilibrium point by one step angle.
(2) T/I characteristics
The holding torque increases with current, and this relation is conventionally referred to
as T/I characteristics. Fig.29 compares the T/I characteristics of a typical hybrid motor
with those of a variable-reluctance motor, the step angle of both being 1.8
o
. The
maximum static torque appearing in the hybrid motor with no current is the detent
torque, which is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of
an unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation.
Fig.28 T/ characteristics (After Ref.[1]) Fig.29 Examples of T/I characteristics:
(a) a 1.8
o
four phase variable
reluctance motor; and (b) a 1.8
o
four phase hybrid motor. (After
Ref.[1])
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics relating to motors which are in motion or about to start are called
dynamic characteristics.
(1) Pull-in torque characteristics
These are alternatively called the starting characteristics and refer to the range of
frictional load torque at which the motor can start and stop without losing steps for
various frequencies in a pulse train. The number of pulses in the pulse train used for the
test is 100 or so. The reason why the word 'range' is used here, instead of 'maximum', is
that the motor is not capable of starting or maintaining a normal rotation at small
frictional loads in certain frequency ranges as indicated in Fig.30. When the pull-in
torque is measured or discussed, it is also necessary to specify clearly the driving circuit,
the measuring method, the coupling method, and the inertia to be coupled to the shaft. In
general, the self-starting range decreases with increases in inertia.
(2) Pull-out torque characteristics
This is alternatively called the slewing characteristic. After the test motor is started by a
specified driver in the specified excitation mode in self-starting range, the pulse
frequency is gradually increased; the motor will eventually run out of synchronism. The
Page 10-17
relation between the frictional load torque and the maximum pulse frequency with
which the motor can synchronize is called the pull-out characteristic (see Fig.30). The
pull-out curve is greatly affected by the driver circuit, coupling, measuring instruments,
and other conditions.
Fig.30 Dynamic characteristics (After Ref.[1])
(3) The maximum starting frequency
This is defined as the maximum control frequency at which the unloaded motor can start
and stop without losing steps.
(4) Maximum pull-out rate
This is defined as the maximum frequency (stepping rate) at which the unloaded motor
can run without losing steps, and is alternatively called the 'maximum slewing
frequency'.
(5) Maximum starting torque
This is alternatively called 'maximum pull-in torque' and is defined as the maximum
frictional load torque with which the motor can start and synchronize with the pulse
train of a frequency as low as 10Hz.
Low Speed Operation
Step Response
At low speeds, each individual step is discernable and the behavior is a series of step
input transients. The motor must be modeled by a set of differential equations, which are
in general nonlinear. Approximations may be made to linearize the equations for
analytical solutions. Otherwise the solution must be marched out in time using a
computer numerical method, as explained in the Principles of Electromechanical
Energy Conversion. For a VR stepping motor with one phase winding excited, the state
equation model is comprised of the following equations

( ) di
dt L
R
dL
d
i
L
v
r
+
1
]
1
+
1 1
(3)
Page 10-18

d
dt J
T
J
T
r
load

1 1
(4)
and
d
dt
r
(5)
The motor response for a given supply can be obtained by solving the above state
equations together with the initial conditions: i i
t

0 0
,
r
t
r

0
0
, and
t

0 0
.
Fig.31 illustrates the experimental step response of a VR motor. It is shown that for this
motor the electrical time constant is much smaller than the mechanical time constant.
0
50
100
150
200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Time (s)
Voltage (V) &
Position (degree) Current (V)
v(t)
i(t)

(t)
Fig.31 Experimental step response of a VR motor
Static Torque/position Characteristics and Static Position Error
Fig.32 illustrates the static torque/rotor position characteristics against the phase current.
It is shown that the higher the phase current, the higher the holding torque, whereas the
profile of the characteristics are the same. When a stepping motor is employed to drive a
load, the equilibrium position will be away from the ideal step position since the torque
produced by the motor must balance the load torque.
The difference between the actual equilibrium position and the ideal step position is
defined as the static position error. Fig.33 illustrates the static position error of a
stepping motor of eight rotor teeth and a holding torque of 1.2 Nm. When carrying a
load of 0.75 Nm, the static position error of this is motor is 8
o
. When a sinusoidal
approximation is used for the static torque/rotor position characteristic, the static
position error can be estimated approximately by

( )
error
L pk
r
T T
N
sin
1
(6)
where T
L
is the load torque and T
pk
is the holding torque.
Page 10-19
Fig.32 Static torque/rotor position characteristics against phase current
Fig.33 Static position error for a stepping motor of eight rotor teeth and
a holding torque of 1.2 Nm
Pull-out Torque/Speed Characteristics
Pull-out torque is the maximum torque a stepping motor can develop at a speed.
Fig.34 illustrates the pull-out torque/speed characteristic of a typical stepping motor.
Due to the low speed resonance (chaotic behavior), there could be some dips in the
characteristic.
To understand the pull-out torque, let us consider first the step by step operation of a
stepping motor at no load, as shown in Fig.35. The static torque/position characteristics
of phases A, B, and C are approximated by sine waves. Since there is no mechanical
load, the rotor would stop at the step position of phase A when phase A winding is
energized. For next step, phase B is energized. From the diagram it can be seen that the
torque produced by the motor is greater that zero when phase B is energized, and hence
the rotor will rotate for another step and stops at the step position of phase B. The
situation for further steps will be similar.
Page 10-20
Fig.34 Pull-out torque/speed characteristic
If the motor carries a load, the equilibrium position where the rotor stops when phase A
is energized will be different from the ideal step position since the motor torque should
balance the load torque. When phase B is energized for the next step, the rotor will
rotate for a step if the torque produced by the motor is higher than the load torque. For a
motor of small inertia, the maximum load torque it can carry or the pull-out torque can
be determined by the intersection of the static torque/position characteristics of two
adjacent phases, as illustrated in Fig.36. For a motor of large inertia, the pull-out toque
is higher since the kinetic energy stored by the inertia helps the rotor to rotate forward.
In this case, the pull-out torque can be determined by averaging the static torque/rotor
position characteristics of adjacent phases. As illustrated in Fig.37, the pull-out torque
for a three phase stepping motor is 50% of the holding torque if the motor inertia is low,
and 83% of the holding torque if the motor inertia is high. For a four phase motor, these
two figures are closer.
Fig.35 Rotor position at phase switching times for no load
Page 10-21
Fig.36 Rotor position at phase switching times for pull-out load
Fig.37 Low and high inertia pull-out torques of (a) three and (b) four phase stepping motors
Low Frequency Resonance
In the pull-out torque/speed characteristic in Fig.34, there exist some torque dips. This
chaotic behavior is caused by low frequency resonance. Fig.38 shows a typical step
response. When the rotor oscillation frequency equals the natural frequency of the
motor, a low frequency resonance occurs and the pull-out torque drops dramatically or
the motor simply stalls. To overcome this problem, a viscously-coupled inertia damper
(VCID) as shown in Fig.39 can be employed. Fig.40 shows the effects of VCID.
Page 10-22
Fig.38 A typical step response
Fig.39 Viscously-coupled inertia damper (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the shaft
Fig.40 Effect of VCID
Page 10-23
High Speed Operation
At high speeds, the steps merge into one another, and alternative methods may be used
to set up and/or solve the differential equations:
(1) Step ripple present
The equations must be marched-out in time as before, or the equations can
be linearized for small oscillations.
(2) Speed ripple assumed zero
It may be possible to use time-domain methods such as Fourier analysis
and/or phasor analysis.
(3) Speed ripple assumed zero and current assumed sinusoidal
A.C. phasor analysis can be used, (Same model as that for synchronous
motors).
Steady State Phasor Analysis
Fig.41 illustrates the equivalent circuit in time domain of a phase winding. The circuit
equation for one phase excitation can be written as

( )
v Ri L
di
dt
dL
d
i
d
dt
Ri L
di
dt
r
m
+ + +
+ +

(7)
where L is the stator winding inductance,
m
the stator winding flux linkage due to the
permanent magnet, and

( )
e
dL
d
i
d
dt
r
m
+

(8)
v(t)
R L
e
i(t)
Fig.41 Per phase equivalent circuit in time domain
(1) Phasor Expression of VR Stepping Motor
For a VR stepping motor, we have

m
0 (9)
and
Page 10-24
( ) L L L N
o r
+
1
sin (10)
Since unipolar drive is employed, we may express the fundamental components of the
voltage and current in the stator phase winding as
( ) v t V V t
o
+
1
cos (11)
and
( ) ( ) i t I I t
o
+
1
cos (12)
Substituting (9) - (12) into (7) and neglecting the high frequency terms, we obtain the
voltage and current relations as
V RI
o o
(13)
and

( ) ( )
( )
V t RI t L I t
L I t
o
o
1 1 1
1
cos cos sin
cos

+
(14)
In phasor expression, the above voltage-current relationship becomes
V RI j L I E
o
+ + (15)
where
E L I
o

1
(16)
(2) Phasor Expression of PM and Hybrid Stepping Motors
For PM and hybrid motors, L can be considered as independent of the rotor position.
The fundamental component of the voltage and current can be expressed as
( ) v t V t cos (17)
and
( ) ( ) i t I t cos (18)
Assuming the flux linkage of the stator winding due to the permanent magnet is
( )
m m
t
$
sin (19)
we obtain

( ) ( )
( )
V t RI t LI t
t
m
cos cos sin
cos

+
(20)
In phasor expression, the above voltage-current relationship becomes
V RI j LI E + + (21)
where
E
m

$
(22)
Page 10-25
(3) Equivalent Circuit in Frequency Domain
A common phasor expression for all stepping motors is
V RI j LI E + + (23)
where
E L I
o

1
(24)
for a VR stepping motor, and
E
m

$
(25)
for a PM or hybrid stepping motor.
Fig.42 illustrates the corresponding equivalent circuit in frequency domain, and Fig.43
shows the corresponding phasor diagram.
V
R L
E
I
Fig.42 Equivalent circuit in frequency domain
Fig.43 Phasor diagram of stepping motors
(4) Pull-out Torque Expression
From the phasor diagram, it can be derived that the electromagnetic torque of a stepping
motor can be expressed as

( )
( )
T
pmEI
R L
pmE R
R L

+

+
cos

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
(26)
Page 10-26
where m is the number of phases, and p = N
r
/2 the pole pairs of the motor.
The pull-out torque is the maximum torque for a certain speed, and can be determined
by letting = . Therefore,

( )
T
pmEI
R L
pmE R
R L
max

+

+

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
(27)
Fig.44 plots the predicted pull-out torque against the rotor speed by (27), where
K
LV
LV
1 0
0 1
(28)
for a VR stepping motor, and
K
VL R
m
(29)
for a PM or hybrid stepping motor.
Fig.44 Predicted pull-out torque against rotor speed
(5) High Frequency Instability
The second term in the torque equation reaches maximum when

crit
R L (30)
For an excitation frequency higher than this critical frequency, the stepping motor would
develop low frequency oscillations, and may drop out, as shown in Fig.34 by the high
speed torque dip due to instability. This oscillation can be prevented by damping (rotor
cage), or by rotor position feedback (brushless dc motor). Fig.45 illustrates the effects of
damping.
Page 10-27
Fig.45 Prevention of high speed instability by damping
REFERENCES
[1] T. Kenjo, "Stepping motors and their microprocessor controls", Oxford University Press, 1984
[2] P.P. Acarnley, "Stepping motors: a guide to modern theory and practice", Peter Peregrinus Ltd.,
1982
[3] G.R. Slemon, "Electric machines and drives", Addison-Wesley, 1992
Exercises:
1. List and describe the constructions and principles of the main types of stepping
motors.
2. What type of drive circuit would be suitable for each stepping motor listed in
problem (1)?
3. Summarise the features of bilevel and chopper drive circuits.
4. A single stack, four phase VR stepping motor is required to produce an 18
o
step
motion. Determine the number of rotor teeth and the sequence of excitation of the
stator phases. Draw a cross sectional view of the stepping motor.
5. A three stack, four pole VR stepping motor has eight teeth on the rotor as well as on
the stator. Determine the step angle as excitation is changed from one stack to the
next.
6. A permanent magnet stepping motor has the following parameters:
8 rotor poles, 3 stator phases, stator winding resistance is 3 per phase, winding
inductance 5 mH per phase, and induced emf equals 12 V at 1000 rev/min.
Calculate (assume sinusoidal emf and current):
(a) Supply frequency in Hz and rad/s at 1000 rev/min,
(b) Maximum flux linkage,
(c) Maximum torque per ampere,
Page 10-28
(d) Stepping rate (steps/s) at 1000 rev/min,
(e) Step angle,
(f) The supply voltage magnitude and phase angle for a current of 0.2 A in phase
with the back emf at 1000 rev/min,
(g) The phasor diagram (sketch) for (f) above,
(h) The output power and torque for (f) above, and
(i) The input power for (f) above.
7. A stepping motor has a torque/angle curve which may be represented by a sine
wave as shown below
30 15 Mech.
Torque
0
(Nm)
0.1
Deg.
Calculate:
(a) The holding torque,
(b) The maximum torque the motor could step at low speeds with a low inertia
load, or at very low speeds,
(c) The maximum torque the motor could step at low speeds with a high inertia
load, or at slightly higher speeds,
(d) The torque available for acceleration, and the acceleration for an inertia of
0.004 kgm
2
, if the load torque is 0.02 Nm, for operation in region (c) above.
8. For the motor of Problem 6, calculate:
(a) The pull-out torque at 1000 rev/min with a supply voltage of 16 V (AC rms
value),
(b) The torque/angle curve for a DC supply of
16
4 3
2
1
2

_
,
V, and
(c) sketch the pull-out torque/speed curve.

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Chapter 10.

Stepping Motors and Their

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