1

Singularity functions


1-2-1 The unit-step function

The continuous-time unit-step function

The continuous-time unit-step function is denoted as ( ) u t and is defined mathematically
by:
( )
0, for 0
1, for 0
t
u t
t

<

which have the zero amplitude for all 0 t < and the amplitude of 1 for all 0 t , and its
plot is shown in Figure 1-10

t
( ) u t
1
0

2 Fundamental of signal processing
Figure 1-10: The continuous-time unit step function

The discrete-time unit-step function

The discrete-time unit-step function is denoted as | | u n , and is defined mathematically
by:
| |
0 for 1, 2, 3,
1 for 0,1, 2, 3, 4,
n
u n
n

=

=

"
"

and its plot is shown in Figure 1-11.



n
( ) u n
1

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 0

Figure 1-11: The discrete-time unit step function

The amplitude scaling

If A , is an arbitrary nonzero real number, than ( ) Au t is step function with amplitude
of A for all 0 t and zero for all 0 t < as
( )
0, for 0
, for 0
t
Au t
A t

<

and its plot is shown in Figure 1-12.

SIGNALS 3

t
( ) Au t
A
0

Figure 1-12: The continuous-time generic step function with amplitude of A.

The causality property of unit step function

The signal ( ) f t defined over time domain of t + , starts at t = . If there is
a desire that the signal be in causal form (starts at 0 t = ), it can be described as ( ) ( ) f t u t .
The product ( ) ( ) f t u t of any signal ( ) f t is equal to ( ) f t for all 0 t and 0 for all
0 t < is given by:


( ) ( )
( )
0, for 0
, for 0
t
f t u t
f t t

<

Note that the signal ( ) f t exist over t < < and by multiplying the function ( ) f t
by unit-step function ( ) u t , any nonzero value of ( ) f t in the time interval of
0 t < < will be forced to zero, and the signal will be turned on at 0 t = . The plot of
( ) ( ) f t u t is shown in Figure 1.13.


4 Fundamental of signal processing
( ) f t
t
t
( ) ( )
f t u t

SIGNALS 5

Figure 1-13:

The anti-causality property of unit step function

( ) f t
t
t
( ) ( )
f t u t
0
0

6 Fundamental of signal processing



The non-causal signal

The time-shifting operation

The time shift to the right with
0
t of unit step function sets a signal to turn on at time
0
t
rather than 0 t = .
( )
0
0
0
1, for
0, for
t t
u t t
t t

=

<

t
( )
0
u t t
1
0
t

Figure 1-14: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the right by
0
t

The time shift to the left with
0
t of unit step function sets a signal to turn on earlier
than at time 0 t = at the time
0
t .

( )
0
0
0
1, for
0, for
t t
u t t
t t

+ =

<

SIGNALS 7

t
( )
0
u t t +
1
0
t 0

Figure 1-15: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the left by
0
t

The time reversal

( ) ( )
0
0 0
0
1, for
( )
0, for
t t
u t t u t t
t t

= =

>

t
( )
0
u t t +
1
0
t

Figure 1-16: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the right by
0
t and
time reflected


EXAMPLE 1:

Sketch the generic step function ( )
0
Au t t .

SOLUTION:
8 Fundamental of signal processing
The unit step function ( ) u t is scaled by scalar factor of A and time shifted by
0
t to the
right

( )
0
0
0
0 t t
Au t t
A t t

<

t
( ) u t
A
0
t

Figure 1-17: The continuous-time generic step function.

The symmetrical unit rectangular pulse

The symmetrical unit rectangular pulse can be constructed by two unit step function
( ) u t shifted 1 2 to the left and 1 2 to the right.
( )
1 1
2 2
t u t u t
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .

Also alternative presentation is

( )
1
1
2
0 otherwise
t
t

SIGNALS 9

t
( ) t

1
1
2
1
2

Figure 1-17: The continuous-time unit pulse function

Note that the symmetrical unit rectangular pulse is an even function.

EXAMPLE 2:
Write an analytical expression to describe the waveform shown in Figure 1.8.

t
( )
f t
2
5 3

Figure 1-18: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right

SOLUTION:

10 Fundamental of signal processing
t
( ) 2 3 u t
2
5 3
t
3
( ) 2 5 u t
t
5
+ =
( ) f t
3
5
2
2
2
t
( ) f t
2

Figure 1-19: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right

( ) ( ) ( ) 2 3 5 f t u t u t = (


The signum or sign function

( )
1 0
sgn 0 0
1 0
t
t t
t

>

= =

<

( ) ( ) ( ) sgn t u t u t =







SIGNALS 11


t
( ) u t
1
1

Figure 1-20: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right

The unit ramp function

The continuous-time unit ramp function denoted as ( ) r t is the integral of the unit step
function
( ) ( )
t
r t u d

and can be defined as:

( ) ( )
0 0
0
t
r t tu t
t t

<

= =

Alternatively, note that the step function is the derivative of unit ramp function

( )
( ) r t
u t
t

12 Fundamental of signal processing
t
( )
r t
1 2
1
2

Figure 1-21: The continuous-time ramp function

The time shifted to the right unit ramp function

t
( )
0
r t t
0
t

Figure 1-22: The continuous-time ramp function time shifted to the right by
0
t


The time-shifted ramp function having slope of m is denoted by ( )
0
r mt t , and
mathematically defined by:

SIGNALS 13



( )
0
0
0
0
0
t
mt t for t
m
r mt t
t
for t
m

<

and it is plotted in Figure 1-23.
t
( )
0
r mt t
0
t
0
t
m

Figure 1-23: Ramp function with slope of mand time-shifted by
0
t .


0
0
0
0
0
y mt t
t y t
t
y t
m
=
= =
= =



14 Fundamental of signal processing
t
( ) S t
2
3

Figure 1-24: The continuous-time saw tooth function

The signal between the interval of 0 2 t is a line between two points
( )
1 1 1
0, 0 P t s = = and ( )
2 2 2
2, 3 P t s = = given by equation:

( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1
2 1
3 0 3
0 for 0 2
2 0 2
s s
S t t t t t t
t t

= = =


( ) 0 otherwise S t =

( ) ( ) ( )
3
2
2
S t t u t u t = (




t
( ) t
1
1
1

SIGNALS 15

Figure 1-25: The continuous-time unit triangle function


( )
1 for 1 1
0 for 1
t t
t
t
< <

=

>

EXAMPLE:






t
( ) f t
1
2
1
1
P
2
P
3
P

Figure 1-26:

( )
1 1
1, 0 P x y = =

( )
2 2 2
0, 2 P x y = =

( )
2 1
1 1
2 1
y y
y y x x
x x

16 Fundamental of signal processing
( )
( )
2 0
0 ( 1)
0 1
y x

=



( ) 2 1 y x = +


( ) ( ) 2 1 f t t = +


( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 t u t tu t t u t + + +

t
( ) f t
5
6
9 7

Figure 1-27:


( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 6 6
5 5 2 7 7 9 9
2 2 2
t u t t u t t u t
| |
+
|
\ .








SIGNALS 17

The unit Impulse function (Dirac distribution or delta function)

The analytical expression for the unit impulse function is denoted as ( ) t . Where
( )
1 0
0 0
t
t
t

( )
( ) 0
0 0
t dt t
t
t

( )
unbounded 0
0 0
t
t
t

The impulse function is abstraction of the pulse with an infinitely large amplitude and
infinitesimally small pulse width. The unit impulse can be visualized as a pulse with
amplitude of 1 and width of , or as a triangle


( ) 1 t dt

The unit impulse function ( ) t is not bounded at 0 t =


t
( ) t
1

t
0
1

t
0

18 Fundamental of signal processing
Figure 1.30: The unit impulse function


( ) ( )
0, for 0
1, for 0
t t
u t d
t

<
= =

( )
u
t
t

Sampling or sifting properties of a function by an unit impulse function

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 x t t dt x t dt x


= =


( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
x t t t dt x t

The unit sample sequence (unit impulse sequence)
The analytical expression for the unit impulse function is denoted as ( ) n . Where
( )
1, 0
0, 0
n
n
n

SIGNALS 19

n
( ) n

Figure 1.31: The unit impulse function

properties of the unit impulse function

The sampling (sifting) property


( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
f t t t dt f t
+

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
t t
t t
f t t t dt f t t t dt f t t t dt f t
+ +

+

= = =


The time scaling property

( ) ( )
1
mt t
m
=


( ) ( ) ( )
1 d
mt dt d
m m

+ + +

= =



20 Fundamental of signal processing
The real exponential function

The exponential signals are mathematically denoted
The sinusoidal signal


( ) ( ) sin S t A t t = + < <

Where A is the amplitude or peak value, the angular frequency in radian per second
( ) sec rad , and , the phase in radian. The frequency f in Hertz ( ) cycle second is
2 f = and 1 f T = . The sinusoid is periodic with period of 2 .
( ) ( ) sin 2 S t A ft t = + < <

( )
2
sin
t
S t A t
T

| |
= + < <
|
\ .

t
( ) sin A t +
A
T



Sometimes the amplitude is considered as peak-to-peak value that is twice of peak value.
The amplitude of a sine wave signal is given as of its root-mean-square (rms) value
which is peak value divided by 2 .
SIGNALS 21


2
peak
rms
V
V =

For example peak value of home power supply in this country is 120 2 volts and rms
value of 120 volts.
Frequency f is given in per second
( )
1
s
or Hertz ( ) Hz and period T is given in second
( ) s .
The phase is with respect to an arbitrary time reference.
Sinusoidal signal can be



Signals can be represented as the sum of sinusoids. For example square wave signal


A
A
t
( ) f t


( )
0 0 0
4 1 1
sin sin3 sin5 ...
3 5
A
f t t t t

| |
= + + +
|
\ .

Where A is the amplitude of the square wave and
0
is called the fundamental frequency
0
2
T

= , where T is period of the square wave.

22 Fundamental of signal processing

A
A
t
( ) f t